Province of Posen
Encyclopedia
The Province of Posen was a province of Prussia
from 1848–1918 and as such part of the German Empire
from 1871 to 1918. The area was about 29,000 km2.
The territory of later province, roughly corresponding to the region of Greater Poland
, had become Prussian in 1772 (Netze District
) and 1793 (South Prussia
) during the partitions of Poland
. After Prussia's defeat in the Napoleonic Wars
, the territory was attached to the Duchy of Warsaw
in 1807 during the Treaty of Tilsit. In 1815 during the Congress of Vienna
, Prussia gained the western third of the Warsaw duchy, which was about half of former South Prussia. Prussia then administered this province as the semi-autonomous Grand Duchy of Posen, which lost most of its exceptional status in 1830. While the local Posen (Poznań) Parliament voted 26 to 17 votes against joining German Confederation, on 3 April 1848 the Frankfurt Parliament
ignored the vote, forcing status change to a normal Prussian province
and its integration in the German Confederation
.
This region was inhabited by a Polish majority and German and Jewish minorities and a smattering of other peoples. Almost all the Poles were Roman Catholic
, and about 90% of the Germans were Protestant
. The small numbers of Jews were primarily to be found in the larger communities, mostly in skilled crafts, local commerce and regional trading. The smaller the community, the more likely it was to be either Polish or German. These "pockets of ethnicity" existed side by side, with German villages being the most dense in the northwestern areas. With Germanization policies, the population became more German until the end of the 19th century, when the trend reversed (in the Ostflucht
). This was despite efforts of the government in Berlin
, which established the Settlement Commission to buy land from Poles and make it available only to Germans.
In 1919 during the Treaty of Versailles
, Weimar Germany ceded the bulk of the province to the newly established Second Polish Republic
. The German remainder, about 2,200 km2, was merged with the western remains of former West Prussia
and administered as Posen-West Prussia
. This province was dissolved in 1938, when its territory was split between the neighboring German provinces. In 1939, the territory of the former province of Posen was annexed by Nazi Germany
and made part of Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia
and Reichsgau Wartheland
(initially Reichsgau Posen). When World War II
ended in 1945, it was overrun by the Red Army
who turned it over to the People's Republic of Poland
.
systems; the Noteć
(German: Netze) in the north and the Warta (German: Warthe) in the center. Ice Age
glacier
s left moraine
deposits and the land is speckled with hundreds of "finger lakes", streams flowing in and out on their way to one of the two rivers.
Agriculture
was the primary industry, as one would expect for the 19th century. The three-field system was used to grow a variety of crops, primarily rye
, sugar beets, potatoes, other grains
, and some tobacco
and hops
. Significant parcels of wooded land provided building materials and firewood
. Small numbers of livestock
existed, including geese, but a fair amount of sheep were herded.
When this area came under Prussian control, the feudal system was still in force. It was officially ended in Prussia (see Freiherr vom Stein) in 1810 (1864 in Congress Poland
), but lingered in some practices until the late 19th century. The situation was thus that (primarily) Polish serfs lived and worked side by side with (predominantly) free German settlers. Though the settlers were given initial advantages, in time their lots were not much different. Serfs worked for the noble lord, who took care of them. Settlers worked for themselves and took care of themselves, but paid taxes to the lord.
Typically, an estate would have its manor
and farm buildings, and a village nearby for the Polish laborers. Near that village, there might be a German settlement. And in the woods, there would be a forester's dwelling. The estate owners, usually of the nobility, owned the local grist mill, and often other types of mills or perhaps a distillery. In many places, windmills dotted the landscape, reminding one of the earliest settlers, the Dutch
, who began the process of turning unproductive river marshes into fields. This process was finished by the German settlers who were used to reclaim unproductive lands (not only marshland) for the host estate owners.
. For more than a century, it would be part of the Prussian partition
, with a brief exception during the Napoleonic Wars
. At that time, in 1807, it became a part of the short-lived Duchy of Warsaw
, but was restored to Prussia in 1815 as the Grand Duchy of Posen.
During the Revolutions of 1848
, the Frankfurt Parliament
attempted to divide the duchy into two parts: the Province of Poznań, which would have been given to the Germans and annexed to a newly-created German Empire
, and the Province of Gniezno
, which would have been given to the Poles and held outside Germany. Because of the protest of Polish parliamentarians, these plans failed and the integrity of the duchy was preserved. On February 9, 1849, after a series of broken assurances, the Prussian administration renamed the duchy to the province of Posen. However, "Grand Duke of Posen" remained a title of the Hohenzollern dynasty and the name remained in official use until 1918.
With the unification of Germany
after the Franco-Prussian War
of 1871, the province of Posen became part of the German Empire
(1871–1918) and the city of Posen was officially named an imperial residence city.
In the 1880s, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck
started Germanisation
policies, such as an increase of police forces, a colonization commission, the German Society for the Eastern Borders (Hakata), and the Kulturkampf
. In 1904, special legislation was passed against the Polish population. The legislation of 1908 allowed the confiscation of Polish landed property. The Prussian authorities did not allow the development of industries, so the duchy's economy was dominated by high-level agriculture.
After World War I
, the fate of the province was undecided. The Poles demanded that the region be included in the newly independent Second Polish Republic
, while the Germans refused any territorial concessions. The Greater Poland Uprising
broke out on 27 December 1918, a day after the speech of Ignacy Jan Paderewski
. The uprising received little support from the Polish government established in Warsaw
at that time. After the success of the uprising the Posen province was briefly (until mid-1919) an independent state with its own government, currency and military force.
With the signing of the Treaty of Versailles
at the end of World War I
, most of the province, primarily the areas with a Polish majority, were ceded to Poland and reformed as the Poznań Voivodship. The remaining German part of the province was reformed as Posen-West Prussia
with Schneidemühl (Piła) as its capital, until 1938, when it was divided between Silesia
, Pomerania and Brandenburg
.
Following Germany's defeat in World War II
in 1945, all of the German territory east of the newly established Oder-Neisse Line
was either annexed by Poland or the Soviet Union. Therefore, all historical parts of the province came under Polish control and the remaining German ethnic population was expelled by force.
The province's large number of resident Germans resulted from constant immigration of Germans since the Middle Ages
, when the first settlers arrived in the course of the Ostsiedlung
. Although many of those had been Polonized
over time, a continuous immigration resulted in maintaining a large German community
. The 18th century Jesuit-led Counter-Reformation
enacted severe restrictions on German Protestants. The end of the century turned the tables as Prussia seized the area during the Partitions of Poland
.
During the first half of the 19th century, the German population grew due to state sponsored colonisation
. In the second half, the Polish population grew gradually due to the Ostflucht
and a higher birthrate among the Poles. During the Kulturkampf
, mainly Protestant Prussia
sought to reduce the Catholic impact on its society. Posen was hit severely by these measures due to its high, mainly Polish Catholic population. Many Catholic Germans in Posen joined with ethnic Poles in opposition to Kulturkampf measures.
Following Kulturkampf, the German Empire
for nationalist
reasons implied Germanisation
programs. One measure was to set up a Settlement Commission, that was to attract German settlers to encounter the Polish population growth. However, this attempt failed, even when accompanied by additional legal measures. The Polish language
was eventually banned from schools and government offices as part of the Germanisation
policies.
There is a notable disparity between German statistics gathered by the Prussian administration, and the Polish estimates conducted after 1918. According to the Prussian census of 1905, the number of German speakers in the Province of Posen was approximately 38.5%, while after 1918 the number of Germans in the Poznan Voivodship, which closely corresponded to province of Posen, was only 7%. According to Witold Jakóbczyk
, the disparity between the number of ethnic Germans and the number of German speakers is because Prussian authorities placed ethnic Germans and the German speaking Jewish minority into the same class. In addition, there was a considerable exodus of Germans from the Second Polish Republic
after the latter's establishment. Another reason of the disparity refers to the fact that some border areas of the province, inhabited mostly by Germans (including Piła), remained in Germany after 1918.
Population
e), which were subdivided into districts called Kreise. Cities would have their own "Stadtkreis" (urban district) and the surrounding rural area would be named for the city, but referred to as a "Landkreis" (rural district). In the case of Posen, the Landkreis was split into two: Landkreis Posen West, and Landkreis Posen East.
Data is from Prussian censuses, during a period of state-sponsored Germanization, and includes military garrisons. It is commonly criticized for being falsified.
1 includes bilingual speakers
2 only religious Jews, without regard of their native language
The German figure includes the German speaking Jewish population.
(see also Notable people of Grand Duchy of Posen)
Kingdom of Prussia
The Kingdom of Prussia was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918. Until the defeat of Germany in World War I, it comprised almost two-thirds of the area of the German Empire...
from 1848–1918 and as such part of the German Empire
German Empire
The German Empire refers to Germany during the "Second Reich" period from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871, to 1918, when it became a federal republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of the Emperor, Wilhelm II.The German...
from 1871 to 1918. The area was about 29,000 km2.
The territory of later province, roughly corresponding to the region of Greater Poland
Greater Poland
Greater Poland or Great Poland, often known by its Polish name Wielkopolska is a historical region of west-central Poland. Its chief city is Poznań.The boundaries of Greater Poland have varied somewhat throughout history...
, had become Prussian in 1772 (Netze District
Netze District
The Netze District or District of the Netze was a territory in the Kingdom of Prussia from 1772 until 1807. It included the urban centers of Bydgoszcz , Inowrocław , Piła and Wałcz and was given its name for the Noteć River that traversed it.Beside Royal Prussia, a land of the Polish Crown...
) and 1793 (South Prussia
South Prussia
South Prussia was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1793 to 1807. It was created out of territory annexed in the Second Partition of Poland and included in 1793*the Poznań, Kalisz and Gniezno Voivodeships of Greater Poland;...
) during the partitions of Poland
Partitions of Poland
The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland for 123 years...
. After Prussia's defeat in the Napoleonic Wars
Napoleonic Wars
The Napoleonic Wars were a series of wars declared against Napoleon's French Empire by opposing coalitions that ran from 1803 to 1815. As a continuation of the wars sparked by the French Revolution of 1789, they revolutionised European armies and played out on an unprecedented scale, mainly due to...
, the territory was attached to the Duchy of Warsaw
Duchy of Warsaw
The Duchy of Warsaw was a Polish state established by Napoleon I in 1807 from the Polish lands ceded by the Kingdom of Prussia under the terms of the Treaties of Tilsit. The duchy was held in personal union by one of Napoleon's allies, King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony...
in 1807 during the Treaty of Tilsit. In 1815 during the Congress of Vienna
Congress of Vienna
The Congress of Vienna was a conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, and held in Vienna from September, 1814 to June, 1815. The objective of the Congress was to settle the many issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars, the Napoleonic Wars,...
, Prussia gained the western third of the Warsaw duchy, which was about half of former South Prussia. Prussia then administered this province as the semi-autonomous Grand Duchy of Posen, which lost most of its exceptional status in 1830. While the local Posen (Poznań) Parliament voted 26 to 17 votes against joining German Confederation, on 3 April 1848 the Frankfurt Parliament
Frankfurt Parliament
The Frankfurt Assembly was the first freely elected parliament for all of Germany. Session was held from May 18, 1848 to May 31, 1849 in the Paulskirche at Frankfurt am Main...
ignored the vote, forcing status change to a normal Prussian province
Provinces of Prussia
The Provinces of Prussia constituted the main administrative divisions of Prussia. Following the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and the Congress of Vienna in 1815 the various princely states in Germany gained their nominal sovereignty, but the reunification process that culminated in...
and its integration in the German Confederation
German Confederation
The German Confederation was the loose association of Central European states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to coordinate the economies of separate German-speaking countries. It acted as a buffer between the powerful states of Austria and Prussia...
.
This region was inhabited by a Polish majority and German and Jewish minorities and a smattering of other peoples. Almost all the Poles were Roman Catholic
Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church, with over a billion members. Led by the Pope, it defines its mission as spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ, administering the sacraments and exercising charity...
, and about 90% of the Germans were Protestant
Protestantism
Protestantism is one of the three major groupings within Christianity. It is a movement that began in Germany in the early 16th century as a reaction against medieval Roman Catholic doctrines and practices, especially in regards to salvation, justification, and ecclesiology.The doctrines of the...
. The small numbers of Jews were primarily to be found in the larger communities, mostly in skilled crafts, local commerce and regional trading. The smaller the community, the more likely it was to be either Polish or German. These "pockets of ethnicity" existed side by side, with German villages being the most dense in the northwestern areas. With Germanization policies, the population became more German until the end of the 19th century, when the trend reversed (in the Ostflucht
Ostflucht
The Ostflucht was a movement by residents of the former eastern territories of Germany, such as East Prussia, West Prussia, Silesia and Province of Posen beginning around 1850, to the more industrialized western German Rhine and Ruhr provinces...
). This was despite efforts of the government in Berlin
Berlin
Berlin is the capital city of Germany and is one of the 16 states of Germany. With a population of 3.45 million people, Berlin is Germany's largest city. It is the second most populous city proper and the seventh most populous urban area in the European Union...
, which established the Settlement Commission to buy land from Poles and make it available only to Germans.
In 1919 during the Treaty of Versailles
Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other Central Powers on the German side of...
, Weimar Germany ceded the bulk of the province to the newly established Second Polish Republic
Second Polish Republic
The Second Polish Republic, Second Commonwealth of Poland or interwar Poland refers to Poland between the two world wars; a period in Polish history in which Poland was restored as an independent state. Officially known as the Republic of Poland or the Commonwealth of Poland , the Polish state was...
. The German remainder, about 2,200 km2, was merged with the western remains of former West Prussia
West Prussia
West Prussia was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1773–1824 and 1878–1919/20 which was created out of the earlier Polish province of Royal Prussia...
and administered as Posen-West Prussia
Posen-West Prussia
The border province of historical period Posen-West Prussia was a province of the Free State of Prussia. The capital was Schneidemühl . The province had an area of 7,695 km², and was located within present-day Poland....
. This province was dissolved in 1938, when its territory was split between the neighboring German provinces. In 1939, the territory of the former province of Posen was annexed by Nazi Germany
Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany
At the beginning of World War II, nearly a quarter of the pre-war Polish areas were annexed by Nazi Germany and placed directly under German civil administration, while the rest of Nazi occupied Poland was named as General Government...
and made part of Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia
Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia
The Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia was a Nazi German province created on 8 October 1939 from the territory of the annexed Free City of Danzig, the annexed Polish province Greater Pomeranian Voivodship , and the Nazi German Regierungsbezirk West Prussia of Gau East Prussia. Before 2 November 1939,...
and Reichsgau Wartheland
Reichsgau Wartheland
Reichsgau Wartheland was a Nazi German Reichsgau formed from Polish territory annexed in 1939. It comprised the Greater Poland and adjacent areas, and only in part matched the area of the similarly named pre-Versailles Prussian province of Posen...
(initially Reichsgau Posen). When World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
ended in 1945, it was overrun by the Red Army
Red Army
The Workers' and Peasants' Red Army started out as the Soviet Union's revolutionary communist combat groups during the Russian Civil War of 1918-1922. It grew into the national army of the Soviet Union. By the 1930s the Red Army was among the largest armies in history.The "Red Army" name refers to...
who turned it over to the People's Republic of Poland
People's Republic of Poland
The People's Republic of Poland was the official name of Poland from 1952 to 1990. Although the Soviet Union took control of the country immediately after the liberation from Nazi Germany in 1944, the name of the state was not changed until eight years later...
.
Characteristics
The land is mostly flat, drained by two major watershedDrainage basin
A drainage basin is an extent or an area of land where surface water from rain and melting snow or ice converges to a single point, usually the exit of the basin, where the waters join another waterbody, such as a river, lake, reservoir, estuary, wetland, sea, or ocean...
systems; the Noteć
Notec
Noteć is a river in central Poland with a length of 388 km and a basin area of 17,330 km². It is a tributary of the Warta river and lies completely within Poland....
(German: Netze) in the north and the Warta (German: Warthe) in the center. Ice Age
Ice age
An ice age or, more precisely, glacial age, is a generic geological period of long-term reduction in the temperature of the Earth's surface and atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental ice sheets, polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers...
glacier
Glacier
A glacier is a large persistent body of ice that forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. At least 0.1 km² in area and 50 m thick, but often much larger, a glacier slowly deforms and flows due to stresses induced by its weight...
s left moraine
Moraine
A moraine is any glacially formed accumulation of unconsolidated glacial debris which can occur in currently glaciated and formerly glaciated regions, such as those areas acted upon by a past glacial maximum. This debris may have been plucked off a valley floor as a glacier advanced or it may have...
deposits and the land is speckled with hundreds of "finger lakes", streams flowing in and out on their way to one of the two rivers.
Agriculture
Agriculture
Agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi and other life forms for food, fiber, and other products used to sustain life. Agriculture was the key implement in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the...
was the primary industry, as one would expect for the 19th century. The three-field system was used to grow a variety of crops, primarily rye
Rye
Rye is a grass grown extensively as a grain and as a forage crop. It is a member of the wheat tribe and is closely related to barley and wheat. Rye grain is used for flour, rye bread, rye beer, some whiskeys, some vodkas, and animal fodder...
, sugar beets, potatoes, other grains
Cereal
Cereals are grasses cultivated for the edible components of their grain , composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran...
, and some tobacco
Tobacco
Tobacco is an agricultural product processed from the leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. It can be consumed, used as a pesticide and, in the form of nicotine tartrate, used in some medicines...
and hops
Hops
Hops are the female flower clusters , of a hop species, Humulus lupulus. They are used primarily as a flavoring and stability agent in beer, to which they impart a bitter, tangy flavor, though hops are also used for various purposes in other beverages and herbal medicine...
. Significant parcels of wooded land provided building materials and firewood
Firewood
Firewood is any wood-like material that is gathered and used for fuel. Generally, firewood is not highly processed and is in some sort of recognizable log or branch form....
. Small numbers of livestock
Livestock
Livestock refers to one or more domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce commodities such as food, fiber and labor. The term "livestock" as used in this article does not include poultry or farmed fish; however the inclusion of these, especially poultry, within the meaning...
existed, including geese, but a fair amount of sheep were herded.
When this area came under Prussian control, the feudal system was still in force. It was officially ended in Prussia (see Freiherr vom Stein) in 1810 (1864 in Congress Poland
Congress Poland
The Kingdom of Poland , informally known as Congress Poland , created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna, was a personal union of the Russian parcel of Poland with the Russian Empire...
), but lingered in some practices until the late 19th century. The situation was thus that (primarily) Polish serfs lived and worked side by side with (predominantly) free German settlers. Though the settlers were given initial advantages, in time their lots were not much different. Serfs worked for the noble lord, who took care of them. Settlers worked for themselves and took care of themselves, but paid taxes to the lord.
Typically, an estate would have its manor
Manor house
A manor house is a country house that historically formed the administrative centre of a manor, the lowest unit of territorial organisation in the feudal system in Europe. The term is applied to country houses that belonged to the gentry and other grand stately homes...
and farm buildings, and a village nearby for the Polish laborers. Near that village, there might be a German settlement. And in the woods, there would be a forester's dwelling. The estate owners, usually of the nobility, owned the local grist mill, and often other types of mills or perhaps a distillery. In many places, windmills dotted the landscape, reminding one of the earliest settlers, the Dutch
Netherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
, who began the process of turning unproductive river marshes into fields. This process was finished by the German settlers who were used to reclaim unproductive lands (not only marshland) for the host estate owners.
History
The Kingdom of Prussia had annexed the later territory of the Province of Posen during the 18th century Partitions of PolandPartitions of Poland
The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland for 123 years...
. For more than a century, it would be part of the Prussian partition
Prussian partition
The Prussian partition refers to the former territories of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth acquired during the partitions of Poland in the late 18th century by the Kingdom of Prussia.-History:...
, with a brief exception during the Napoleonic Wars
Napoleonic Wars
The Napoleonic Wars were a series of wars declared against Napoleon's French Empire by opposing coalitions that ran from 1803 to 1815. As a continuation of the wars sparked by the French Revolution of 1789, they revolutionised European armies and played out on an unprecedented scale, mainly due to...
. At that time, in 1807, it became a part of the short-lived Duchy of Warsaw
Duchy of Warsaw
The Duchy of Warsaw was a Polish state established by Napoleon I in 1807 from the Polish lands ceded by the Kingdom of Prussia under the terms of the Treaties of Tilsit. The duchy was held in personal union by one of Napoleon's allies, King Frederick Augustus I of Saxony...
, but was restored to Prussia in 1815 as the Grand Duchy of Posen.
During the Revolutions of 1848
Revolutions of 1848
The European Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Spring of Nations, Springtime of the Peoples or the Year of Revolution, were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. It was the first Europe-wide collapse of traditional authority, but within a year reactionary...
, the Frankfurt Parliament
Frankfurt Parliament
The Frankfurt Assembly was the first freely elected parliament for all of Germany. Session was held from May 18, 1848 to May 31, 1849 in the Paulskirche at Frankfurt am Main...
attempted to divide the duchy into two parts: the Province of Poznań, which would have been given to the Germans and annexed to a newly-created German Empire
German Empire
The German Empire refers to Germany during the "Second Reich" period from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871, to 1918, when it became a federal republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of the Emperor, Wilhelm II.The German...
, and the Province of Gniezno
Gniezno
Gniezno is a city in central-western Poland, some 50 km east of Poznań, inhabited by about 70,000 people. One of the Piasts' chief cities, it was mentioned by 10th century A.D. sources as the capital of Piast Poland however the first capital of Piast realm was most likely Giecz built around...
, which would have been given to the Poles and held outside Germany. Because of the protest of Polish parliamentarians, these plans failed and the integrity of the duchy was preserved. On February 9, 1849, after a series of broken assurances, the Prussian administration renamed the duchy to the province of Posen. However, "Grand Duke of Posen" remained a title of the Hohenzollern dynasty and the name remained in official use until 1918.
With the unification of Germany
Unification of Germany
The formal unification of Germany into a politically and administratively integrated nation state officially occurred on 18 January 1871 at the Versailles Palace's Hall of Mirrors in France. Princes of the German states gathered there to proclaim Wilhelm of Prussia as Emperor Wilhelm of the German...
after the Franco-Prussian War
Franco-Prussian War
The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the 1870 War was a conflict between the Second French Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia. Prussia was aided by the North German Confederation, of which it was a member, and the South German states of Baden, Württemberg and...
of 1871, the province of Posen became part of the German Empire
German Empire
The German Empire refers to Germany during the "Second Reich" period from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871, to 1918, when it became a federal republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of the Emperor, Wilhelm II.The German...
(1871–1918) and the city of Posen was officially named an imperial residence city.
In the 1880s, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck
Otto von Bismarck
Otto Eduard Leopold, Prince of Bismarck, Duke of Lauenburg , simply known as Otto von Bismarck, was a Prussian-German statesman whose actions unified Germany, made it a major player in world affairs, and created a balance of power that kept Europe at peace after 1871.As Minister President of...
started Germanisation
Germanisation of Poles during Partitions
After partitioning Poland in the end of 18th century, the Kingdom of Prussia and later German Empire imposed a number of Germanisation policies and measures in the newly gained territories, aimed at limiting the Polish ethnic presence in these areas...
policies, such as an increase of police forces, a colonization commission, the German Society for the Eastern Borders (Hakata), and the Kulturkampf
Kulturkampf
The German term refers to German policies in relation to secularity and the influence of the Roman Catholic Church, enacted from 1871 to 1878 by the Prime Minister of Prussia, Otto von Bismarck. The Kulturkampf did not extend to the other German states such as Bavaria...
. In 1904, special legislation was passed against the Polish population. The legislation of 1908 allowed the confiscation of Polish landed property. The Prussian authorities did not allow the development of industries, so the duchy's economy was dominated by high-level agriculture.
After World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
, the fate of the province was undecided. The Poles demanded that the region be included in the newly independent Second Polish Republic
Second Polish Republic
The Second Polish Republic, Second Commonwealth of Poland or interwar Poland refers to Poland between the two world wars; a period in Polish history in which Poland was restored as an independent state. Officially known as the Republic of Poland or the Commonwealth of Poland , the Polish state was...
, while the Germans refused any territorial concessions. The Greater Poland Uprising
Greater Poland Uprising (1918–1919)
The Greater Poland Uprising of 1918–1919, or Wielkopolska Uprising of 1918–1919 or Posnanian War was a military insurrection of Poles in the Greater Poland region against Germany...
broke out on 27 December 1918, a day after the speech of Ignacy Jan Paderewski
Ignacy Jan Paderewski
Ignacy Jan Paderewski GBE was a Polish pianist, composer, diplomat, politician, and the second Prime Minister of the Republic of Poland.-Biography:...
. The uprising received little support from the Polish government established in Warsaw
Warsaw
Warsaw is the capital and largest city of Poland. It is located on the Vistula River, roughly from the Baltic Sea and from the Carpathian Mountains. Its population in 2010 was estimated at 1,716,855 residents with a greater metropolitan area of 2,631,902 residents, making Warsaw the 10th most...
at that time. After the success of the uprising the Posen province was briefly (until mid-1919) an independent state with its own government, currency and military force.
With the signing of the Treaty of Versailles
Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other Central Powers on the German side of...
at the end of World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
, most of the province, primarily the areas with a Polish majority, were ceded to Poland and reformed as the Poznań Voivodship. The remaining German part of the province was reformed as Posen-West Prussia
Posen-West Prussia
The border province of historical period Posen-West Prussia was a province of the Free State of Prussia. The capital was Schneidemühl . The province had an area of 7,695 km², and was located within present-day Poland....
with Schneidemühl (Piła) as its capital, until 1938, when it was divided between Silesia
Province of Silesia
The Province of Silesia was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1815 to 1919.-Geography:The territory comprised the bulk of the former Bohemian crown land of Silesia and the County of Kladsko, which King Frederick the Great had conquered from the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy in the 18th...
, Pomerania and Brandenburg
Province of Brandenburg
The Province of Brandenburg was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia and the Free State of Prussia from 1815 to 1946.-History:The first people who are known to have inhabited Brandenburg were the Suevi. They were succeeded by the Slavonians, whom Henry II conquered and converted to Christianity in...
.
Following Germany's defeat in World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
in 1945, all of the German territory east of the newly established Oder-Neisse Line
Oder-Neisse line
The Oder–Neisse line is the border between Germany and Poland which was drawn in the aftermath of World War II. The line is formed primarily by the Oder and Lusatian Neisse rivers, and meets the Baltic Sea west of the seaport cities of Szczecin and Świnoujście...
was either annexed by Poland or the Soviet Union. Therefore, all historical parts of the province came under Polish control and the remaining German ethnic population was expelled by force.
Religious and ethnic conflicts
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
, when the first settlers arrived in the course of the Ostsiedlung
Ostsiedlung
Ostsiedlung , also called German eastward expansion, was the medieval eastward migration and settlement of Germans from modern day western and central Germany into less-populated regions and countries of eastern Central Europe and Eastern Europe. The affected area roughly stretched from Slovenia...
. Although many of those had been Polonized
Polonization
Polonization was the acquisition or imposition of elements of Polish culture, in particular, Polish language, as experienced in some historic periods by non-Polish populations of territories controlled or substantially influenced by Poland...
over time, a continuous immigration resulted in maintaining a large German community
History of German settlement in Eastern Europe
The presence of German-speaking populations in Central and Eastern Europe is rooted in centuries of history, with the settling in northeastern Europe of Germanic peoples predating even the founding of the Roman Empire...
. The 18th century Jesuit-led Counter-Reformation
Counter-Reformation
The Counter-Reformation was the period of Catholic revival beginning with the Council of Trent and ending at the close of the Thirty Years' War, 1648 as a response to the Protestant Reformation.The Counter-Reformation was a comprehensive effort, composed of four major elements:#Ecclesiastical or...
enacted severe restrictions on German Protestants. The end of the century turned the tables as Prussia seized the area during the Partitions of Poland
Partitions of Poland
The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland for 123 years...
.
During the first half of the 19th century, the German population grew due to state sponsored colonisation
Colonisation
Colonization occurs whenever any one or more species populate an area. The term, which is derived from the Latin colere, "to inhabit, cultivate, frequent, practice, tend, guard, respect", originally related to humans. However, 19th century biogeographers dominated the term to describe the...
. In the second half, the Polish population grew gradually due to the Ostflucht
Ostflucht
The Ostflucht was a movement by residents of the former eastern territories of Germany, such as East Prussia, West Prussia, Silesia and Province of Posen beginning around 1850, to the more industrialized western German Rhine and Ruhr provinces...
and a higher birthrate among the Poles. During the Kulturkampf
Kulturkampf
The German term refers to German policies in relation to secularity and the influence of the Roman Catholic Church, enacted from 1871 to 1878 by the Prime Minister of Prussia, Otto von Bismarck. The Kulturkampf did not extend to the other German states such as Bavaria...
, mainly Protestant Prussia
Prussia
Prussia was a German kingdom and historic state originating out of the Duchy of Prussia and the Margraviate of Brandenburg. For centuries, the House of Hohenzollern ruled Prussia, successfully expanding its size by way of an unusually well-organized and effective army. Prussia shaped the history...
sought to reduce the Catholic impact on its society. Posen was hit severely by these measures due to its high, mainly Polish Catholic population. Many Catholic Germans in Posen joined with ethnic Poles in opposition to Kulturkampf measures.
Following Kulturkampf, the German Empire
German Empire
The German Empire refers to Germany during the "Second Reich" period from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871, to 1918, when it became a federal republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of the Emperor, Wilhelm II.The German...
for nationalist
Nationalism
Nationalism is a political ideology that involves a strong identification of a group of individuals with a political entity defined in national terms, i.e. a nation. In the 'modernist' image of the nation, it is nationalism that creates national identity. There are various definitions for what...
reasons implied Germanisation
Germanisation
Germanisation is both the spread of the German language, people and culture either by force or assimilation, and the adaptation of a foreign word to the German language in linguistics, much like the Romanisation of many languages which do not use the Latin alphabet...
programs. One measure was to set up a Settlement Commission, that was to attract German settlers to encounter the Polish population growth. However, this attempt failed, even when accompanied by additional legal measures. The Polish language
Polish language
Polish is a language of the Lechitic subgroup of West Slavic languages, used throughout Poland and by Polish minorities in other countries...
was eventually banned from schools and government offices as part of the Germanisation
Germanisation
Germanisation is both the spread of the German language, people and culture either by force or assimilation, and the adaptation of a foreign word to the German language in linguistics, much like the Romanisation of many languages which do not use the Latin alphabet...
policies.
| Ethnic composition of the Province of Posen | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| year | 1815 | 1861 | 1890 | 1910 |
| total population | 776.000 | 1.467.604 | 1.751.642 | 2.099.831 |
| % Poles (including bilinguals) |
73% | 54,6% | 60,1% | 61,5% |
| % Germans | 25% | 43,4% | 39,9% | 38,5% |
There is a notable disparity between German statistics gathered by the Prussian administration, and the Polish estimates conducted after 1918. According to the Prussian census of 1905, the number of German speakers in the Province of Posen was approximately 38.5%, while after 1918 the number of Germans in the Poznan Voivodship, which closely corresponded to province of Posen, was only 7%. According to Witold Jakóbczyk
Witold Jakóbczyk
Witold Jakóbczyk was a Polish historian and professor at Poznań University, specializing in the history of Greater Poland in the 19th century.- Publications :* Witold Jakóbczyk , Studia nad dziejami Wielkopolski w XIX w., vol.I-III, Poznań 1951-1967...
, the disparity between the number of ethnic Germans and the number of German speakers is because Prussian authorities placed ethnic Germans and the German speaking Jewish minority into the same class. In addition, there was a considerable exodus of Germans from the Second Polish Republic
Second Polish Republic
The Second Polish Republic, Second Commonwealth of Poland or interwar Poland refers to Poland between the two world wars; a period in Polish history in which Poland was restored as an independent state. Officially known as the Republic of Poland or the Commonwealth of Poland , the Polish state was...
after the latter's establishment. Another reason of the disparity refers to the fact that some border areas of the province, inhabited mostly by Germans (including Piła), remained in Germany after 1918.
Statistics
Area: 28,970 km²- Regierungsbezirk Posen 17,503 km²
- Regierungsbezirk Bromberg 11,448 km²
Population
- 1816: 820,176
- 1868: 1,537,300 (Bromberg 550,900 - Posen 986,400)
- 1871: 1,583,843
- Religion: 1871
- Catholics 1,009,885
- Protestants 511,429
- Jews 61,982
- others 547
- Religion: 1871
- 1875: 1,606,084
- 1880: 1,703,397
- 1900: 1,887,275
- 1905: 1,986,267
- 1910: 2,099,831 (Bromberg 763,900 - Posen 1,335,900)
Divisions
Note: Prussian provinces were subdivided into government regions (RegierungsbezirkRegierungsbezirk
In Germany, a Government District, in German: Regierungsbezirk – is a subdivision of certain federal states .They are above the Kreise, Landkreise, and kreisfreie Städte...
e), which were subdivided into districts called Kreise. Cities would have their own "Stadtkreis" (urban district) and the surrounding rural area would be named for the city, but referred to as a "Landkreis" (rural district). In the case of Posen, the Landkreis was split into two: Landkreis Posen West, and Landkreis Posen East.
Data is from Prussian censuses, during a period of state-sponsored Germanization, and includes military garrisons. It is commonly criticized for being falsified.
| Kreis ("County") | Polish spelling | 1905 Pop | Polish speakers | German speakers1 | Jewish2 | Origin |
| Regierunsbezirk Posen (southern) | ||||||
| City of Posen Poznan Poznań is a city on the Warta river in west-central Poland, with a population of 556,022 in June 2009. It is among the oldest cities in Poland, and was one of the most important centres in the early Polish state, whose first rulers were buried at Poznań's cathedral. It is sometimes claimed to be... |
Poznań | 55% | 45% | |||
| Adelnau Kreis Adelnau Kreis Adelnau was a county in the southern administrative district of Posen, in the Prussian province of Posen. It presently lies in the southern part of Polish region of Greater Poland Voivodeship.-Military command :... |
Odolanów | 90% | 10% | |||
| Birnbaum Kreis Birnbaum Kreis Birnbaum was a county in the southern administrative district of Posen, in the Prussian province of Posen. It presently lies in the Polish regions of Greater Poland Voivodeship and Lubusz Voivodeship.-Court system:... |
Miedzychód | 51% | 49% | |||
| Bomst | Babimost | 49% | 51% | |||
| Fraustadt | Wschowa | 27% | 73% | |||
| Gostyn | Gostyn | 87% | 13% | Kröben | ||
| Grätz Kreis Grätz Powiat grodziski may refer to either of two counties in Poland:*Grodzisk Wielkopolski County, in Greater Poland Voivodeship *Grodzisk Mazowiecki County, in Masovian Voivodeship... |
Grodzisk | 82% | 18% | Buk | ||
| Jarotschin | Jarocin | 83% | 17% | Pleschen | ||
| Kempen Kreis Kempen Kreis Kempen refers to the following German administrative districts:*Kempen , a district of Rhenish Prussia from 1816–1929*Kempen-Krefeld, a district of Rhenish Prussia and North Rhine-Westphalia from 1929–1975... |
Kępno | 84% | 16% | Schildberg | ||
| Koschmin Kreis Koschmin Kreis Koschmin was a county in the southern administrative district of Posen, in the Prussian province of Posen. It presently lies in the southern part of Polish region of Greater Poland Voivodeship.-Military command :... |
Koźmin | 83% | 17% | Krotoschin | ||
| Kosten | Kościan | 89% | 11% | |||
| Krotoschin Kreis Krotoschin Kreis Krotoschin was a county in the southern administrative district of Posen, in the Prussian province of Posen. It presently lies in the southern part of Polish region of Greater Poland Voivodeship.-Civil registry offices :... |
Krotoszyn | 70% | 30% | |||
| Lissa Kreis Lissa Kreis Lissa was a county in the southern administrative district of Posen, in the Prussian province of Posen. It presently lies in the southern part of Polish region of Greater Poland Voivodeship.-Military command :... |
Leszno | 36% | 64% | Fraustadt | ||
| Meseritz Kreis Meseritz Kreis Meseritz was a county in the southern administrative district of Posen, in the Prussian province of Posen. It presently lies in the eastern part of Polish region of Lubuskie Voivodeship.- History :... |
Międzyrzecz | 20% | 80% | |||
| Neutomischel Kreis Neutomischel Kreis Neutomischel was a county in the southern administrative district of Posen, in the Prussian province of Posen. It presently lies in the western part of Polish region of Greater Poland Voivodeship.-Civil registry offices :... |
Nowy Tomyśl | 51% | 49% | Buk | ||
| Obornik Kreis Obornik Kreis Obornik was a county in the southern administrative district of Posen, in the Prussian province of Posen. It presently lies in the north-western part of Polish region of Greater Poland Voivodeship.-Civil registry offices :... |
Oborniki | 61% | 39% | |||
| Ostrowo Kreis Ostrowo ' was a county in the southern administrative district of Posen, in the Prussian province of Posen. It presently lies in the southern part of Polish region of Greater Poland Voivodeship.-External links:... |
Ostrów | 80% | 20% | ?Adelnau? | ||
| Pleschen Kreis Pleschen Kreis Pleschen was a county in the southern administrative district of Posen, in the Prussian province of Posen. It presently lies in the south-eastern part of Polish region of Greater Poland Voivodeship.... |
Pleszew | 85% | 15% | |||
| Posen Ost Kreis Posen Ost Kreis Posen Ost was a Kreis in Prussia in the southern administrative district of Posen, in the province of Posen.-Table of Standesamter:... |
Poznań, Wsch. | 72% | 28% | Posen | ||
| Posen West Kreis Posen West Kreis Posen West was a Kreis in Prussia in the southern administrative district of Posen, in the province of Posen.-Table of Standesamter:... |
Poznań, Zach. | 87% | 13% | Posen | ||
| Rawitsch Kreis Rawitsch ' was a county in the southern administrative district of Posen, in the Prussian province of Posen. It presently lies in the southern part of Polish region of Greater Poland Voivodeship.... |
Rawicz | 55% | 45% | Kröben | ||
| Samter Kreis Samter ' was a county in the southern administrative district of Posen, in the Prussian province of Posen. It presently lies in the north-western part of Polish region of Greater Poland Voivodeship.-External links:... |
Szamotuły | 73% | 27% | |||
| Schildberg Kreis Schildberg Kreis Schildberg was a county in the southern administrative district of Posen, in the Prussian province of Posen. It presently lies in the south-eastern part of Polish region of Greater Poland Voivodeship.-Military command :... |
Ostrzeszów | 90% | 10% | |||
| Schmiegel Kreis Schmiegel ' was a county in the southern administrative district of Posen, in the Prussian province of Posen. It presently lies in the southern part of Polish region of Greater Poland Voivodeship.-External links:... |
Śmigiel | 82% | 18% | Kosten | ||
| Schrimm Kreis Schrimm ' was a county in the southern administrative district of Posen, in the Prussian province of Posen. It presently lies in the southern part of Polish region of Greater Poland Voivodeship.-External links:... |
Śrem | 82% | 18% | |||
| Schroda Kreis Schroda Kreis Schroda was a county in the southern administrative district of Posen, in the Prussian province of Posen. It presently lies in the southern part of Polish region of Greater Poland Voivodeship.-Civil registry offices :... |
Środa | 88% | 12% | |||
| Schwerin Kreis Schwerin in Posen Kreis Schwerin in Posen was a county in the southern administrative district of Posen, in the Prussian province of Posen. It presently lies in the western part of Polish region of Lubuskie Voivodeship.-Civil registry offices :... |
Skwierzyna | 5% | 95% | Birnbaum - 1877 | ||
| Wreschen Kreis Wreschen Kreis Wreschen was a county in the southern administrative district of Posen, in the Prussian province of Posen. It presently lies in the eastern part of Polish region of Greater Poland Voivodeship.-History:... |
Września | 84% | 16% | |||
| Regierungsbezirk Bromberg (northern) | ||||||
| City of Bromberg | Bydgoszcz | 16% | 84% | |||
| Bromberg Kreis Bromberg Kreis Bromberg was one of several Kreise 1818-75 in the northern administrative district of Bromberg, in the Prussian province of Posen, later divided into Stadtkreis and Landkreis Bromberg, reconstructed under Nazi occupation of Poland 1939-1945 in Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia.- Communities :The... |
Bydgoszcz | 38% | 62% | |||
| Czarnikau Kreis Czarnikau Kreis Czarnikau was one of many Kreise in the northern administrative district of Bromberg, in the Prussian province of Posen.- Table of Standesämter :... |
Czarników | 27% | 73% | |||
| Filehne Kreis Filehne Kreis Filehne was one of several Kreise in the northern administrative district of Bromberg, in the Prussian province of Posen.-Table of Standesämter:... |
Wieleń | 28% | 72% | Czarnikau | ||
| Gnesen Kreis Gnesen Kreis Gnesen is one of several Kreise in the northern administrative district of Bromberg, in the Prussian province of Posen.-Table of Standesamter:... |
Gniezno | 67% | 33% | |||
| Hohensalza Kreis Hohensalza Kreis Hohensalza was one of the counties in the northern administrative district of Bromberg, in the Prussian province of Posen.-Table of Standesämter:... |
Inowrocław | 64% | 36% | |||
| Kolmar Kreis Kolmar in Posen Kreis Kolmar was one of several Kreise in the northern administrative district of Bromberg, in the Prussian province of Posen.- Table of Standesämter :... |
Chodzież | 18% | 82% | |||
| Mogilno Kreis Mogilno Kreis Mogilno was one of many Kreise in the northern administrative district of Bromberg, in the Prussian province of Posen.- Table of Standesämter :... |
Mogilno | 76% | 24% | |||
| Schubin Kreis Schubin Kreis Schubin was a Kreis in Prussia in the northern administrative district of Bromberg, in the province of Posen.- Table of Standesämter :... |
Szubin | 56% | 44% | |||
| Strelno Kreis Strelno Kreis Strelno was one of several Kreise in the northern administrative district of Bromberg, in the Prussian province of Posen.- Military command :... |
Strzelno | 82% | 18% | ?? | ||
| Wirsitz Kreis Wirsitz Kreis Wirsitz was one of several Kreise in the northern administrative district of Bromberg, in the Prussian province of Posen.- History :... |
Wyrzysk | 47% | 53% | |||
| Witkowo Kreis Witkowo Kreis Witkowo was one of several Kreise in the northern administrative district of Bromberg, in the Prussian province of Posen.-Court system:... |
Witkowo | 83% | 17% | ?Gnesen? | ||
| Wongrowitz Kreis Wongrowitz Kreis Wongrowitz was one of several Kreise in the northern administrative district of Bromberg, in the Prussian province of Posen. Polish: Wągrowiec; renamed by Nazis to Eichenbrück.- Communities :... |
Wągrowiec | 77% | 23% | |||
| Znin Kreis Znin Kreis Znin was a Kreis in the northern administrative government region of Bromberg, in the Prussian province of Posen, from 1887-1919. Its capital was Znin .- History :... |
Żnin | 77% | 23% | ?? | ||
1 includes bilingual speakers
2 only religious Jews, without regard of their native language
The German figure includes the German speaking Jewish population.
Presidents
The province was headed by presidents .| Time in Office | Name |
| 1815–1824 | Joseph Zerboni de Sposetti 1760–1831 |
| 1825–1830 | Johann Friedrich Theodor von Baumann 1768–1830 |
| 1830–1840 | Eduard Heinrich Flottwell 1786–1865 |
| 1840–1842 | Adolf Heinrich Graf von Arnim-Boitzenburg 1803–1868 |
| 1843–1850 | Carl Moritz von Beurmann 1802–1870 |
| 1850–1851 | Gustav Carl Gisbert Heinrich Wilhelm Gebhard von Bonin (1.time in office) 1797–1878 |
| 1851–1860 | Eugen von Puttkamer 1800–1874 |
| 1860–1862 | Gustav Carl Gisbert Heinrich Wilhelm Gebhard von Bonin (2.time in office) 1797–1878 |
| 1862–1869 | Carl Wilhelm Heinrich Georg von Horn 1807–1889 |
| 1869–1873 | Otto Graf von Königsmarck 1815–1889 |
| 1873–1886 | William Barstow von Guenther 1815–1892 |
| 1886–1890 | Robert Graf von Zedtlitz-Trützschler 1837–1914 |
| 1890–1899 | Hugo Freiherr von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 1840–1905 |
| 1899–1903 | Karl Julius Rudolf von Bitter 1846–1914 |
| 1903–1911 | Wilhelm August Hans von Waldow-Reitzenstein 1856–1937 |
| 1911–1914 | Philipp Schwartzkopf ? |
| 1914–1918 | Joh. Karl Friedr. Moritz Ferd. v. Eisenhart-Rothe 1862–1942 |
Notable people
(in alphabetical order)(see also Notable people of Grand Duchy of Posen)
- Stanisław Adamski (1875–1967), Polish priest, social and political activist of the Union of Catholic Societies of Polish Workers (), founder and editor of the 'Robotnik' (Worker) weekly
- Tomasz K. BartkiewczTomasz BartkiewczTomasz K. Bartkiewcz was a Polish composer and organist, co-founder of the Singer Circles Union .-References:...
(1865–1931), Polish composer and organist, co-founder of the Singer Circles Union (Związek Kół Śpiewackich) - Czesław Czypicki (1855–1926), Polish lawyer from Kożmin, activist for the singers' societies
- Michał Drzymała (1857–1937), famous Polish peasant
- Ferdinand Hansemann (1861–1900), Prussian politician, co-founder of the German Eastern Marches SocietyGerman Eastern Marches SocietyGerman Eastern Marches Society was a German radical, extremely nationalist xenophobic organization founded in 1894. Mainly among Poles, it was sometimes known acronymically as Hakata or H-K-T after its founders von Hansemann, Kennemann and von Tiedemann...
- Paul von HindenburgPaul von HindenburgPaul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg , known universally as Paul von Hindenburg was a Prussian-German field marshal, statesman, and politician, and served as the second President of Germany from 1925 to 1934....
(1847–1934), German field marshal and statesman, last President of Germany before Adolf Hitler. - Józef KościelskiJózef KoscielskiJózef Kościelski was a Polish poet, politician and parliamentarian, co-founder of the Straż society.- References :...
(1845–1911), Polish politician and parliamentarian, co-founder of the StrażStrážStráž may refer to several places in Czech Republic and Slovakia. The word stráž means guard, watch or patrol in Czech language.Municipalities* Stráž * Stráž * Stráž nad Ohří* Stráž nad Nežárkou* Stráž nad Nisou...
(Guard) society - Konstanty Kościnski, author of The Guide to Poznań and the Grand Duchy of Poznań (Przewodnik pod Poznaniu i Wielkim Księstwie Poznańskiem), Poznań 1909
- Józef KrzymińskiJózef KrzyminskiJózef Krzymiński was a Polish physician, social and political activist, and a member of parliament. In March 1940, he was arrested by the Nazi occupation authorities and died in a concentration camp close to Inowrocław on 20 October 1940.-References:* Witold Jakóbczyk, Przetrwać na Wartą...
(1858–1940), Polish physician, social and political activist, member of parliament - Władysław Marcinkowski (1858–1947), Polish sculptor who created a monument of Adam MickiewiczAdam MickiewiczAdam Bernard Mickiewicz ) was a Polish poet, publisher and political writer of the Romantic period. One of the primary representatives of the Polish Romanticism era, a national poet of Poland, he is seen as one of Poland's Three Bards and the greatest poet in all of Polish literature...
in Milosław - Władysław Niegolewski (1819–85), Polish liberal politician and member of parliament, insurgent in 1846, 1848 and 1863, cofounder of TCLPeople's Libraries SocietyPeople's Libraries Society was an educational society established in 1880 for the Prussian partition of Poland...
and CTGCentral Economic Society for the Grand Duchy of PoznanThe Central Economic Society for the Grand Duchy of Poznań was a social-economic organization of Polish landowners in the Greater Poland region established at a meeting held 13-17 February 1971 as a result of a merger of several local societies.Its main... - Cyryl RatajskiCyryl RatajskiCyryl Ratajski was a Polish politician and lawyer.He was the president of Poznań in the years 1922-1924, 1925-1934 and in September 1939. In the years 1924-1925 he was the Polish Minister of the Interior.From 1937 he was a member of Labour Party, Stronnictwo Pracy...
(1875–1942), president of Poznań 1922–34 - Karol RzepeckiKarol RzepeckiKarol Rzepecki was a Polish bookseller, social and political activist, editor of Sokół magazine.-References:...
(1865–1931), Polish bookseller, social and political activist, editor of Sokół (Falcon) magazine - Antoni StychelAntoni StychelAntoni Stychel was a Polish priest, member of parliament, president of the Union of the Catholic Societies of Polish Workers .- References :...
(1859–1935), Polish priest, member of parliament, president of the Union of the Catholic Societies of Polish Workers (Związek Katolickich Towarzystw Robotników Polskich) - Roman SzymańskiRoman SzymanskiRoman Szymański was a Polish political activist, publicist, editor of Orędownik magazine.-References:...
(1840–1908), Polish political activist, publicist, editor of Orędownik magazine - Aniela Tułodziecka (1853–1932), Polish educational activist of the Warta Society (Towarzystwo Przyjaciół Wzajemnego Pouczania się i Opieki nad Dziećmi Warta)
- Teofil Walicki
- Piotr WawrzyniakPiotr WawrzyniakPiotr Wawrzyniak was a Polish priest, economic and educational activist, patron of the Union of the Earnings and Economic Societies .-References:...
(1849–1910), Polish priest, economic and educational activist, patron of the Union of the Earnings and Economic Societies (Związek Spółek Zarobkowych i Gospodarczych)