Wielkopolska Uprising (1848)
Encyclopedia
The Greater Poland Uprising of 1848 or Poznań Uprising ( or powstanie poznańskie) was an unsuccessful military insurrection of Poles
against Prussian
forces, during the Spring of Nations period. While the main fighting was concentrated in the Greater Poland region, fights also occurred in other part of the Prussian partition
of Poland, and protests were held in Polish inhabited regions of Silesia.
already possessed large Polish population in Upper Silesia, it gained additional Polish citizens during the partitions of Poland
. From the beginnings of Prussian rule Poles were subject to a series of measures aimed against them and their culture; Polish language was abolished as official language and German introduced, the Prussian ruler Frederick the Great despised Poles and hoped to replace them with Germans, and most of administration was made German as well. Poles were portrayed as 'backward Slavs' by Prussian officials who spread German language and culture. The land of Polish nobility was confiscated and given to German nobles.
Frederick the Great who called Poles 'slovenly Polish trash', settled around 300,000 colonists in the eastern provinces of Prussia
and aimed at a removal of the Polish nobility by increasing the German population and trying to reduce Polish owned land
. Another colonization attempt aimed at Germanization was pursued by Prussia after 1832, and while Poles constituted 73% of population in 1815 they were reduced to 60 % in 1848, at the same time the German presence grew from 25% to 30%. The Poles were freed from Prussians with the arrival of Napoleon, and started a successful uprising against the Prussian forces in a successful uprising.
.
The power status of Prussia was dependent on hindering any form of Polish statehood, due to crucial position of Wielkopolska, Silesia
and Pomeranian-all areas inhabited either by Polish majority or substantial Polish population; it didn't support Polish attempts at restoration of Poland during Congress of Vienna
, where Prussia tried to gain Duchy of Warsaw
or at least its western provinces. In 1815 the Prussian king made several guarantees in his speech to Poles in the newly formed Grand Duchy of Posen(created out of territories of Duchy of Warsaw) in regards to rights of Polish language and cultural institutions. In order to ensure loyalty of the newly re-conquered territories the Prussians engaged in several propaganda gestures hoping they would be enough to gain land-owners and aristocracy support.
The base support of Prussian rule was from influx of German colonists, officials and tradesmen, whose immigration started in 1772 due to Partitions of Poland and while it was halted in 1806 ,it soon was reinstated after 1815 as planned systemic action of Prussian government. The Prussians knew exactly that Polish aspirations were involved with independence
, however they were considering at the time two different methods to subdue Polish resistance. One advocated ruthless Germanization of the Polish provinces, the other pursued by Chancellor Hardenberg wanted to gain support of Polish higher classes, while turning them away from Russian Tsar Alexander I.
Initially the position of the Chancellor prevailed. At the same time Prussians and Russians through secret police
worked together against Polish movements that would seek independence either from Russia
or Prussia, and Prussian representative in Warsaw helped to create political climate that would abolish constitutional freedoms in Congress Poland. The situation in Polish areas of Prussia was calmed down after series of proclamations and assuring the Polish right to their education
, religion
and traditions. In the end, the Polish rights were though defined very narrowly, and Prussia started to abolish Polish language in administration, schooling, and courts. In 1819 the gradual elimination of Polish language in schools has started, with German being introduced in its place. This procedure was briefly stopped in 1822 but re-started in 1824.
In 1825 August Jacob, a politician hostile to Poles, gained power over newly created Provincial Educational Collegium in Poznan. Across the Polish territories Polish teachers were being removed from work, German educational programs were being introduced, and primary schooling was being replaced by German one that aimed at creation of loyal Prussian citizens. Already in 1816 the Polish gymnasium in Bydgoszcz was turned into a German school and Polish language removed from classes.
In 1825 the Teacher’s Seminary in Bydgoszcz was Germanized as well
While in 1824 a Provincial Parliament was invoked in Greater Poland, the representation was based on wealth census, meaning that the end result gave most of the power to German minority in the area. Even when Poles managed to issue calls asking for enforcing of the guarantees formulated in treaties of Congress of Vienna and proclamations of Prussian King in 1815 they were rejected by Prussia. Thus neither the attempt to create Polish University in Poznań or Polish Society of Friends of Agriculture, Industry and Education were accepted by authorities. Nevertheless Poles continued to ask for Polish representation in administration of the area, representing the separate character of the Duchy, keeping the Polish character of schools.
From 1825 the increase of anti-Polish policies became more visible and intense. Prussian political circles demanded end to tolerance of Polishness. Among the Poles two groups emerged, one still hoping for respect of separate status of the Duchy and insisting on working with Prussian authorities hoping that in time they would grant some freedoms. The other faction still hoped for independence of Poland. As consequence many Polish activists were imprisoned.
A joint operation of Russian and Prussian secret police managed to discover Polish organizations working in Wrocław and Berlin
, whose members were arrested and detained in Prussian jails.
in Russian held Congress Poland
begun Prussians closely worked with Russia in regards to stopping any Polish independence drive. A state of emergency was introduced in the Duchy, police surveillance started on large scale and 80.000 soldiers were moved into the area. The Prussian Foreign Minister openly declared that Prussia will oppose independence of Poland as it would mean territories taken in Partitions of Poland could be claimed by it. Russians soldiers fighting Poles received food supplies from Prussia, equipment and intelligence. While Prussian generals even wanted to march into Congress Poland
, the threat of French intervention stopped those plans.
The administrator of the region became Eduard Heinrich Flotwell a self-declared enemy of Poles, who openly called for Germanization and superiority of German culture over Polish people. Supported by Karl Grolman a Prussian general, a program was presented that envisioned removing Poles from all offices, courts, judiciary system, local administration, controlling the clergy, and making peasants loyal through enforced military service. Schools were to be Germanized as well. Those plans were supported by such prominent public figures such as Clauswitz, Gneisenau, Theodor von Schon, Wilhelm von Humbold.
By 1830 the right to use Polish in courts and institutions was no longer respected. While the Poles constituted the majority of population in the area, they held only 4 out 21 official posts of higher level.
From 1832 they could no longer hold higher posts at local administrative level(Landrat). At the same time the Prussian government and Prussian King pursued Germanization of administration and judicial system, while local officials enforced Germanization of educational system and tried to eradicate the economic position of Polish nobility. In Bydgoszcz the mayors were only Germans, In Poznań out of 700 officials only 30 were Poles.
Flotwell also initiated programs of German colonization and tried to reduce Polish landownership in favour of German one. In the time period of 1832-1842 the amount of Polish holdings was reduced from 1020 to 950 and the German ones increased from 280 to 400.
Jewish minority in the Province was exploited by Prussians to gain support for its policies, by granting Jews rights and abolishing old limitations the Prussians hoped they could integrate Jewish population into German society, and gain a counterweight to Polish presence. As a result many Jewish saw in Prussia a free, liberal state and were opposed to Polish independence movement.
When Frederick William IV's
ascended to the throne in 1840, certain concessions were again granted., the German colonization was halted, some schools were able to teach Polish language again, and promises were made to create departments of Polish language in universities in Wrocław and Berlin, they were also vogue promises about creation of University in Poznań. This was all that Poles were granted. In reality only the methods changed, while the overall goal of Germanization remained the same, only this time with lighter methods, and by concessions Prussians hoped to assure identification of Poles with Prussian state and eventual change of their identity. The concession also were connected to freezing of relations between Prussia and Russian Empire, with Prussian politicians hoping that Poles could be used to fight Russia on Prussia’s behalf.
At this time the majority of Poles were not yet engaged in political activity. At most only the landowners, the intelligentsia and the upper urban classes possessed a developed national consciousness. The peasantry and the working class had yet to experience their own "Polish national awakening". Through military service and school education, and in the case of "regulated" peasants also in the wake of the benefits wrought by the final emancipation decree introduced in 1823, some segments of these social groups had begun to identify with the Prussian state. However as German colonization grew in strength and policies against Polish religion and traditions were introduced the local population begun to feel hostility towards Prussia and German presence. Economic factors also began to influence Polish-German relations. Colonization policies in particular created a fear of German competition among Poles. The greatest difference remained the religious segregation. The local Germans displayed rather politically apathy and refrained from creating an organized form of social life. Prior to 1848, the provincial diet remained the only forum of German political activity. In general relations of the local Germans with the Polish population were good.
In the end of the 1840s about 60 percent of the population of the Duchy were Polish, 34 percent German and 6 percent Jewish. Out of the administrative districts Poles had majority in 18 while Germans in 6, out which 4 were in the western part and 2 in the northern part.
A first attempt to change the situation in the Duchy was made in the Greater Poland Uprising of 1846 after which 254 Polish activists were imprisoned upon charges of conspiracy. The trial ended on 2 December 1847, when 134 of the defendants were acquitted and returned to the Duchy. 8 defendants, including Ludwik Mierosławski, were sentenced to death, the rest to prison in the Berlin
-Moabit
prison.
The death sentences were not carried out as Revolution in Prussia started
. and the Prussian king amnestied political prisoners as part of concessions to revolutionaries
amnestied the Polish prisoners, who joined the Berlin Home Guard in the evening of 20 March 1848 by founding a “Polish Legion” in the courtyard of the Berliner Schloss, and were armed with weapons from the Royal Prussian Arsenal
. Ludwik Mierosławski waved the Black-Red-Gold flag of the German Revolution and the prisoners were celebrated by the public. Speeches during the demonstration were made about joint fight against Russian Empire for free and united Germany and independent Poland. Karol Libelt noted from Berlin that he was under impression that the whole people want free and independent Poland to serve as German shield against Russia and it Polish question will soon be resolved.
The Polish Legion left Berlin and arrived in Poznań on 28 March 1848, where Mierosławski took over military command.
Volunteers from Berlin tried to join this legion and support the Polish struggle for liberty as it was expected, the Legion would fight against the Russian rule in Congress Poland
, but these volunteers were rejected. Polish emigrants to France
, like Adam Czartoryski
, who returned to join that legion were allowed to use Prussian railways for free and often received with cheers, e.g. by the revolutionary committees in Cologne
French politicians granted money for those trips hoping to remove Polish influence from France, for fear of revolutionary actions. Additionally the French incited Poles to start uprising, as they wanted to secure a diversionary element in case the Holy Alliance
would turn its forces against France.
The uprising in Poznań had started on 20 March 1848. Inspired by the events in Berlin, a demonstration in Poznań was organized and the authorities agreed to creation of delegation that would bring proposals of Polish side to Berlin and to the Prussian King. A Polish National Committee
was created in Poznań. The Polish historian Jerzy Zdrada
wrote that the delegates postulated independence of Polish territories but arriving in Berlin decided to remove that part of demands and replaced it with “national reorganization”, removal of Prussian military and turning the administration to Poles. Zdrada notes that those demands were to the liking of Berlin Revolutionary Committee which wanted Poles as force to fight Russia. According to the English historian Richard Davies
the political demands of the committee were for effective autonomy, not for independence. The organized militia was intended for use not against Prussia but against the threat of Russian intervention. The Committee represented various political orientations and social classes, in order to have a achieve a coalition character. Its overall character was liberal-democratic, and among land-owners and intellectualists it included a Polish peasant Jan Palacz.
On 21 March a joint demonstration of Germans and Poles took place, Germans often wore both the Black-Red-Gold cockade and the Polish Red-White as a revolutionary symbol.
On March 21, the National Committee released a proclamation calling for a common struggle seeking understanding with the Germans, and a day later recognized the rights of Jews
. According to Zdrada on the same day the Prussian general Friedrich August Peter von Colomb
ordered Prussian soldiers take the Bazar a hotel which was the center of Polish activities. This was avoided as it would result in Polish-Prussian confrontation-something that the liberals in Berlin didn’t yet desire.
On 22 March the German-controlled Poznań city council voted to support the postulates of the National Committee in Berlin. While Poles avoiding confrontation with the question of independence and demanded national reorganization the Germans called for separation of the Duchy from Prussia.
Polish Committee restricted its membership to Poles and demands from Germans and Jews to be represented in the Polish Committee were not accepted
and Jedrzej Moraczewski, a member of the Polish Committee, ordered on 28 March: “One should make every effort not to alarm the Germans in order to avoid a strong reaction from their side. On the other hand it is necessary to maintain supremacy over them.
In a few days the Polish movement embraced the whole Greater Poland region. Polish peasants and urban citizens turned against Prussian officials. Polish nobility and peasantry took up arms, preparing for confrontation with Prussian Army, Prussian symbols were torn down, and in couple of places fighting erupted with German colonists
In West Prussia
, Toruń
, Chełmno, Bory Tucholskie the Polish population took inspiration from events in Greater Poland and openly turned against Prussian officials, led by Natalis Sulerzyski and Seweryn Elżanowski. In Chełmno a Temporary National Committee of Polish Prussia was formed. By the end of march though local Germans turned harshly against Poles and together with Prussian military pacified the area, while Polish leaders were imprisoned.
The reason for initial support of Poles by Prussians and Germans was the fear of Russian intervention which would stop creation of strong unified Germany. Germans saw in Poles an opportunity to create a diversion stopping Russians from intervention in Germany itself. The hostility to Russia manifested by Poles was the base of German sympathy towards Polish aspiration during the initial phase of the Uprising. Wilhelm von Willisen encouraged Mierosławski to fight a war against Russia. The Prussian foreign minister Arnim used the Polish issue as weapon against Russia. Leading German politicians and thinkers supported using Poles as protection against Russia, such as Karol August Varnhagen, Robert Blum
, Heinrich von Gagern
, Georg Gervinius, Johann Wirth, Constantin Frantz. As the threat of war with Russia grew distant, the German elites and society became hostile to Polish aspirations. Nationalist and even chauvinist voices could be heard in Germany demanding incorporation of the whole Greater Poland into German Confederation.
Overnight Poles turned for Germans from an ally against Russia into the enemy that would threaten German control over Greater Poland and Pomerania.
Polish successes created distrust in local Germans' and they felt threatened and the news of national reorganization of the province was the turning-point. The assumption of power by a Polish administration and the creation of a military corps out of local Polish population create a German fear for their position in a Polish-ruled Duchy.
Thus German National Committee was founded on 23 March, and a second one on 27 March, now largely influenced by German public officials loyal to the Prussian King.
The new German committee that emerged in Poznań subsequently engaged in consistent opposition to Polish movement. German separate national committees were established and petitions demanding the division of the Duchy and the incorporation of cities and counties into German Confederation
addressed to Berlin. With the army protecting them, Germans started to paralyze development of Polish self-rule.
German officials, colonists and tradesmen seized the opportunity and begun counteraction, demanding incorporation of the Polish territories into unified German state, accused Poles of repressions. Their claims were methodically used by German propaganda to win support of European countries such as Great Britain and France. Additionally German liberals turned against Poles, demanding “protection of German area”.
Soon Germans craftsmen, traders and colonists in communities began to form committees and paramilitary units to defend their interests and to prevent local Poles from organizing, often joined by local Jews and started to besiege the Prussian King with petitions to exclude their areas from the planned political reorganization. By late April about 8,000 German civilians of the Noteć
(Netze) district north of Poznań were organized in paramilitary units and another 6,000 around the towns of Międzyrzecz
( Meseritz) and Nowy Tomyśl
( Neutomischel).
On 23 March the Prussian King granted an audience to Polish delegation and verbally declared his agreement to their proposals for autonomy; at the same time in confidential conversation with Prussian military commanders he ordered them to prepare an invasion of Polish territories to crush the Polish movement.
On 24 March the Prussian King issued a declaration that promised the short-dated reorganization of the province and the creation of a commission of both nationalities, whose aim would be the consideration of interests of both nations. The Poles understood those measures as restoration of autonomy
. Local Polish committees were formed, Prussian state treasuries requisitioned, and symbols of Prussian state dismantled. In many places the local landrats were removed from power. As John Fane, 11th Earl of Westmorland
, a British diplomat in Berlin, reported on 6 April 1848, "great excesses had been committed by armed bands of Poles, headed by some of the Nobles and Refugees, who have pillaged and set fire to country seats and farm houses and rendered themselves guilty of other depredations which the Government will endeavour to repress by moveable columns of Troops".
In the beginning of April the local Poznań Parliament voted 26 to 17 votes against joining German Confederation on 3 April 1848. The German minority in Greater Poland through German National Committee declared that it rejects any notion of Polish-German brotherhood and Germans will not resign from controlling the area, even if Polish state is re-established. On 4 April Prussian military declared a stage of siege in Poznań.
Berlin authorities tried to delay the course of events by proposing the division of the province in two parts. Additionally they tried to convince Poles that creation of Polish military formations will hinder the talks about autonomy. Poles on their side, have begun to create armed units on 22 March based on decision of Polish National Committee, which in the meantime changed its name to Polish Central Committee. On 28 March Ludwik Mierosławski took command of military supply and organization, in which he was supported by Polish officers from emigration. Fearing intervention by Russian Empire
in Prussia taken by liberal revolt, Poles were preparing for a joint defense with Prussian forces against possible Russian attack. Prince Adam Czartoryski
came to Berlin
for political talks, and general Ignacy Prądzyński
prepared plans for possible war with Russia.
On 5 April the new "Royal Civil Commissioner for the Province Posen", Karl Wilhelm von Willisen
, a figure claiming to be sympathetic to the Polish cause, arrived at Poznań and his early actions disappointed the Germans greatly. Willisen soon came in conflict with the military commander of Poznań, general Friedrich August Peter von Colomb
, who opposed any kind of Polish independence efforts. Willisen declared that Poles will be granted autonomy but they have to reduce their forces, which on beginning of April counted 7,000 people. A compromise was reached on 11 April in Jarosławiec, when Willisen permitted Poles to have four military camps counting 720 people each (In the end the number of people in the camps was around 4,000). Willisen himself left Poznań on 20 April, blamed for treason and having "betrayed the German cause" and as a contemporary eyewitness wrote "Willisen was exposed to personal insults or even danger from the infuriated German and Jewish mobs of Posen”
. Not longafter he was relieved of his duties and replaced by Ernst von Pfuel
, who arrived in Poznań early May.
On 14 April the Prussian King declared that ten northern and western counties out of the 24 counties of the province would not take part in the planned political reorganization; on 26 April this was spread to parts of six additional counties, including the City of Poznań itself, leaving to Poles only nine counties. To all involved parties it was obviously a temporary solution and unacceptable to Poles as out of the administrative districts Poles had majority in 18 while Germans in 6, out which four were in the western part and 2 in the northern part. The demobilized Polish militia was harassed by German forces and several Poles were either murdered or wounded.
, Pleszew
, Września
and Miłosław were assaulted. In Książ, Prussian troops destroyed the town after murdering 600 prisoners and wounded Among the victims of the massacre was Florian Dąbrowski Additionally population of Grodzisk led by Jewish doctor Marcus Mosse defended the town against encroaching 600 Prussian troops. Polish committees in Wielkopolska were being attacked as well,
Demobilized Poles returning to their homes were being harassed as were Catholic
Priests, while Germans pacified villages. This provoked an outrage in Polish peasants who rose up against Prussian forces in rural uprising and guerilla warfare, and joined the regular Polish forces under Mierosławski. Mierosławski believed that to save morale and honor of Poles it is necessary to resist military, while the Committee members were opposed to fighting, and as such the Committee disbanded itself on 30 April, in its last proclamation stressing the Prussian treachery and violence.
after winning at Książ, Prussian general Blumen commanding 2500 soldiers and four cannons, encroached on Miłosław where Ludwik Mierosławski was located along with 1200 soldiers and 4 cannons.
The Prussian forces divided themselves into two columns-one moving from Środa the other from Września.
Initially Mierosławski engaged in talks with Blumen, but when he received news that Poles from Now Miasto under the command of Józef Garczyński are coming to help him with 1000 soldiers and that additional reinforcements of 1200 soldiers are moving from Pleszew under the command of Feliks Białoskórski, he broke down the negotiations. As consequence the battle started.
In the first phase of the battle, Polish forces were driven out of Miłosław and took positions along two sides of the main road. In pursuit of retreating Poles Blumen ordered a cavalry assault. The Prussian pursuit was stopped however by the arrival of Garczyński, and when Białoskórki soldiers arrived the Poles counterattacked.
The second phase was dominated by Polish counterattack along the line of the main road and attack on cavalry unit before it was able to attack Polish positions. Afterwards Poles re-entered the town and Prussians were forced to retreat. However, the Poles were exhausted and were not able to pursue the retreating Prussians, causing the victory to not be exploited to its full potential. Polish losses counted 200 soldiers while the Prussians 225.
, Rogalin
, Stęszew
, Kórnik
, Buk
, Oborniki
. Mierosławski tendered his resignation as the commander of the Polish forces on 6 May and the new Supreme commander, Augustyn Brzezanski, capitulated on 9 May. The act of capitulation was signed in Bardo near Września
.
and the Prussian government rejected any ideas of autonomy. As a Prussian Province it was completely incorporated into the German Confederation
, however when the Frankfurt Parliament
finalized the German Constitution on 28 March 1849 Poznań wasn't mentioned. In the elections to the Prussian diet in May 1849 Polish delegates achieved 16 out of the 30 seats of the Province, but the elections to the German Constitutional Parliament were largely boycotted by Polish parties in protest against the incorporation. Others called “Now we will go against Prussians not with scythes but with votes”.
1,500 Poles were imprisoned in Poznań Citadel, mostly peasants who took part in the fighting. Stefan Kieniewicz
, and marked by Prussian authorities with non-healing wounds.
a Polish historian, in his scholary work analysing the Uprising published in 1935 and republished in 1960, writes that blame for this was shifted between Colomb and his lower-ranking officers, the incident was widely publicised by Polish press .
Mierosławski himself, whose mother was French and who lived in Paris prior to 1846, was released after French diplomatical protest and commanded German insurgent units in Baden
and the Electoral Palatinate in 1849 during the revolutions of 1848 in the German states
.
The Uprising showed to Poles that there was no possibility to negotiate with Germans regarding Polish statehood. The so called “Polen-Debatte” in Frankfurt Parliament on July 1848 concerned the issue of Poland and showed the attitude of German politicians regarding this. They opposed Poland and any concessions to Poles in Poznań. Those who in the past have claimed to be friendly towards Poles, rejected all of their former declarations and called them mistakes and the idea of restored Poland “insanity”. At the same time the demands of German representatives were not only directed against Poland, they also wanted a war with Denmark, opposed autonomy for Italians in South Tyrol, called Alsace-Lorraine
German, and talked about German interests in Baltic provinces of Russia. While the Uprising was focused in Wielkopolska, it also reached out to other Polish inhabited areas, in Pomerania Natalis Sulerzeski organized Polish armed forces and together with Ignacym Łyskowskim arranged a meeting in Wębrzyn of Polish delegates was organized who created Tymczasowy Komitety Prus Polskich. It was to start talks on reorganization of Western Prussia provinces on 5 April in Chełmno, but it never came to that, as Prussians arrested most of its members and put them in prison in Grudziądz.
Seweryn Elżanowski in response organized a military formation counting several hundred people which took part in combat near Bory Tucholskie after which it moved into Wielkopolska. The Polish national movement in Pomerania decided after those events to pursue its goals by legal means, and remained in this position till First World War
The events of the failed Uprising inspired Polish movement. A crucial point was that unlike in Galicia or Congress Poland the peasantry took active and decisive part on behalf of Polish resistance. The Polish peasants had seen in German colonization a primary threat to their national and social interests.
The post-uprising repression’s spawned defensive reactions within the Polish society. Some of the Polish activists, mostly members of the landed gentry and the intelligentsia, abandoned armed insurrection and began to propagate a doctrine of organic work by strengthening the economic potential and educational level in Polish territories. Others favored an armed struggle for independence and formed the Poznan Committee (Kormitet Poznanski), which represented the democratically oriented landowners and intelligentsia, or the socialist Society of Plebeians (Zwiazek Plebejuszy). Both organizations worked for an uprising that would encompass all three parts of the partitioned Poland.
In Pomerania during elections three Polish representatives were elected to the Prussian Parliament. They were led by Ignacy Łyskowski, a landlord and journalist, who printed a Polish newspaper “Szkółka Narodowa” in Chełmno.
The 1848 was a turning point for Polish national movement in Pomerania, which gained support of city inhabitants and Polish peasants, and especially strong support among Polish clergy, who were subjected to hostile policies by German bishopric in Pelplin. The Polish activists from Pomerania soon came in contact with Masurs and Gustaw Gizewiusz, who encouraged Masurs to defend their local traditions and language. Unfortunately he died soon after being elected to Berlin Parliament. In Silesia
the movement from Wielkopolska reached out to Józef Lompa and Emanuel Smołka who organized the Polish national movement in Upper and Lower Silesia. A Polish pastor Józef Szafranek was elected to parliament in Berlin.
The Poles in western partition decided to focus their energy on increasing economic and political position of Poles before deciding for military confrontation. For 70 years Poles would work on developing their organization, increasing wealth and development of Polish lands. The first organization to do so was Polish League created in Summer 1848. Made by liberal politicians it was led by Count August Cieszkowski-writer and philosopher. Its aims were the increasing of national self-awareness among Polish population, rising its life standards and defense of Catholic faith and Polish-owned land. By Autumn 1848 it counted already 40,000 members. Its main directorate was led by count Gustaw Potworowski. The organization supported agricultural reforms by Polish rural dwellers, and spread information connected to improving agriculture as well as strengthening civic unity. While it was completely legal and didn’t violate any laws, the Prussian government disbanded it in 1850. In practice its members continued to work and soon numerous successor organizations were founded leading way to Polish resistance in Prussian Partition of Poland based on economic and legal opposition.
Poles
thumb|right|180px|The state flag of [[Poland]] as used by Polish government and diplomatic authoritiesThe Polish people, or Poles , are a nation indigenous to Poland. They are united by the Polish language, which belongs to the historical Lechitic subgroup of West Slavic languages of Central Europe...
against Prussian
Kingdom of Prussia
The Kingdom of Prussia was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918. Until the defeat of Germany in World War I, it comprised almost two-thirds of the area of the German Empire...
forces, during the Spring of Nations period. While the main fighting was concentrated in the Greater Poland region, fights also occurred in other part of the Prussian partition
Prussian partition
The Prussian partition refers to the former territories of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth acquired during the partitions of Poland in the late 18th century by the Kingdom of Prussia.-History:...
of Poland, and protests were held in Polish inhabited regions of Silesia.
1772-1807
While Kingdom of PrussiaKingdom of Prussia
The Kingdom of Prussia was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918. Until the defeat of Germany in World War I, it comprised almost two-thirds of the area of the German Empire...
already possessed large Polish population in Upper Silesia, it gained additional Polish citizens during the partitions of Poland
Partitions of Poland
The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland for 123 years...
. From the beginnings of Prussian rule Poles were subject to a series of measures aimed against them and their culture; Polish language was abolished as official language and German introduced, the Prussian ruler Frederick the Great despised Poles and hoped to replace them with Germans, and most of administration was made German as well. Poles were portrayed as 'backward Slavs' by Prussian officials who spread German language and culture. The land of Polish nobility was confiscated and given to German nobles.
Frederick the Great who called Poles 'slovenly Polish trash', settled around 300,000 colonists in the eastern provinces of Prussia
Prussia
Prussia was a German kingdom and historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organized and effective army. Prussia shaped the history...
and aimed at a removal of the Polish nobility by increasing the German population and trying to reduce Polish owned land
. Another colonization attempt aimed at Germanization was pursued by Prussia after 1832, and while Poles constituted 73% of population in 1815 they were reduced to 60 % in 1848, at the same time the German presence grew from 25% to 30%. The Poles were freed from Prussians with the arrival of Napoleon, and started a successful uprising against the Prussian forces in a successful uprising.
1815-1831
The Prussian hold on Polish areas was somewhat weakened after 1807 where parts of its partition were restored to Duchy of WarsawDuchy of Warsaw
The Duchy of Warsaw was a Polish state established by Napoleon I in 1807 from the Polish lands ceded by the Kingdom of Prussia under the terms of the Treaties of Tilsit. The duchy was held in personal union by one of Napoleon's allies, King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony...
.
The power status of Prussia was dependent on hindering any form of Polish statehood, due to crucial position of Wielkopolska, Silesia
Silesia
Silesia is a historical region of Central Europe located mostly in Poland, with smaller parts also in the Czech Republic, and Germany.Silesia is rich in mineral and natural resources, and includes several important industrial areas. Silesia's largest city and historical capital is Wrocław...
and Pomeranian-all areas inhabited either by Polish majority or substantial Polish population; it didn't support Polish attempts at restoration of Poland during Congress of Vienna
Congress of Vienna
The Congress of Vienna was a conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, and held in Vienna from September, 1814 to June, 1815. The objective of the Congress was to settle the many issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars, the Napoleonic Wars,...
, where Prussia tried to gain Duchy of Warsaw
Duchy of Warsaw
The Duchy of Warsaw was a Polish state established by Napoleon I in 1807 from the Polish lands ceded by the Kingdom of Prussia under the terms of the Treaties of Tilsit. The duchy was held in personal union by one of Napoleon's allies, King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony...
or at least its western provinces. In 1815 the Prussian king made several guarantees in his speech to Poles in the newly formed Grand Duchy of Posen(created out of territories of Duchy of Warsaw) in regards to rights of Polish language and cultural institutions. In order to ensure loyalty of the newly re-conquered territories the Prussians engaged in several propaganda gestures hoping they would be enough to gain land-owners and aristocracy support.
The base support of Prussian rule was from influx of German colonists, officials and tradesmen, whose immigration started in 1772 due to Partitions of Poland and while it was halted in 1806 ,it soon was reinstated after 1815 as planned systemic action of Prussian government. The Prussians knew exactly that Polish aspirations were involved with independence
Independence
Independence is a condition of a nation, country, or state in which its residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory....
, however they were considering at the time two different methods to subdue Polish resistance. One advocated ruthless Germanization of the Polish provinces, the other pursued by Chancellor Hardenberg wanted to gain support of Polish higher classes, while turning them away from Russian Tsar Alexander I.
Initially the position of the Chancellor prevailed. At the same time Prussians and Russians through secret police
Secret police
Secret police are a police agency which operates in secrecy and beyond the law to protect the political power of an individual dictator or an authoritarian political regime....
worked together against Polish movements that would seek independence either from Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
or Prussia, and Prussian representative in Warsaw helped to create political climate that would abolish constitutional freedoms in Congress Poland. The situation in Polish areas of Prussia was calmed down after series of proclamations and assuring the Polish right to their education
Education
Education in its broadest, general sense is the means through which the aims and habits of a group of people lives on from one generation to the next. Generally, it occurs through any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts...
, religion
Religion
Religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and worldviews that establishes symbols that relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values. Many religions have narratives, symbols, traditions and sacred histories that are intended to give meaning to life or to...
and traditions. In the end, the Polish rights were though defined very narrowly, and Prussia started to abolish Polish language in administration, schooling, and courts. In 1819 the gradual elimination of Polish language in schools has started, with German being introduced in its place. This procedure was briefly stopped in 1822 but re-started in 1824.
In 1825 August Jacob, a politician hostile to Poles, gained power over newly created Provincial Educational Collegium in Poznan. Across the Polish territories Polish teachers were being removed from work, German educational programs were being introduced, and primary schooling was being replaced by German one that aimed at creation of loyal Prussian citizens. Already in 1816 the Polish gymnasium in Bydgoszcz was turned into a German school and Polish language removed from classes.
In 1825 the Teacher’s Seminary in Bydgoszcz was Germanized as well
While in 1824 a Provincial Parliament was invoked in Greater Poland, the representation was based on wealth census, meaning that the end result gave most of the power to German minority in the area. Even when Poles managed to issue calls asking for enforcing of the guarantees formulated in treaties of Congress of Vienna and proclamations of Prussian King in 1815 they were rejected by Prussia. Thus neither the attempt to create Polish University in Poznań or Polish Society of Friends of Agriculture, Industry and Education were accepted by authorities. Nevertheless Poles continued to ask for Polish representation in administration of the area, representing the separate character of the Duchy, keeping the Polish character of schools.
From 1825 the increase of anti-Polish policies became more visible and intense. Prussian political circles demanded end to tolerance of Polishness. Among the Poles two groups emerged, one still hoping for respect of separate status of the Duchy and insisting on working with Prussian authorities hoping that in time they would grant some freedoms. The other faction still hoped for independence of Poland. As consequence many Polish activists were imprisoned.
A joint operation of Russian and Prussian secret police managed to discover Polish organizations working in Wrocław and Berlin
Berlin
Berlin is the capital city of Germany and is one of the 16 states of Germany. With a population of 3.45 million people, Berlin is Germany's largest city. It is the second most populous city proper and the seventh most populous urban area in the European Union...
, whose members were arrested and detained in Prussian jails.
1830-1848
Intensification of anti-Polish policies starts from 1830 onwards. As the November UprisingNovember Uprising
The November Uprising , Polish–Russian War 1830–31 also known as the Cadet Revolution, was an armed rebellion in the heartland of partitioned Poland against the Russian Empire. The uprising began on 29 November 1830 in Warsaw when the young Polish officers from the local Army of the Congress...
in Russian held Congress Poland
Congress Poland
The Kingdom of Poland , informally known as Congress Poland , created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna, was a personal union of the Russian parcel of Poland with the Russian Empire...
begun Prussians closely worked with Russia in regards to stopping any Polish independence drive. A state of emergency was introduced in the Duchy, police surveillance started on large scale and 80.000 soldiers were moved into the area. The Prussian Foreign Minister openly declared that Prussia will oppose independence of Poland as it would mean territories taken in Partitions of Poland could be claimed by it. Russians soldiers fighting Poles received food supplies from Prussia, equipment and intelligence. While Prussian generals even wanted to march into Congress Poland
Congress Poland
The Kingdom of Poland , informally known as Congress Poland , created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna, was a personal union of the Russian parcel of Poland with the Russian Empire...
, the threat of French intervention stopped those plans.
The administrator of the region became Eduard Heinrich Flotwell a self-declared enemy of Poles, who openly called for Germanization and superiority of German culture over Polish people. Supported by Karl Grolman a Prussian general, a program was presented that envisioned removing Poles from all offices, courts, judiciary system, local administration, controlling the clergy, and making peasants loyal through enforced military service. Schools were to be Germanized as well. Those plans were supported by such prominent public figures such as Clauswitz, Gneisenau, Theodor von Schon, Wilhelm von Humbold.
By 1830 the right to use Polish in courts and institutions was no longer respected. While the Poles constituted the majority of population in the area, they held only 4 out 21 official posts of higher level.
From 1832 they could no longer hold higher posts at local administrative level(Landrat). At the same time the Prussian government and Prussian King pursued Germanization of administration and judicial system, while local officials enforced Germanization of educational system and tried to eradicate the economic position of Polish nobility. In Bydgoszcz the mayors were only Germans, In Poznań out of 700 officials only 30 were Poles.
Flotwell also initiated programs of German colonization and tried to reduce Polish landownership in favour of German one. In the time period of 1832-1842 the amount of Polish holdings was reduced from 1020 to 950 and the German ones increased from 280 to 400.
Jewish minority in the Province was exploited by Prussians to gain support for its policies, by granting Jews rights and abolishing old limitations the Prussians hoped they could integrate Jewish population into German society, and gain a counterweight to Polish presence. As a result many Jewish saw in Prussia a free, liberal state and were opposed to Polish independence movement.
When Frederick William IV's
Frederick William IV of Prussia
|align=right|Upon his accession, he toned down the reactionary policies enacted by his father, easing press censorship and promising to enact a constitution at some point, but he refused to enact a popular legislative assembly, preferring to work with the aristocracy through "united committees" of...
ascended to the throne in 1840, certain concessions were again granted., the German colonization was halted, some schools were able to teach Polish language again, and promises were made to create departments of Polish language in universities in Wrocław and Berlin, they were also vogue promises about creation of University in Poznań. This was all that Poles were granted. In reality only the methods changed, while the overall goal of Germanization remained the same, only this time with lighter methods, and by concessions Prussians hoped to assure identification of Poles with Prussian state and eventual change of their identity. The concession also were connected to freezing of relations between Prussia and Russian Empire, with Prussian politicians hoping that Poles could be used to fight Russia on Prussia’s behalf.
At this time the majority of Poles were not yet engaged in political activity. At most only the landowners, the intelligentsia and the upper urban classes possessed a developed national consciousness. The peasantry and the working class had yet to experience their own "Polish national awakening". Through military service and school education, and in the case of "regulated" peasants also in the wake of the benefits wrought by the final emancipation decree introduced in 1823, some segments of these social groups had begun to identify with the Prussian state. However as German colonization grew in strength and policies against Polish religion and traditions were introduced the local population begun to feel hostility towards Prussia and German presence. Economic factors also began to influence Polish-German relations. Colonization policies in particular created a fear of German competition among Poles. The greatest difference remained the religious segregation. The local Germans displayed rather politically apathy and refrained from creating an organized form of social life. Prior to 1848, the provincial diet remained the only forum of German political activity. In general relations of the local Germans with the Polish population were good.
In the end of the 1840s about 60 percent of the population of the Duchy were Polish, 34 percent German and 6 percent Jewish. Out of the administrative districts Poles had majority in 18 while Germans in 6, out which 4 were in the western part and 2 in the northern part.
A first attempt to change the situation in the Duchy was made in the Greater Poland Uprising of 1846 after which 254 Polish activists were imprisoned upon charges of conspiracy. The trial ended on 2 December 1847, when 134 of the defendants were acquitted and returned to the Duchy. 8 defendants, including Ludwik Mierosławski, were sentenced to death, the rest to prison in the Berlin
Berlin
Berlin is the capital city of Germany and is one of the 16 states of Germany. With a population of 3.45 million people, Berlin is Germany's largest city. It is the second most populous city proper and the seventh most populous urban area in the European Union...
-Moabit
Moabit
Moabit is an inner city locality of Berlin. Since Berlin's 2001 administrative reform it belongs to the newly regrouped governmental borough of Mitte. Previously, from 1920 to 2001, it belonged to the borough of Tiergarten. Moabit's borders are defined by three watercourses, the Spree, the...
prison.
The death sentences were not carried out as Revolution in Prussia started
. and the Prussian king amnestied political prisoners as part of concessions to revolutionaries
Start of the Uprising
On 19 March 1848, after the Revolution in Berlin succeeded throughout the Spring of Nations, King Frederick William IV of PrussiaFrederick William IV of Prussia
|align=right|Upon his accession, he toned down the reactionary policies enacted by his father, easing press censorship and promising to enact a constitution at some point, but he refused to enact a popular legislative assembly, preferring to work with the aristocracy through "united committees" of...
amnestied the Polish prisoners, who joined the Berlin Home Guard in the evening of 20 March 1848 by founding a “Polish Legion” in the courtyard of the Berliner Schloss, and were armed with weapons from the Royal Prussian Arsenal
Zeughaus
The Zeughaus of Berlin is the oldest structure on the Unter den Linden. It was built by the Brandenburg Elector Frederick III between 1695 and 1730 in the baroque style, to be used as an artillery arsenal...
. Ludwik Mierosławski waved the Black-Red-Gold flag of the German Revolution and the prisoners were celebrated by the public. Speeches during the demonstration were made about joint fight against Russian Empire for free and united Germany and independent Poland. Karol Libelt noted from Berlin that he was under impression that the whole people want free and independent Poland to serve as German shield against Russia and it Polish question will soon be resolved.
The Polish Legion left Berlin and arrived in Poznań on 28 March 1848, where Mierosławski took over military command.
Volunteers from Berlin tried to join this legion and support the Polish struggle for liberty as it was expected, the Legion would fight against the Russian rule in Congress Poland
Congress Poland
The Kingdom of Poland , informally known as Congress Poland , created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna, was a personal union of the Russian parcel of Poland with the Russian Empire...
, but these volunteers were rejected. Polish emigrants to France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, like Adam Czartoryski
Adam Jerzy Czartoryski
Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski was a Polish-Lithuanian noble, statesman and author. He was the son of Prince Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski and Izabela Fleming....
, who returned to join that legion were allowed to use Prussian railways for free and often received with cheers, e.g. by the revolutionary committees in Cologne
Cologne
Cologne is Germany's fourth-largest city , and is the largest city both in the Germany Federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia and within the Rhine-Ruhr Metropolitan Area, one of the major European metropolitan areas with more than ten million inhabitants.Cologne is located on both sides of the...
French politicians granted money for those trips hoping to remove Polish influence from France, for fear of revolutionary actions. Additionally the French incited Poles to start uprising, as they wanted to secure a diversionary element in case the Holy Alliance
Holy Alliance
The Holy Alliance was a coalition of Russia, Austria and Prussia created in 1815 at the behest of Czar Alexander I of Russia, signed by the three powers in Paris on September 26, 1815, in the Congress of Vienna after the defeat of Napoleon.Ostensibly it was to instill the Christian values of...
would turn its forces against France.
The uprising in Poznań had started on 20 March 1848. Inspired by the events in Berlin, a demonstration in Poznań was organized and the authorities agreed to creation of delegation that would bring proposals of Polish side to Berlin and to the Prussian King. A Polish National Committee
Polish National Committee
Polish National Committee can refer to several Polish organizations:Historical:*Polish National Committee in Paris*Polish National Committee during the Spring of Nations...
was created in Poznań. The Polish historian Jerzy Zdrada
Jerzy Zdrada
-Biography:Member of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Professor of the Jagiellonian University since 1993. As a historian, he specializes in history of Poland in the 19th century....
wrote that the delegates postulated independence of Polish territories but arriving in Berlin decided to remove that part of demands and replaced it with “national reorganization”, removal of Prussian military and turning the administration to Poles. Zdrada notes that those demands were to the liking of Berlin Revolutionary Committee which wanted Poles as force to fight Russia. According to the English historian Richard Davies
Richard Davies
Richard Davies was a Welsh bishop and scholar.-Life:He was born in north Wales, and was educated at New Inn Hall, Oxford, becoming vicar of Burnham, Buckinghamshire, in 1550....
the political demands of the committee were for effective autonomy, not for independence. The organized militia was intended for use not against Prussia but against the threat of Russian intervention. The Committee represented various political orientations and social classes, in order to have a achieve a coalition character. Its overall character was liberal-democratic, and among land-owners and intellectualists it included a Polish peasant Jan Palacz.
On 21 March a joint demonstration of Germans and Poles took place, Germans often wore both the Black-Red-Gold cockade and the Polish Red-White as a revolutionary symbol.
On March 21, the National Committee released a proclamation calling for a common struggle seeking understanding with the Germans, and a day later recognized the rights of Jews
. According to Zdrada on the same day the Prussian general Friedrich August Peter von Colomb
Friedrich August Peter von Colomb
Friedrich August Peter von Colomb was a Prussian general.-Biography:Colomb was born in Aurich, Eastern Frisia as a son of the highranking Prussian public official Pierre Colomb...
ordered Prussian soldiers take the Bazar a hotel which was the center of Polish activities. This was avoided as it would result in Polish-Prussian confrontation-something that the liberals in Berlin didn’t yet desire.
On 22 March the German-controlled Poznań city council voted to support the postulates of the National Committee in Berlin. While Poles avoiding confrontation with the question of independence and demanded national reorganization the Germans called for separation of the Duchy from Prussia.
Polish Committee restricted its membership to Poles and demands from Germans and Jews to be represented in the Polish Committee were not accepted
and Jedrzej Moraczewski, a member of the Polish Committee, ordered on 28 March: “One should make every effort not to alarm the Germans in order to avoid a strong reaction from their side. On the other hand it is necessary to maintain supremacy over them.
From cooperation to confrontation
The atmosphere among the Germans and a portion of the Jewish population began to change diametrically and a German National Committee was founded on 23 March, a second one on 27 March, now largely influenced by German public officials loyal to the Prussian King. Encroachments against Jews caused a further support of the German Committee by the Jewish population and the breakdown of Prussian authority allowed long-simmering resentments to explode, as the German Committee urged in a complaint addressed to the Polish Committee: "There have been many cases in which armed groups of your people have threatened and violated the property and personal security of your German-speaking neighbors. Keep in mind that through such acts of infamous violence you stain the honor of your nation and you undermine the sympathy for your cause among the nations of Germany and Europe.”In a few days the Polish movement embraced the whole Greater Poland region. Polish peasants and urban citizens turned against Prussian officials. Polish nobility and peasantry took up arms, preparing for confrontation with Prussian Army, Prussian symbols were torn down, and in couple of places fighting erupted with German colonists
In West Prussia
West Prussia
West Prussia was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1773–1824 and 1878–1919/20 which was created out of the earlier Polish province of Royal Prussia...
, Toruń
Torun
Toruń is an ancient city in northern Poland, on the Vistula River. Its population is more than 205,934 as of June 2009. Toruń is one of the oldest cities in Poland. The medieval old town of Toruń is the birthplace of the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus....
, Chełmno, Bory Tucholskie the Polish population took inspiration from events in Greater Poland and openly turned against Prussian officials, led by Natalis Sulerzyski and Seweryn Elżanowski. In Chełmno a Temporary National Committee of Polish Prussia was formed. By the end of march though local Germans turned harshly against Poles and together with Prussian military pacified the area, while Polish leaders were imprisoned.
The reason for initial support of Poles by Prussians and Germans was the fear of Russian intervention which would stop creation of strong unified Germany. Germans saw in Poles an opportunity to create a diversion stopping Russians from intervention in Germany itself. The hostility to Russia manifested by Poles was the base of German sympathy towards Polish aspiration during the initial phase of the Uprising. Wilhelm von Willisen encouraged Mierosławski to fight a war against Russia. The Prussian foreign minister Arnim used the Polish issue as weapon against Russia. Leading German politicians and thinkers supported using Poles as protection against Russia, such as Karol August Varnhagen, Robert Blum
Robert Blum
thumb|Painting by August Hunger of Robert Blum between 1845 and 1848Robert Blum was a German democratic politician, publicist, poet, publisher, revolutionist and member of the National Assembly of 1848. In his fight for a strong, unified Germany he opposed ethnocentrism and it was his strong...
, Heinrich von Gagern
Heinrich von Gagern
Heinrich Wilhelm August Freiherr von Gagern was a statesman who argued for the unification of Germany.The third son of Hans Christoph Ernst, Baron von Gagern, a liberal statesman from Hesse, Heinrich von Gagern was born at Bayreuth, educated at the military academy at Munich, and, as an officer in...
, Georg Gervinius, Johann Wirth, Constantin Frantz. As the threat of war with Russia grew distant, the German elites and society became hostile to Polish aspirations. Nationalist and even chauvinist voices could be heard in Germany demanding incorporation of the whole Greater Poland into German Confederation.
Overnight Poles turned for Germans from an ally against Russia into the enemy that would threaten German control over Greater Poland and Pomerania.
Polish successes created distrust in local Germans' and they felt threatened and the news of national reorganization of the province was the turning-point. The assumption of power by a Polish administration and the creation of a military corps out of local Polish population create a German fear for their position in a Polish-ruled Duchy.
Thus German National Committee was founded on 23 March, and a second one on 27 March, now largely influenced by German public officials loyal to the Prussian King.
The new German committee that emerged in Poznań subsequently engaged in consistent opposition to Polish movement. German separate national committees were established and petitions demanding the division of the Duchy and the incorporation of cities and counties into German Confederation
German Confederation
The German Confederation was the loose association of Central European states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to coordinate the economies of separate German-speaking countries. It acted as a buffer between the powerful states of Austria and Prussia...
addressed to Berlin. With the army protecting them, Germans started to paralyze development of Polish self-rule.
German officials, colonists and tradesmen seized the opportunity and begun counteraction, demanding incorporation of the Polish territories into unified German state, accused Poles of repressions. Their claims were methodically used by German propaganda to win support of European countries such as Great Britain and France. Additionally German liberals turned against Poles, demanding “protection of German area”.
Soon Germans craftsmen, traders and colonists in communities began to form committees and paramilitary units to defend their interests and to prevent local Poles from organizing, often joined by local Jews and started to besiege the Prussian King with petitions to exclude their areas from the planned political reorganization. By late April about 8,000 German civilians of the Noteć
Notec
Noteć is a river in central Poland with a length of 388 km and a basin area of 17,330 km². It is a tributary of the Warta river and lies completely within Poland....
(Netze) district north of Poznań were organized in paramilitary units and another 6,000 around the towns of Międzyrzecz
Miedzyrzecz
Międzyrzecz is a town in western Poland with 18,584 inhabitants . The capital of Międzyrzecz County, it was part of the Gorzów Wielkopolski Voivodeship from 1975–1998. Since the Local Government Reorganization Act of 1998, Międzyrzecz has been situated in the Lubusz Voivodeship...
( Meseritz) and Nowy Tomyśl
Nowy Tomysl
Nowy Tomyśl is a town in western Poland, in Greater Poland Voivodeship. It is the capital of Nowy Tomyśl County. The population is 15,627 ....
( Neutomischel).
On 23 March the Prussian King granted an audience to Polish delegation and verbally declared his agreement to their proposals for autonomy; at the same time in confidential conversation with Prussian military commanders he ordered them to prepare an invasion of Polish territories to crush the Polish movement.
On 24 March the Prussian King issued a declaration that promised the short-dated reorganization of the province and the creation of a commission of both nationalities, whose aim would be the consideration of interests of both nations. The Poles understood those measures as restoration of autonomy
Autonomy
Autonomy is a concept found in moral, political and bioethical philosophy. Within these contexts, it is the capacity of a rational individual to make an informed, un-coerced decision...
. Local Polish committees were formed, Prussian state treasuries requisitioned, and symbols of Prussian state dismantled. In many places the local landrats were removed from power. As John Fane, 11th Earl of Westmorland
John Fane, 11th Earl of Westmorland
General John Fane, 11th Earl of Westmorland GCB, GCH, PC , styled Lord Burghersh until 1841, was a British soldier, politician, diplomat and musician.-Background:...
, a British diplomat in Berlin, reported on 6 April 1848, "great excesses had been committed by armed bands of Poles, headed by some of the Nobles and Refugees, who have pillaged and set fire to country seats and farm houses and rendered themselves guilty of other depredations which the Government will endeavour to repress by moveable columns of Troops".
In the beginning of April the local Poznań Parliament voted 26 to 17 votes against joining German Confederation on 3 April 1848. The German minority in Greater Poland through German National Committee declared that it rejects any notion of Polish-German brotherhood and Germans will not resign from controlling the area, even if Polish state is re-established. On 4 April Prussian military declared a stage of siege in Poznań.
Berlin authorities tried to delay the course of events by proposing the division of the province in two parts. Additionally they tried to convince Poles that creation of Polish military formations will hinder the talks about autonomy. Poles on their side, have begun to create armed units on 22 March based on decision of Polish National Committee, which in the meantime changed its name to Polish Central Committee. On 28 March Ludwik Mierosławski took command of military supply and organization, in which he was supported by Polish officers from emigration. Fearing intervention by Russian Empire
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
in Prussia taken by liberal revolt, Poles were preparing for a joint defense with Prussian forces against possible Russian attack. Prince Adam Czartoryski
Adam Jerzy Czartoryski
Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski was a Polish-Lithuanian noble, statesman and author. He was the son of Prince Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski and Izabela Fleming....
came to Berlin
Berlin
Berlin is the capital city of Germany and is one of the 16 states of Germany. With a population of 3.45 million people, Berlin is Germany's largest city. It is the second most populous city proper and the seventh most populous urban area in the European Union...
for political talks, and general Ignacy Prądzyński
Ignacy Pradzynski
Ignacy Prądzyński was a Polish military commander and a general of the Polish Army. A veteran of the Napoleonic Wars, he was one of the most successful Polish commanders of the November Uprising against Russia....
prepared plans for possible war with Russia.
On 5 April the new "Royal Civil Commissioner for the Province Posen", Karl Wilhelm von Willisen
Karl Wilhelm von Willisen
Karl Wilhelm Freiherr von Willisen was a Prussian general.-Biography :Willisen was born in Staßfurt as the third son of the mayor of Staßfurt, Karl Wilhelm Hermann von Willisen and his wife Friederike von Trotha .- Early career :Willisen was educated in the Prussian Cadet Corps and joined the...
, a figure claiming to be sympathetic to the Polish cause, arrived at Poznań and his early actions disappointed the Germans greatly. Willisen soon came in conflict with the military commander of Poznań, general Friedrich August Peter von Colomb
Friedrich August Peter von Colomb
Friedrich August Peter von Colomb was a Prussian general.-Biography:Colomb was born in Aurich, Eastern Frisia as a son of the highranking Prussian public official Pierre Colomb...
, who opposed any kind of Polish independence efforts. Willisen declared that Poles will be granted autonomy but they have to reduce their forces, which on beginning of April counted 7,000 people. A compromise was reached on 11 April in Jarosławiec, when Willisen permitted Poles to have four military camps counting 720 people each (In the end the number of people in the camps was around 4,000). Willisen himself left Poznań on 20 April, blamed for treason and having "betrayed the German cause" and as a contemporary eyewitness wrote "Willisen was exposed to personal insults or even danger from the infuriated German and Jewish mobs of Posen”
. Not longafter he was relieved of his duties and replaced by Ernst von Pfuel
Ernst von Pfuel
Ernst Heinrich Adolf von Pfuel was a Prussian general.Pfuel was born in Jahnsfelde , Brandenburg. He served as commander of the Prussian sector of Paris from 1814-1815 during the Napoleonic Wars...
, who arrived in Poznań early May.
On 14 April the Prussian King declared that ten northern and western counties out of the 24 counties of the province would not take part in the planned political reorganization; on 26 April this was spread to parts of six additional counties, including the City of Poznań itself, leaving to Poles only nine counties. To all involved parties it was obviously a temporary solution and unacceptable to Poles as out of the administrative districts Poles had majority in 18 while Germans in 6, out which four were in the western part and 2 in the northern part. The demobilized Polish militia was harassed by German forces and several Poles were either murdered or wounded.
Military confrontation
The Polish National Committee had decided to unarm its forces, but this determination was ignored by Mierosławski who expected a Russian intervention in which they would assist Prussian forces in defense as an ally. As such they were unprepared to fight the Prussians. As the Prussian troops lashed unrestricted terror against the Polish population, the Prussian attack started at the 29th of April as camps in KsiążKsiaz
Książ is a castle in Silesia, Poland near the town of Wałbrzych. It was built in 1288-1292 under Bolko I the Strict. It lies within a protected area called Książ Landscape Park.- History :...
, Pleszew
Pleszew
Pleszew is a town in Poland, in Greater Poland Voivodeship, about 90 km southeast of Poznań. It is the capital of Pleszew County...
, Września
Wrzesnia
Września is a town in central Poland with 28,600 inhabitants . It is situated in the Września County, Greater Poland Voivodeship , previously in Poznań Voivodeship , on the Wrzesnica River.- History :...
and Miłosław were assaulted. In Książ, Prussian troops destroyed the town after murdering 600 prisoners and wounded Among the victims of the massacre was Florian Dąbrowski Additionally population of Grodzisk led by Jewish doctor Marcus Mosse defended the town against encroaching 600 Prussian troops. Polish committees in Wielkopolska were being attacked as well,
Demobilized Poles returning to their homes were being harassed as were Catholic
Catholic
The word catholic comes from the Greek phrase , meaning "on the whole," "according to the whole" or "in general", and is a combination of the Greek words meaning "about" and meaning "whole"...
Priests, while Germans pacified villages. This provoked an outrage in Polish peasants who rose up against Prussian forces in rural uprising and guerilla warfare, and joined the regular Polish forces under Mierosławski. Mierosławski believed that to save morale and honor of Poles it is necessary to resist military, while the Committee members were opposed to fighting, and as such the Committee disbanded itself on 30 April, in its last proclamation stressing the Prussian treachery and violence.
Battle of Miłosław
On 30 April Ludwik Mierosławski successfully defeated Prussian forces near Miłosław;after winning at Książ, Prussian general Blumen commanding 2500 soldiers and four cannons, encroached on Miłosław where Ludwik Mierosławski was located along with 1200 soldiers and 4 cannons.
The Prussian forces divided themselves into two columns-one moving from Środa the other from Września.
Initially Mierosławski engaged in talks with Blumen, but when he received news that Poles from Now Miasto under the command of Józef Garczyński are coming to help him with 1000 soldiers and that additional reinforcements of 1200 soldiers are moving from Pleszew under the command of Feliks Białoskórski, he broke down the negotiations. As consequence the battle started.
In the first phase of the battle, Polish forces were driven out of Miłosław and took positions along two sides of the main road. In pursuit of retreating Poles Blumen ordered a cavalry assault. The Prussian pursuit was stopped however by the arrival of Garczyński, and when Białoskórki soldiers arrived the Poles counterattacked.
The second phase was dominated by Polish counterattack along the line of the main road and attack on cavalry unit before it was able to attack Polish positions. Afterwards Poles re-entered the town and Prussians were forced to retreat. However, the Poles were exhausted and were not able to pursue the retreating Prussians, causing the victory to not be exploited to its full potential. Polish losses counted 200 soldiers while the Prussians 225.
Further fighting and end of the Uprising
On 2 May the Polish kosynierzy defeated Prussian column near Września at the village of Sokołowo, but their victory just as well was connected to heavy losses. Prussians managed to defeat Polish forces in MosinaMosina
Mosina is a town in Poznań County, Greater Poland Voivodeship, Poland, about 20 km south Poznań, with 12,107 inhabitants .-External links:*...
, Rogalin
Rogalin
Rogalin is a village in western Poland, situated on the Warta river. It lies approximately east of the town of Mosina, and south of the city of Poznań....
, Stęszew
Steszew
Stęszew is a town in Poland, with 5,248 inhabitants in Poznań County, Greater Poland Voivodship.-References:Location [edit]...
, Kórnik
Kórnik
Kórnik is a town with about 6,800 inhabitants , located in western Poland, approximately south-east of the city of Poznań. It is one of the major tourist attractions of the Wielkopolska region....
, Buk
Buk
Buk is a town in central Poland, situated in the Greater Poland Voivodeship , previously in Poznań Voivodeship .The town's name means "Beech" in Polish, and the flag of the town shows a branch of beech, and three beech leaves....
, Oborniki
Oborniki
Oborniki is a town in Poland, in Greater Poland Voivodeship, about 30 km north of Poznań. It is the capital of Oborniki County and of Gmina Oborniki. Its population is 18,176 .-External links:* *...
. Mierosławski tendered his resignation as the commander of the Polish forces on 6 May and the new Supreme commander, Augustyn Brzezanski, capitulated on 9 May. The act of capitulation was signed in Bardo near Września
Wrzesnia
Września is a town in central Poland with 28,600 inhabitants . It is situated in the Września County, Greater Poland Voivodeship , previously in Poznań Voivodeship , on the Wrzesnica River.- History :...
.
Aftermath and consequences
The Grand Duchy of Posen was subsequently replaced with the Province of PosenProvince of Posen
The Province of Posen was a province of Prussia from 1848–1918 and as such part of the German Empire from 1871 to 1918. The area was about 29,000 km2....
and the Prussian government rejected any ideas of autonomy. As a Prussian Province it was completely incorporated into the German Confederation
German Confederation
The German Confederation was the loose association of Central European states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to coordinate the economies of separate German-speaking countries. It acted as a buffer between the powerful states of Austria and Prussia...
, however when the Frankfurt Parliament
Frankfurt Parliament
The Frankfurt Assembly was the first freely elected parliament for all of Germany. Session was held from May 18, 1848 to May 31, 1849 in the Paulskirche at Frankfurt am Main...
finalized the German Constitution on 28 March 1849 Poznań wasn't mentioned. In the elections to the Prussian diet in May 1849 Polish delegates achieved 16 out of the 30 seats of the Province, but the elections to the German Constitutional Parliament were largely boycotted by Polish parties in protest against the incorporation. Others called “Now we will go against Prussians not with scythes but with votes”.
1,500 Poles were imprisoned in Poznań Citadel, mostly peasants who took part in the fighting. Stefan Kieniewicz
Stefan Kieniewicz
Stefan Kieniewicz was a Polish historian and university professor, notable for his works on 19th century history of Poland...
, and marked by Prussian authorities with non-healing wounds.
a Polish historian, in his scholary work analysing the Uprising published in 1935 and republished in 1960, writes that blame for this was shifted between Colomb and his lower-ranking officers, the incident was widely publicised by Polish press .
Mierosławski himself, whose mother was French and who lived in Paris prior to 1846, was released after French diplomatical protest and commanded German insurgent units in Baden
Baden
Baden is a historical state on the east bank of the Rhine in the southwest of Germany, now the western part of the Baden-Württemberg of Germany....
and the Electoral Palatinate in 1849 during the revolutions of 1848 in the German states
Revolutions of 1848 in the German states
The Revolutions of 1848 in the German states, also called the March Revolution – part of the Revolutions of 1848 that broke out in many countries of Europe – were a series of loosely coordinated protests and rebellions in the states of the German Confederation, including the Austrian Empire...
.
The Uprising showed to Poles that there was no possibility to negotiate with Germans regarding Polish statehood. The so called “Polen-Debatte” in Frankfurt Parliament on July 1848 concerned the issue of Poland and showed the attitude of German politicians regarding this. They opposed Poland and any concessions to Poles in Poznań. Those who in the past have claimed to be friendly towards Poles, rejected all of their former declarations and called them mistakes and the idea of restored Poland “insanity”. At the same time the demands of German representatives were not only directed against Poland, they also wanted a war with Denmark, opposed autonomy for Italians in South Tyrol, called Alsace-Lorraine
Alsace-Lorraine
The Imperial Territory of Alsace-Lorraine was a territory created by the German Empire in 1871 after it annexed most of Alsace and the Moselle region of Lorraine following its victory in the Franco-Prussian War. The Alsatian part lay in the Rhine Valley on the west bank of the Rhine River and east...
German, and talked about German interests in Baltic provinces of Russia. While the Uprising was focused in Wielkopolska, it also reached out to other Polish inhabited areas, in Pomerania Natalis Sulerzeski organized Polish armed forces and together with Ignacym Łyskowskim arranged a meeting in Wębrzyn of Polish delegates was organized who created Tymczasowy Komitety Prus Polskich. It was to start talks on reorganization of Western Prussia provinces on 5 April in Chełmno, but it never came to that, as Prussians arrested most of its members and put them in prison in Grudziądz.
Seweryn Elżanowski in response organized a military formation counting several hundred people which took part in combat near Bory Tucholskie after which it moved into Wielkopolska. The Polish national movement in Pomerania decided after those events to pursue its goals by legal means, and remained in this position till First World War
The events of the failed Uprising inspired Polish movement. A crucial point was that unlike in Galicia or Congress Poland the peasantry took active and decisive part on behalf of Polish resistance. The Polish peasants had seen in German colonization a primary threat to their national and social interests.
The post-uprising repression’s spawned defensive reactions within the Polish society. Some of the Polish activists, mostly members of the landed gentry and the intelligentsia, abandoned armed insurrection and began to propagate a doctrine of organic work by strengthening the economic potential and educational level in Polish territories. Others favored an armed struggle for independence and formed the Poznan Committee (Kormitet Poznanski), which represented the democratically oriented landowners and intelligentsia, or the socialist Society of Plebeians (Zwiazek Plebejuszy). Both organizations worked for an uprising that would encompass all three parts of the partitioned Poland.
In Pomerania during elections three Polish representatives were elected to the Prussian Parliament. They were led by Ignacy Łyskowski, a landlord and journalist, who printed a Polish newspaper “Szkółka Narodowa” in Chełmno.
The 1848 was a turning point for Polish national movement in Pomerania, which gained support of city inhabitants and Polish peasants, and especially strong support among Polish clergy, who were subjected to hostile policies by German bishopric in Pelplin. The Polish activists from Pomerania soon came in contact with Masurs and Gustaw Gizewiusz, who encouraged Masurs to defend their local traditions and language. Unfortunately he died soon after being elected to Berlin Parliament. In Silesia
Silesia
Silesia is a historical region of Central Europe located mostly in Poland, with smaller parts also in the Czech Republic, and Germany.Silesia is rich in mineral and natural resources, and includes several important industrial areas. Silesia's largest city and historical capital is Wrocław...
the movement from Wielkopolska reached out to Józef Lompa and Emanuel Smołka who organized the Polish national movement in Upper and Lower Silesia. A Polish pastor Józef Szafranek was elected to parliament in Berlin.
The Poles in western partition decided to focus their energy on increasing economic and political position of Poles before deciding for military confrontation. For 70 years Poles would work on developing their organization, increasing wealth and development of Polish lands. The first organization to do so was Polish League created in Summer 1848. Made by liberal politicians it was led by Count August Cieszkowski-writer and philosopher. Its aims were the increasing of national self-awareness among Polish population, rising its life standards and defense of Catholic faith and Polish-owned land. By Autumn 1848 it counted already 40,000 members. Its main directorate was led by count Gustaw Potworowski. The organization supported agricultural reforms by Polish rural dwellers, and spread information connected to improving agriculture as well as strengthening civic unity. While it was completely legal and didn’t violate any laws, the Prussian government disbanded it in 1850. In practice its members continued to work and soon numerous successor organizations were founded leading way to Polish resistance in Prussian Partition of Poland based on economic and legal opposition.
Famous insurgents
- Tytus Działyński (1796–1861)
- Karol LibeltKarol LibeltKarol Libelt was a Polish philosopher, writer, political and social activist, social worker and liberal, nationalist politician, president of the PTPN.-Life and work:...
(1807–1875) - Władysław Niegolewski (1819–1885)