White-starred Robin
Encyclopedia
The White-starred Robin (Pogonocichla stellata) is a species of bird
in the Old World flycatcher and chat family Muscicapidae. It is also sometimes more simply called the Starred Robin. It is monotypic
within the genus Pogonocichla. There are around twelve subspecies. The species is found in East and Southern Africa. It is a forest species, occurring in montane forest in the north of its range but closer to sea level further south. This is a brightly coloured robin with a bright yellow breast and belly, a slate coloured head with spots on the eyes and throat and blueish wings.
The White-starred Robin gives a range of calls that vary geographically. The diet is dominated by insects, although some fruit is taken as well. It is a territorial and seasonal breeder that lays up to three eggs in a domed nest.
, subfamily Saxicolinae
, a group formerly placed with the thrush family Turdidae, but now placed in the Old World Flycatcher family Muscicapidae
. Its position within the family is somewhat uncertain; along with three other monotypic African robin genera it is thought to have affinities with the robin-chats in the genus Cossypha, and it is sometimes placed close to the Swynnerton's Robin
(Swynnertonia). The taxonomy within the species is highly complex, as across its range it has some subspecies with intermediate plumages between juveniles and adults, and in some not. There are also different songs across the subspecies and in particular two types of pipping call which have a patchwork distribution across the range and between the subspecies.
At present twelve subspecies are recognised:
Several other races have been described; friedmanni, which is synonymised with ruwenzorii, lebombo, from the border of South Africa and Swaziland, which is synonymised with transvaalensis, and margaritata, which is synonymised with the nominate race. In Bowie's 2006 study of the genetics of the northern subspecies intensa and pallidiflava were treated as a single subspecies, keniensis.
The generic name Pogoncichla is derived from the Greek
pogon for beard
, a reference to the white spots on the throat and face, and kikhle for thrush. Similarly the speciefic name stellata and the species' common name are also derived from the facial spots.
than the males. The plumage
of the nominate race is slate-grey on the head, with a white spot in front of each eye and another small one on the throat. The mantle and part of the wings are green (moss-green in the mantle, olive-green on the wings), the rest of the wings are bluish grey,and the tail is black with yellow lateral stripes. The breast and belly are bright yellow, and the legs are pinkish. The plumage of both sexes are alike. The bill
is broad and black, and surrounded by rictal bristles used in flycatching. Juvenile birds are blackish-brown above with golden flecks, and yellow with brown scaling below. The nominate race has a sub-adult plumage, which is dusky olive above, yellow breast and belly, with grey streaks, and the tail is as adult but brownish instead of black. This sub-adult plumage is retained for up to two years.
The race pallidiflava is as the nominate, but with a paler yellow on the breast and belly. intensa is quite different, with a bronze-washed back, a yellow rump and slate edges on the flight feathers. The race ruwenzori is like intensa but with a deeper yellow on the breast. The race elgonensis is as nominate but with an all black tail, the subadult of this species has some yellow on the tail, macarthuri is more pale below and has a deeper greenish-olive back. The race helleri has a green back and yellow rump, whereas the rump of orientalis is green, as well as having greyish wings and more greenish yellow-upper wings. The race hygrica is as nominate but with a saturated moss-green back, and the race transvaalensis is as hygrica but more orange yellow below and with a silvery edge to the flight feather
s, finally chirindensis is brighter yellow-green on the back.
or heath zones in some mountains. In the northern parts of its range, near the equator, it occurs in mountains between 1500 to 2200 m (4,921.3 to 7,217.8 ft) in elevation (sometimes as high as 3300 m (10,826.8 ft)), further south in Zimbabwe it seldom occur above 1300 m (4,265.1 ft), and in South Africa it can occur at sea level.
The White-starred Robin is a partial migrant
. This migration is altitudinal, with birds moving to lower altitudes during the winter (April to September), and is much more pronounced in the southern parts of the range. In Malawi birds descend to the shores of lake Malawi (300 m (984.3 ft)), birds in South Africa and Mozambique move as low as sea-level, and may move 120 km (74.6 mi) from their breeding sites. In Malawi studies established that the males remained in their breeding territories
, while the females moved away during the winter.
in South Africa, beetle
s, moth
s and ant
s predominated in the samples, being found 83%, 58% and 43% of the time respectively. Other remains found included those of spiders, flies, caterpillars, amphipods, true bugs, wasps, grasshoppers and centipedes. The remains of fruit were found in 34% of the samples, with Canthium
, Cassipourea
, Ficus
, Hedychium
, Ilex, Kiggelaria and Rhus being found. The species has also been recorded feeding on other species, including snails, termites, mantids and even small frogs (of the genus Arthroleptis
).
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White-starred Robins are territorial breeders, with the territories varying in size from 0.5 to 0.75 ha. The nest is unusual for the family in that it is a domed construction, built out of dead leaves, rootlets, moss and tendrils, and lined with leaf skeletons and fine plant material. The nest is well hidden, usually on sloping ground against a trunk or rock, but sometimes off the ground on a rotting trunk rock or earth bank. The nest takes seven days to construct, and is built by the female alone. Between two to three eggs
are laid, with two being more common in the tropics and three being typical further south. Eggs are laid on consecutive days with incubation
only beginning once the final egg has been laid. Incubation is carried out by the female alone. Incubation lasts between 16 to 18 days, after which chicks fledge
around 13 to 15 days after hatching. The chicks remain dependent upon the parents for up to 42 days after hatching.
Nests are raided by small mammals such as shrew
s and rodent
s, as well as more rarely by large mammals like civet
s and monkey
s. They are also targeted by brood parasite
s, principally Red-chested Cuckoo
s (six out of 85 nests checked in South Africa) but also other species like African Emerald Cuckoo
s.
Bird
Birds are feathered, winged, bipedal, endothermic , egg-laying, vertebrate animals. Around 10,000 living species and 188 families makes them the most speciose class of tetrapod vertebrates. They inhabit ecosystems across the globe, from the Arctic to the Antarctic. Extant birds range in size from...
in the Old World flycatcher and chat family Muscicapidae. It is also sometimes more simply called the Starred Robin. It is monotypic
Monotypic
In biology, a monotypic taxon is a taxonomic group with only one biological type. The term's usage differs slightly between botany and zoology. The term monotypic has a separate use in conservation biology, monotypic habitat, regarding species habitat conversion eliminating biodiversity and...
within the genus Pogonocichla. There are around twelve subspecies. The species is found in East and Southern Africa. It is a forest species, occurring in montane forest in the north of its range but closer to sea level further south. This is a brightly coloured robin with a bright yellow breast and belly, a slate coloured head with spots on the eyes and throat and blueish wings.
The White-starred Robin gives a range of calls that vary geographically. The diet is dominated by insects, although some fruit is taken as well. It is a territorial and seasonal breeder that lays up to three eggs in a domed nest.
Taxonomy
The White-starred Robin is related to the chatsChat (bird)
Chats are a group of small Old World insectivorous birds formerly classed as members of the thrush family Turdidae, but now considered Old World flycatchers....
, subfamily Saxicolinae
Chat (bird)
Chats are a group of small Old World insectivorous birds formerly classed as members of the thrush family Turdidae, but now considered Old World flycatchers....
, a group formerly placed with the thrush family Turdidae, but now placed in the Old World Flycatcher family Muscicapidae
Old World flycatcher
The Old World flycatcher family Muscicapidae is a large family of small passerine birds mostly restricted to the Old World. These are mainly small arboreal insectivores, many of which, as the name implies, take their prey on the wing.-Characteristics:...
. Its position within the family is somewhat uncertain; along with three other monotypic African robin genera it is thought to have affinities with the robin-chats in the genus Cossypha, and it is sometimes placed close to the Swynnerton's Robin
Swynnerton's Robin
Swynnerton's Robin is a species of bird in the Muscicapidae family. It is monotypic within the genus Swynnertonia.It is found in Mozambique, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe....
(Swynnertonia). The taxonomy within the species is highly complex, as across its range it has some subspecies with intermediate plumages between juveniles and adults, and in some not. There are also different songs across the subspecies and in particular two types of pipping call which have a patchwork distribution across the range and between the subspecies.
At present twelve subspecies are recognised:
- Pogonocichla stellata stellata (VieillotLouis Jean Pierre VieillotLouis Jean Pierre Vieillot was a French ornithologist.Vieillot described a large number of birds for the first time, especially those he encountered during the time he spent in the West Indies and North America, and 26 genera established by him are still in use...
, 1818) is found in eastern and southern South AfricaSouth AfricaThe Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans... - P. s. transvaalensis (RobertsAustin RobertsAustin Roberts was a South African zoologist. He is best known for his Birds of South Africa, first published in 1940. He also studied the mammalian fauna of the region: his work The mammals of South Africa was published posthumously in 1951...
, 1912) is found in northern South Africa - P. s. chirindensis (Roberts, 1914) is found in East ZimbabweZimbabweZimbabwe is a landlocked country located in the southern part of the African continent, between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers. It is bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the southwest, Zambia and a tip of Namibia to the northwest and Mozambique to the east. Zimbabwe has three...
- P. s. hygrica (ClanceyPhillip ClanceyDr Phillip Alexander Clancey DSc was a leading authority on the ornithology of South Africa.- Background and education :Phillip Clancey was born, brought up and educated in Glasgow, Scotland...
, 1969) is found in west MozambiqueMozambiqueMozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique , is a country in southeastern Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi and Zambia to the northwest, Zimbabwe to the west and Swaziland and South Africa to the southwest...
. - P. s. orientalis (G.A. FischerGustav FischerGustav Adolf Fischer was a German African explorer.-Biography:He was born at Barmen. In 1876 he accompanied the Denhardt East Africa exploring expedition to Zanzibar, where he settled as a physician, and in the following year explored Wituland and the southern Oromo country...
& ReinchenowAnton ReichenowAnton Reichenow was a German ornithologist.Reichenow was the son-in-law of Jean Cabanis, and worked at the Humboldt Museum from 1874 to 1921. He was an expert on African birds, making a collecting expedition to West Africa in 1872 and 1873, and writing Die Vögel Afrikas...
, 1884) in west, east and south TanzaniaTanzaniaThe United Republic of Tanzania is a country in East Africa bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north, Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, and Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique to the south. The country's eastern borders lie on the Indian Ocean.Tanzania is a state...
, MalawiMalawiThe Republic of Malawi is a landlocked country in southeast Africa that was formerly known as Nyasaland. It is bordered by Zambia to the northwest, Tanzania to the northeast, and Mozambique on the east, south and west. The country is separated from Tanzania and Mozambique by Lake Malawi. Its size...
and MozambiqueMozambiqueMozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique , is a country in southeastern Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi and Zambia to the northwest, Zimbabwe to the west and Swaziland and South Africa to the southwest... - P. s. guttifer (Reinchenow & NeumannOscar Rudolph NeumannOscar Rudolph Neumann was a German ornithologist.Neumann travelled to Africa on several occasions, in particular between 1892 and 1894, and described many new African species...
, 1895), Mount KilimanjaroMount KilimanjaroKilimanjaro, with its three volcanic cones, Kibo, Mawenzi, and Shira, is a dormant volcano in Kilimanjaro National Park, Tanzania and the highest mountain in Africa at above sea level .-Geology:...
, Tanzania - P. s. helleri (MearnsEdgar Alexander MearnsEdgar Alexander Mearns was a notable American ornithologist and field naturalist....
, 1913), Taita HillsTaita HillsThe Taita Hills, sometimes also spelled as Teita Hills, are a precambrian mountain range in the south-west of Kenya in Taita-Taveta District. The hills consist of three massifs namely Dabida, Sagalla in the southern side of Voi township and Kasigau in the south near the border of Tanzania...
, KenyaKenyaKenya , officially known as the Republic of Kenya, is a country in East Africa that lies on the equator, with the Indian Ocean to its south-east...
, and north-eat Tanzania - P. s. macarthuri (van SomerenVictor Gurney Logan Van SomerenVictor Gurney Logan Van Someren was a zoologist and entomologist.Van Someren was born in Australia. He studied zoology at George Watson's College Edinburgh University. He was also a dentist. Van Someren moved to Kenya in 1912 and lived in Nairobi. He was in the East Africa and Uganda Natural...
, 1939), Chyulu HillsChyulu HillsChyulu Hills is a mountain range in eastern Kenya. It forms a 100 kilometre long volcanic field in elongated NW-SE direction. Its highest peak is 2188 metres high.- Geography :...
, Kenya - P. s. intensa (SharpeRichard Bowdler SharpeRichard Bowdler Sharpe was an English zoologist.-Biography:Sharpe was born in London and studied at Brighton College, The King's School, Peterborough and Loughborough Grammar School. At the age of sixteen he went to work for Smith & Sons in London...
, 1901), north and central Kenya and north Tanzania - P. s. elgonensis (Ogilvie-GrantWilliam Robert Ogilvie-GrantWilliam Robert Ogilvie-Grant was a Scottish ornithologist.-Career:Ogilvie-Grant was educated at Cargilfield and Fettes College, Edinburgh, where he studied zoology and anatomy. In 1882 he became an Assistant at the Natural History Museum. He studied ichthyology under Albert C. L. G...
, 1911), Mount ElgonMount ElgonMount Elgon is an extinct shield volcano on the border of Uganda and Kenya, north of Kisumu and west of Kitale.- Physical features :It is the oldest and largest solitary volcano in East Africa, covering an area of around 3500 km²....
, Kenya and UgandaUgandaUganda , officially the Republic of Uganda, is a landlocked country in East Africa. Uganda is also known as the "Pearl of Africa". It is bordered on the east by Kenya, on the north by South Sudan, on the west by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, on the southwest by Rwanda, and on the south by... - P.s. ruwenzorii, (Ogilvie-Grant, 1906), north-east Democratic Republic of the CongoDemocratic Republic of the CongoThe Democratic Republic of the Congo is a state located in Central Africa. It is the second largest country in Africa by area and the eleventh largest in the world...
, south west Uganda, west RwandaRwandaRwanda or , officially the Republic of Rwanda , is a country in central and eastern Africa with a population of approximately 11.4 million . Rwanda is located a few degrees south of the Equator, and is bordered by Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo...
and BurundiBurundiBurundi , officially the Republic of Burundi , is a landlocked country in the Great Lakes region of Eastern Africa bordered by Rwanda to the north, Tanzania to the east and south, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west. Its capital is Bujumbura... - P. s. pallidiflava, (Cunningham-van Someren & Schifter, 1981), Imatong MountainsImatong MountainsThe Imatong Mountains are located in the southeast of South Sudan in the state of Eastern Equatoria, and extend into Uganda. Mount Kinyeti is the highest mountain of the range at , and the highest in the whole of South Sudan....
, south SudanSudanSudan , officially the Republic of the Sudan , is a country in North Africa, sometimes considered part of the Middle East politically. It is bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, South Sudan to the south, the Central African Republic to the...
Several other races have been described; friedmanni, which is synonymised with ruwenzorii, lebombo, from the border of South Africa and Swaziland, which is synonymised with transvaalensis, and margaritata, which is synonymised with the nominate race. In Bowie's 2006 study of the genetics of the northern subspecies intensa and pallidiflava were treated as a single subspecies, keniensis.
The generic name Pogoncichla is derived from the Greek
Greek language
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...
pogon for beard
Beard
A beard is the collection of hair that grows on the chin, cheeks and neck of human beings. Usually, only pubescent or adult males are able to grow beards. However, women with hirsutism may develop a beard...
, a reference to the white spots on the throat and face, and kikhle for thrush. Similarly the speciefic name stellata and the species' common name are also derived from the facial spots.
Description
The White-starred Robin is a small robin, 15 to 16 cm (5.9 to 6.3 in) in length and weighing between 18 to 25 g (0.634931317892015 to 0.881849052627799 oz), with the females being slightly smallerSexual dimorphism
Sexual dimorphism is a phenotypic difference between males and females of the same species. Examples of such differences include differences in morphology, ornamentation, and behavior.-Examples:-Ornamentation / coloration:...
than the males. The plumage
Plumage
Plumage refers both to the layer of feathers that cover a bird and the pattern, colour, and arrangement of those feathers. The pattern and colours of plumage vary between species and subspecies and can also vary between different age classes, sexes, and season. Within species there can also be a...
of the nominate race is slate-grey on the head, with a white spot in front of each eye and another small one on the throat. The mantle and part of the wings are green (moss-green in the mantle, olive-green on the wings), the rest of the wings are bluish grey,and the tail is black with yellow lateral stripes. The breast and belly are bright yellow, and the legs are pinkish. The plumage of both sexes are alike. The bill
Beak
The beak, bill or rostrum is an external anatomical structure of birds which is used for eating and for grooming, manipulating objects, killing prey, fighting, probing for food, courtship and feeding young...
is broad and black, and surrounded by rictal bristles used in flycatching. Juvenile birds are blackish-brown above with golden flecks, and yellow with brown scaling below. The nominate race has a sub-adult plumage, which is dusky olive above, yellow breast and belly, with grey streaks, and the tail is as adult but brownish instead of black. This sub-adult plumage is retained for up to two years.
The race pallidiflava is as the nominate, but with a paler yellow on the breast and belly. intensa is quite different, with a bronze-washed back, a yellow rump and slate edges on the flight feathers. The race ruwenzori is like intensa but with a deeper yellow on the breast. The race elgonensis is as nominate but with an all black tail, the subadult of this species has some yellow on the tail, macarthuri is more pale below and has a deeper greenish-olive back. The race helleri has a green back and yellow rump, whereas the rump of orientalis is green, as well as having greyish wings and more greenish yellow-upper wings. The race hygrica is as nominate but with a saturated moss-green back, and the race transvaalensis is as hygrica but more orange yellow below and with a silvery edge to the flight feather
Flight feather
Flight feathers are the long, stiff, asymmetrically shaped, but symmetrically paired feathers on the wings or tail of a bird; those on the wings are called remiges while those on the tail are called rectrices . Their primary function is to aid in the generation of both thrust and lift, thereby...
s, finally chirindensis is brighter yellow-green on the back.
Habitat
The White-starred Robin is a principally found in primary or secondary moist evergreen forest. It needs forest with a good understory of shrubs and vines. It also occupies forest edges, pine and wattle plantations, evergreen woodlands and forest edge gardens. It occasionally is reported in bambooBamboo
Bamboo is a group of perennial evergreens in the true grass family Poaceae, subfamily Bambusoideae, tribe Bambuseae. Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family....
or heath zones in some mountains. In the northern parts of its range, near the equator, it occurs in mountains between 1500 to 2200 m (4,921.3 to 7,217.8 ft) in elevation (sometimes as high as 3300 m (10,826.8 ft)), further south in Zimbabwe it seldom occur above 1300 m (4,265.1 ft), and in South Africa it can occur at sea level.
The White-starred Robin is a partial migrant
Bird migration
Bird migration is the regular seasonal journey undertaken by many species of birds. Bird movements include those made in response to changes in food availability, habitat or weather. Sometimes, journeys are not termed "true migration" because they are irregular or in only one direction...
. This migration is altitudinal, with birds moving to lower altitudes during the winter (April to September), and is much more pronounced in the southern parts of the range. In Malawi birds descend to the shores of lake Malawi (300 m (984.3 ft)), birds in South Africa and Mozambique move as low as sea-level, and may move 120 km (74.6 mi) from their breeding sites. In Malawi studies established that the males remained in their breeding territories
Territory (animal)
In ethology the term territory refers to any sociographical area that an animal of a particular species consistently defends against conspecifics...
, while the females moved away during the winter.
Voice
The calls and songs of the White-starred Robin are geographically variable. Both sexes sing the territorial advertising song, which is a quiet song sung from near the ground. The courtship call is sung during a display flight, and is rendered as a sustained "wiii wii wiii". The loud contact call, also used as an warning call, varies by subspecies. The first type, used by intensa, ruwenzori, guttifer, orientalis and the nominate, is a disyllabic "too-twii, the second type, used by macarthuri, helleri and transvaalensis is a more complex multisyllabic "ter-whe dada wiiyoo" or "wheh chiiyoo wher-ter-weh techiiyoo".Diet and feeding
The White-starred Robin feeds principally on insects and fruits. In one study of feacal samples conducted in KwaZulu-NatalKwaZulu-Natal
KwaZulu-Natal is a province of South Africa. Prior to 1994, the territory now known as KwaZulu-Natal was made up of the province of Natal and the homeland of KwaZulu....
in South Africa, beetle
Beetle
Coleoptera is an order of insects commonly called beetles. The word "coleoptera" is from the Greek , koleos, "sheath"; and , pteron, "wing", thus "sheathed wing". Coleoptera contains more species than any other order, constituting almost 25% of all known life-forms...
s, moth
Moth
A moth is an insect closely related to the butterfly, both being of the order Lepidoptera. Moths form the majority of this order; there are thought to be 150,000 to 250,000 different species of moth , with thousands of species yet to be described...
s and ant
Ant
Ants are social insects of the family Formicidae and, along with the related wasps and bees, belong to the order Hymenoptera. Ants evolved from wasp-like ancestors in the mid-Cretaceous period between 110 and 130 million years ago and diversified after the rise of flowering plants. More than...
s predominated in the samples, being found 83%, 58% and 43% of the time respectively. Other remains found included those of spiders, flies, caterpillars, amphipods, true bugs, wasps, grasshoppers and centipedes. The remains of fruit were found in 34% of the samples, with Canthium
Canthium
Canthium is a genus of flowering plants in the Rubiaceae family. They are shrubs and small trees. The leaves are deciduous and the stems are usually thorny.-Distribution:They are native to India, Sri Lanka, and tropical East Africa.-Taxonomy:...
, Cassipourea
Cassipourea
Cassipourea is a genus of plant in family Rhizophoraceae.Species include:* Cassipourea acuminata, Liben* Cassipourea brittoniana, Fawc. & Rendle* Cassipourea eketensis, Baker f.* Cassipourea fanshawei, Torre & Goncalves...
, Ficus
Ficus
Ficus is a genus of about 850 species of woody trees, shrubs, vines, epiphytes, and hemiepiphyte in the family Moraceae. Collectively known as fig trees or figs, they are native throughout the tropics with a few species extending into the semi-warm temperate zone. The Common Fig Ficus is a genus of...
, Hedychium
Hedychium
Hedychium is a genus of perennial plants native to tropical Asia and the Himalayas, commonly growing to between 120 and 180 cm tall. Common names include garland flower, ginger lily, and kahili ginger...
, Ilex, Kiggelaria and Rhus being found. The species has also been recorded feeding on other species, including snails, termites, mantids and even small frogs (of the genus Arthroleptis
Arthroleptis
Arthroleptis is a genus of frogs in the family Arthroleptidae found in tropical Africa.-Species:- References :* Amphibian Species of the World 5.1 . Accessed on 28 Mar 2008....
).
Breeding
The White-starred Robin is a seasonal breeder, although the exact timing varies across its range. Birds have been recorded breeding or seen in breeding condition in August to May in the DR Congo, August to November in Rwanda. They in all month in East Africa, but with an attitudinal shift insofar as lowland birds prefer the wet season and highland birds breed in the dry season. In Zambia they breed from September to June, but only from September to January in Malawi. In South Africa the breeding season is September to December.Egg (biology)
An egg is an organic vessel in which an embryo first begins to develop. In most birds, reptiles, insects, molluscs, fish, and monotremes, an egg is the zygote, resulting from fertilization of the ovum, which is expelled from the body and permitted to develop outside the body until the developing...
are laid, with two being more common in the tropics and three being typical further south. Eggs are laid on consecutive days with incubation
Avian incubation
Incubation refers to the process by which certain oviparous animals hatch their eggs, and to the development of the embryo within the egg. The most vital factor of incubation is the constant temperature required for its development over a specific period. Especially in domestic fowl, the act of...
only beginning once the final egg has been laid. Incubation is carried out by the female alone. Incubation lasts between 16 to 18 days, after which chicks fledge
Fledge
Fledge is the stage in a young bird's life when the feathers and wing muscles are sufficiently developed for flight. It also describes the act of a chick's parents raising it to a fully grown state...
around 13 to 15 days after hatching. The chicks remain dependent upon the parents for up to 42 days after hatching.
Nests are raided by small mammals such as shrew
Shrew
A shrew or shrew mouse is a small molelike mammal classified in the order Soricomorpha. True shrews are also not to be confused with West Indies shrews, treeshrews, otter shrews, or elephant shrews, which belong to different families or orders.Although its external appearance is generally that of...
s and rodent
Rodent
Rodentia is an order of mammals also known as rodents, characterised by two continuously growing incisors in the upper and lower jaws which must be kept short by gnawing....
s, as well as more rarely by large mammals like civet
Civet
The family Viverridae is made up of around 30 species of medium-sized mammal, including all of the genets, the binturong, most of the civets, and the two African linsangs....
s and monkey
Monkey
A monkey is a primate, either an Old World monkey or a New World monkey. There are about 260 known living species of monkey. Many are arboreal, although there are species that live primarily on the ground, such as baboons. Monkeys are generally considered to be intelligent. Unlike apes, monkeys...
s. They are also targeted by brood parasite
Brood parasite
Brood parasites are organisms that use the strategy of brood parasitism, a kind of kleptoparasitism found among birds, fish or insects, involving the manipulation and use of host individuals either of the same or different species to raise the young of the brood-parasite...
s, principally Red-chested Cuckoo
Red-chested Cuckoo
The Red-chested Cuckoo is a species of cuckoo in the Cuculidae family. It is a medium-sized bird , found in Africa south of the Sahara.-Distribution and habitat:...
s (six out of 85 nests checked in South Africa) but also other species like African Emerald Cuckoo
African Emerald Cuckoo
The African Emerald Cuckoo is a species of cuckoo in the Cuculidae family.It is found in Angola, Botswana, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ivory Coast, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea,...
s.