Zaculeu
Encyclopedia
Zaculeu or Saqulew is a pre-Columbian
Maya
archaeological site
in the highlands
of western Guatemala
, about 3.7 kilometres (2.3 mi) outside of the modern city of Huehuetenango
. Occupation at the site dates back as far as the Early Classic
period (AD 250–600) of Mesoamerican history. Zaculeu was the capital of the Postclassic
Mam
kingdom, and was conquered by the K'iche' Kingdom of Q'umarkaj
, displaying a mixture of Mam and K'iche' style architecture. In AD 1525 the city was attacked by Spanish conquistadors under Gonzalo de Alvarado y Chávez during a siege that lasted several months. Kayb'il B'alam
, the city's last ruler, finally surrendered due to starvation.
The site contains a number of temple-pyramids with talud-tablero
style architecture and double stairways. The pyramids and governmental palaces are grouped around a series of plazas, and the site also possesses a ballcourt for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame
. The site was originally fortified with walls.
The site was restored by the United Fruit Company
in the late 1940s. It is open to tourists and includes a small museum
.
, K'iche'
and Q'anjob'al language
s, from saq (adj) meaning "white" and ulew (n) meaning "earth". In the Mam language the site also goes by the alternative name Chinabajul.
The archaeological site is located in the village of San Lorenzo on the outskirts of Huehuetenango city, in the Guatemalan department
of Huehuetenango. Zaculeu is the main tourist attraction in the Huehuetenango area. Zaculeu sits at an altitude of 1900 metres (6,233.6 ft) above mean sea level
, and is overlooked by the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes
mountain range.
Zaculeu is located in an area of fertile soils close to the Selegua
and Viña Rivers. The site is situated on a plateau overlooking the Selegua River
, which flows to the west of the city. Deep ravines border the site to the south and east, leaving the only access to the site via a narrow land bridge to the north which unites the plateau to the general level of the valley floor. The Zaculeu plateau measures 11,178 square varas (4191 square metres).
(AD 250–600), and the buildings from this era show the architectural influence of the great metropolis of Teotihuacán
in the Valley of Mexico
. The largest constructions date from the Classic Period (AD 250–900). To these were added other plaza groups and buildings in the Early Postclassic (AD 900–1200) and Late Postclassic (AD 1200–1525) in an unbroken history. Zaculeu has been used as a ceremonial site by Mam Maya continuously to the present.
Zaculeu again came under the influence of central Mexico in the Late Classic, the influence is strong enough that a foreign Mexican elite may have settled at the city and continued in occupation there until the K'iche' conquered the site in the Postclassic.
conquered Zaculeu in the Postclassic. Traditionally that has been calculated as during the 15th century AD based on ethnohistoric
accounts, although radiocarbon dating
has pushed back the calculations of the K'iche' conquests by three centuries, and their conquest of the Mam kingdoms may have taken place as early as the 12th century. The city remained under K'iche' dominance until the Spanish Conquest
.
The K'iche' king Q'uq'umatz died in battle against a group of the northern Mam. This did not prevent the subjugation of the Mam kingdoms since his son K'iq'ab merely continued where his father had left off. K'iq'ab was ruler when Zaculeu was conquered by the K'iche', although this appears to have been a second K'iche' conquest of the city, having previously fallen some time earlier. When the K'iche' conquered another kingdom, the newly subject kingdom was placed under the control of one of the K'iche' noble lineages; at Zaculeu this was likely to have been the Nija'ib' based on the style of Structure 4, although it was possibly the Ilocab who had conquered much of the region. The K'iche' tended to place their newly installed ruling elite in a mountain-top fortress securing the population in the valleys below. However, substantial portions of the original Mam population remained in place.
The K'iche' rebuilt over earlier Classic period structures in a distinctively K'iche' style. The basic K'iche layout consists of a westward facing temple with a steep talud-tablero
facade flanked by two unequally sized wings, this was likely to have been the temple of Awilix
, patron goddess of the Nija'ib' K'iche'. A longer palace structure lies to the north, facing southwards and the ballcourt to the southwest. This K'iche' layout was somewhat distorted by the reuse of the earlier architecture, with the typical Mam settlement layout being built along an axis running from southeast to northwest. The K'iche' did not completely redesign the entire site along a K'iche' pattern and the juxtaposition of Mam and K'iche' style complexes demonstrates the fusing of the local and intrusive elite lineages.
Excavations have uncovered examples of metalwork
at Zaculeu. These were small ornamental pieces, an example is a representaion of a butterfly worked from tumbaga
, an alloy
of gold
and copper
, dated to the Postclassic period.
arrived there was a shift in the political landscape. Conquistador Pedro de Alvarado
described how the Mam king Kayb'il B'alam
was received with great honour in Q'umarkaj.
At the time of the Spanish Conquest
, the main Mam population was situated in Xinabahul (also spelled Chinabjul), now the city of Huehuetenango
, but Zaculeu's fortifications led to its use as a refuge during the conquest. The refuge was attacked by Gonzalo de Alvarado y Chávez
, cousin of conquistador Pedro de Alvarado, in 1525, with 120 soldiers, and some 2,000 Mexican and K'iche' allies. The city was defended by Kayb'il B'alam commanding some 5,000 people (the chronicles are not clear if this is the number of soldiers or the total population of Zaculeu).
After a siege lasting several months the Mam were reduced to starvation. Kayb'il B'alam finally surrendered the city to the Spanish in October of 1525. When the Spanish entered the city they found 1,800 dead Indians, with the survivors eating the corpses of the dead. After this Zaculeu was abandoned, and the new city of Huehuetenango established some 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) away.
and English architect Frederick Catherwood
visited the site in 1840, at which time the site was a confused jumble of overgrown ruins. Stephens published a description of the archaeological remains a year later, although Catherwood did not draw any of the structures due to the poor state of the remains. The two did excavate one of the mounds and recovered some ceramic vessels, which Catherwood did draw.
On 24 April 1931, the site was declared a National Monument under the name of Tzaculeu. On 23 February 1946, the site was renamed as Zaculeu and a license to excavate was issued to the United Fruit Company
, which immediately began archaeological excavations and restorations of the structures under the direction of John M. Dimick. This later included re-coating a number of the buildings with white plaster
, as it was known that many were originally, but this has seldom been redone in restoring Pre-Columbian buildings.
On 12 June 1970 the site was declared a National Precolumbian Monument by accord of the Guatemalan Ministry
of Education (MINEDUC).
, providing a permanent water supply, together with its easily defendable hilltop location. Zaculeu has 43 structures and the majority of construction activity took place in one burst in the Early Classic, with only minor alterations thereafter. The smaller platforms situated in the plazas were late additions and show the influence of central Mexico. The entrance to the site was via a narrow land bridge to the north, which was protected by a fortified structure that occupied three quarters of the width of the land bridge.
The ceremonial centre of the city consisted of 43 structures clustered in an area of 1400 square metres (15,069.5 sq ft).
The architecture
at the site includes talud-tablero
style buildings with double stairways. The facades of some of the buildings have cylindrical columns, a feature found in other parts of Mesoamerica
. Artefacts recovered from the site include items fashioned from turquoise
and metal artefacts
crafted from gold
, silver
and copper
and their alloys demonstrating the city's participation in the wider trade networks of the Postclassic Period. These metal artefacts were either influenced by or imported from Mexico and southern Central America
.
The structures at Zaculeu were grouped around small plazas and were generally built from masonry
coated with a thick layer of plaster, fragments of which bear floral and geometric designs, indicating the structures were originally brightly painted. Stones were undressed and cemented in adobe
mortar. No evidence of corbel vaulting
has been found and very little in the way of stone sculpture, with the architecture
completely lacking stone sculpture. Burials from the Early Classic yielded a rich array of finds but Late Classic burials were accompanied by a lesser variety of offerings.
An Early Classic tomb was inserted under the main pyramid
at Zaculeu, it had been tunnelled from the volcanic ash
underlying the structure. A broad stairway descended to the tomb from the main plaza. The tomb itself was painted red and the floor was scattered with the remains of more than 100 ceramic vessels that has been crushed when the roof of the tomb collapsed. Also found were the remains of 34 pyrite
mirrors of a type similar to those found at Kaminaljuyu
. A sizeable quantity of jade
was recovered from the tomb, including beads and earplug
s. Some of the jade beads had been carved to represent human and parrot faces. The tomb contained the bones of four or more individuals and the ceramic offerings included decorated tripod vessels, polychrome bowls and a polychrome cylindrical vase that had a painted band of hieroglyphs
. One ceramic bowl is painted in a negative painting style that is similar to finds from Nebaj
.
The site core is laid out around eight plazas. Some of the structures were restored by the United Fruit Company, most of these border Plazas 1 and 2. Structures 1 and 2 are pyramid temples. Structures 4, 6 and 10 are palace structures, long buildings with internal chambers and benches used as residences and for administrative purposes.
Plaza 2 is a large plaza at the southeast of the site core, south of Plaza 1. It is bordered on the southeastern side by Structure 4, on the northeast by Structure 1, on the northwest by the ballcourt and on the southwest by Plaza 3.
Plaza 3 is a small plaza at the southern extreme of the site core, southwest of Plaza 2 and south of the ballcourt.
Plaza 4 is at the northwest side of the site core. It is closed on the northeastern side by Structure 10, on the southeast by Structure 13 and on the southwest by the ballcourt. Plazas 5 and 6 are located immediately to the west.
Plaza 5 is a small plaza immediately west of Plaza 4 and northwest of the ballcourt. It is divided from Plaza 6 to the northwest by Structure 21.
Plaza 6 is another small plaza to the west of Plaza 4. It is enclosed on three sides by a building complex with Structure 21 on the southeast side.
Plaza 7 is a small plaza at the western extreme of the site core, to the west of Plazas 5 and 6.
Plaza 8 is an enclosed plaza to the southwest of the ballcourt. Structure 2, a pyramid, closes the northwest side and Structure 3 closes the southeast side.
Structure 2 is a pyramid on the northwest side of the sunken Plaza 8. It is largely unrestored. Structure 3 lies across the plaza to the southeast. It is a platform with a twin stairway facing northwest onto the plaza.
Structure 3 is on the southeast side of Plaza 8, facing onto the plaza opposite Structure 2. It is immediately south of the ballcourt.
Structure 4 is an unusual combination of temple and palace. It is situated on the southeast side of Plaza 2. The structure consists of a central pyramidal base flanked by two attached range structures. The pyramidal base is topped by a shrine containing three rooms, the final room of the three is circular. The temple has three steep stairways flanked by balustrades. The main stairway ascends directly from the plaza, those on either side are perpendicular
to the main stairway. The balustrade of each stairway terminates at the top in a vertical panel. The temple facade is in good condition although the roof of the temple is missing. The range structures are unequal in size and each contains a single long room atop a low platform. The facade of each of these rooms once possessed a row of columns although only stumps remain in situ. This temple-palace is K'iche' in style and has been identified with the Nija'ib' lineage of the K'iche', being very similar to the Temple of Awilix at Q'umarkaj. A tomb was excavated in Structure 4, it consisted of a complete skeleton with associated offerings that included two tripod earthenware bowls, one with duck effigies, a tripod incense burner
, a flint knife, nine obsidian
knives, five jade
beads and some fragments of gold.
Structure 6 is a temple on the northeast side of Plaza 1. It rises in stepped sections topped by a summit shrine and was accessed via a stairway from the plaza that divided in two near the summit. Only the lower sections of the walls and columns of the shrine remain.
Structure 9 is a large mound on the northwest side of Plaza 1. The last phase of construction shows evidence of the interruption of construction by the Spanish Conquest. Terraces were absent on three sides of the structure with only the lowest level having been built on the fourth. Early Classic ceramic caches were discovered under Structure 9.
Structure 10 borders the northeast side of Plaza 4 and is unrestored although some original stonework is evident. It is a very long building accessed via three stairways ascending from the plaza. The structure has been investigated by archaeologists and was found to have multiple doorways opening into a single long room.
Structures 11 and 12 are small platforms in the middle of Plaza 1. They have both been restored.
Structure 13 is on the southwest side of Plaza 1, dividing that Plaza from Plaza 2. It was accessed via a double stairway ascending from Plaza 1. This double stairway gave access to the first level of the temple structure only; from there, a wide single stairway continued to the summit shrine. Only the lower sections of the walls and columns of the temple superstructure remain. The earliest phase of construction dates to the Early Classic and consisted of a low platform that supported a perishable superstructure.
Structures 15 and 16 are both low platforms located in Plaza 2, on an axis running directly northwest across the plaza from the central temple of Structure 4.
Structure 17 is a pyramidal base in Plaza 2, to the west of Structures 15 and 16. It supported two rooms accessed via a double stairway on the northwest side of the temple. The entrance to outermost room once had two columns, although now only the lower portions of the walls and columns remain.
Structure 21 is a low platform in Plaza 5, it is partially restored and has a stairway on the northwest side.
The Ballcourt
consists of Structures 22 and 23, it was used for the ceremonial Mesoamerican ballgame
. It is an I-shaped sunken ballcourt with sloping walls. The two structures forming the sides of the ballcourt once supported buildings, now only the lower sections of their walls remain. The ballcourt is oriented northwest to southeast and is 48 metres (157.5 ft) long.
Structure 37 is not associated with any of the eight plazas of the site core, standing about 50 metres (164 ft) northeast of Structure 4 and a similar distance east of Structure 1. It was investigated by archaeologists but has not been restored, although some of the original stonework and plaster coating is visible.
Pre-Columbian
The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences on the American continents, spanning the time of the original settlement in the Upper Paleolithic period to European colonization during...
Maya
Maya civilization
The Maya is a Mesoamerican civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the pre-Columbian Americas, as well as for its art, architecture, and mathematical and astronomical systems. Initially established during the Pre-Classic period The Maya is a Mesoamerican...
archaeological site
Archaeological site
An archaeological site is a place in which evidence of past activity is preserved , and which has been, or may be, investigated using the discipline of archaeology and represents a part of the archaeological record.Beyond this, the definition and geographical extent of a 'site' can vary widely,...
in the highlands
Guatemalan Highlands
The Guatemalan Highlands is an upland region in southern Guatemala, lying between the Sierra Madre de Chiapas to the south and the Petén lowlands to the north....
of western Guatemala
Guatemala
Guatemala is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west, the Pacific Ocean to the southwest, Belize to the northeast, the Caribbean to the east, and Honduras and El Salvador to the southeast...
, about 3.7 kilometres (2.3 mi) outside of the modern city of Huehuetenango
Huehuetenango
Huehuetenango is a city and a municipality in the highlands of western Guatemala. It is also the capital of the department of Huehuetenango. The municipality's population was over 81,000 people in 2002...
. Occupation at the site dates back as far as the Early Classic
Mesoamerican chronology
Mesoamerican chronology divides the history of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica into several periods: the Paleo-Indian , the Archaic , the Preclassic , the Classic , and the Postclassic...
period (AD 250–600) of Mesoamerican history. Zaculeu was the capital of the Postclassic
Mesoamerican chronology
Mesoamerican chronology divides the history of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica into several periods: the Paleo-Indian , the Archaic , the Preclassic , the Classic , and the Postclassic...
Mam
Mam people
The Mam are a Native American people in the western highlands of Guatemala and in south-western Mexico.Most Mam live in Guatemala, in the departments of Huehuetenango, San Marcos, and Quetzaltenango...
kingdom, and was conquered by the K'iche' Kingdom of Q'umarkaj
K'iche' Kingdom of Q'umarkaj
The K'iche' Kingdom of Q'umarkaj was a state in the highlands of modern day Guatemala which was founded by the K'iche' Maya in the thirteenth century, and which expanded through the fifteenth century until it was conquered by Spanish and Nahua forces led by Pedro de Alvarado in 1524.The K'iche'...
, displaying a mixture of Mam and K'iche' style architecture. In AD 1525 the city was attacked by Spanish conquistadors under Gonzalo de Alvarado y Chávez during a siege that lasted several months. Kayb'il B'alam
Kayb'il B'alam
Kayb'il B'alam was a 16th-century leader of the Mam people Maya kingdom in the western highlands of Guatemala. During the time of the Spanish invasion, the Mam population was mainly situated in Xinabahul...
, the city's last ruler, finally surrendered due to starvation.
The site contains a number of temple-pyramids with talud-tablero
Talud-tablero
Talud-tablero is an architectural style. It consists of a platform structure, or the tablero, on top of an inward-sloping surface or panel, the talud. It may also be referred to as the slope-and-panel style.-Cultural significance:...
style architecture and double stairways. The pyramids and governmental palaces are grouped around a series of plazas, and the site also possesses a ballcourt for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame
Mesoamerican ballgame
The Mesoamerican ballgame or Tlatchtli in Náhuatl was a sport with ritual associations played since 1,000 B.C. by the pre-Columbian peoples of Ancient Mexico and Central America...
. The site was originally fortified with walls.
The site was restored by the United Fruit Company
United Fruit Company
It had a deep and long-lasting impact on the economic and political development of several Latin American countries. Critics often accused it of exploitative neocolonialism and described it as the archetypal example of the influence of a multinational corporation on the internal politics of the...
in the late 1940s. It is open to tourists and includes a small museum
Museum
A museum is an institution that cares for a collection of artifacts and other objects of scientific, artistic, cultural, or historical importance and makes them available for public viewing through exhibits that may be permanent or temporary. Most large museums are located in major cities...
.
Etymology and location
The name Zaculeu means "white earth" in the MamMam language
Mam is a Mayan language with almost 480,000 speakers as of 2002, spoken in the Mexican state of Chiapas and the Guatemalan departments of Quetzaltenango, Huehuetenango and San Marcos....
, K'iche'
K'iche' language
The K’iche’ language is a part of the Mayan language family. It is spoken by many K'iche' people in the central highlands of Guatemala. With close to a million speakers , it is the second-most widely spoken language in the country after Spanish...
and Q'anjob'al language
Q'anjob'al language
Q'anjob'al is a Mayan language spoken primarily in Guatemala and part of Mexico. According to 1998 estimates compiled by SIL International in Ethnologue, there were approximately 77,700 native speakers, primarily in the Huehuetenango Department of Guatemala. Q'anjob'al is a member of the...
s, from saq (adj) meaning "white" and ulew (n) meaning "earth". In the Mam language the site also goes by the alternative name Chinabajul.
The archaeological site is located in the village of San Lorenzo on the outskirts of Huehuetenango city, in the Guatemalan department
Departments of Guatemala
||Guatemala is divided into 22 departments :#Alta Verapaz#Baja Verapaz#Chimaltenango#Chiquimula#Petén#El Progreso#El Quiché#Escuintla#Guatemala#Huehuetenango#Izabal#Jalapa#Jutiapa#Quetzaltenango#Retalhuleu#Sacatepéquez...
of Huehuetenango. Zaculeu is the main tourist attraction in the Huehuetenango area. Zaculeu sits at an altitude of 1900 metres (6,233.6 ft) above mean sea level
Above mean sea level
The term above mean sea level refers to the elevation or altitude of any object, relative to the average sea level datum. AMSL is used extensively in radio by engineers to determine the coverage area a station will be able to reach...
, and is overlooked by the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes
Sierra de los Cuchumatanes
The Sierra de los Cuchumatanes is the highest non-volcanic mountain range in Central America. Its elevations range from 500 m to over 3,800 m, and it covers a total area of ±16,350 km². With an area of 1,500 km² situated above 3,000 m, it is also the most extensive highland region in Central...
mountain range.
Zaculeu is located in an area of fertile soils close to the Selegua
Seleguá River
The Selegua is a river in Guatemala. The river flows northwards from its sources in the highlands of Huehuetenango until it crosses the border with Mexico at , and continues northwards into the Presa de La Angostura, one of Mexico's largest artificial lakes. The river's length in Guatemala is 102...
and Viña Rivers. The site is situated on a plateau overlooking the Selegua River
Seleguá River
The Selegua is a river in Guatemala. The river flows northwards from its sources in the highlands of Huehuetenango until it crosses the border with Mexico at , and continues northwards into the Presa de La Angostura, one of Mexico's largest artificial lakes. The river's length in Guatemala is 102...
, which flows to the west of the city. Deep ravines border the site to the south and east, leaving the only access to the site via a narrow land bridge to the north which unites the plateau to the general level of the valley floor. The Zaculeu plateau measures 11,178 square varas (4191 square metres).
History
Zaculeu was first occupied in the Early Classic PeriodMesoamerican chronology
Mesoamerican chronology divides the history of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica into several periods: the Paleo-Indian , the Archaic , the Preclassic , the Classic , and the Postclassic...
(AD 250–600), and the buildings from this era show the architectural influence of the great metropolis of Teotihuacán
Teotihuacán
Teotihuacan – also written Teotihuacán, with a Spanish orthographic accent on the last syllable – is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, just 30 miles northeast of Mexico City, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the pre-Columbian Americas...
in the Valley of Mexico
Valley of Mexico
The Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly coterminous with the present-day Distrito Federal and the eastern half of the State of Mexico. Surrounded by mountains and volcanoes, the Valley of Mexico was a centre for several pre-Columbian civilizations, including...
. The largest constructions date from the Classic Period (AD 250–900). To these were added other plaza groups and buildings in the Early Postclassic (AD 900–1200) and Late Postclassic (AD 1200–1525) in an unbroken history. Zaculeu has been used as a ceremonial site by Mam Maya continuously to the present.
Zaculeu again came under the influence of central Mexico in the Late Classic, the influence is strong enough that a foreign Mexican elite may have settled at the city and continued in occupation there until the K'iche' conquered the site in the Postclassic.
K'iche' conquest
The K'iche' Kingdom of Q'umarkajK'iche' Kingdom of Q'umarkaj
The K'iche' Kingdom of Q'umarkaj was a state in the highlands of modern day Guatemala which was founded by the K'iche' Maya in the thirteenth century, and which expanded through the fifteenth century until it was conquered by Spanish and Nahua forces led by Pedro de Alvarado in 1524.The K'iche'...
conquered Zaculeu in the Postclassic. Traditionally that has been calculated as during the 15th century AD based on ethnohistoric
Ethnohistory
Ethnohistory is the study of ethnographic cultures and indigenous customs by examining historical records. It is also the study of the history of various ethnic groups that may or may not exist today....
accounts, although radiocarbon dating
Radiocarbon dating
Radiocarbon dating is a radiometric dating method that uses the naturally occurring radioisotope carbon-14 to estimate the age of carbon-bearing materials up to about 58,000 to 62,000 years. Raw, i.e. uncalibrated, radiocarbon ages are usually reported in radiocarbon years "Before Present" ,...
has pushed back the calculations of the K'iche' conquests by three centuries, and their conquest of the Mam kingdoms may have taken place as early as the 12th century. The city remained under K'iche' dominance until the Spanish Conquest
Spanish colonization of the Americas
Colonial expansion under the Spanish Empire was initiated by the Spanish conquistadores and developed by the Monarchy of Spain through its administrators and missionaries. The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the Christian faith through indigenous conversions...
.
The K'iche' king Q'uq'umatz died in battle against a group of the northern Mam. This did not prevent the subjugation of the Mam kingdoms since his son K'iq'ab merely continued where his father had left off. K'iq'ab was ruler when Zaculeu was conquered by the K'iche', although this appears to have been a second K'iche' conquest of the city, having previously fallen some time earlier. When the K'iche' conquered another kingdom, the newly subject kingdom was placed under the control of one of the K'iche' noble lineages; at Zaculeu this was likely to have been the Nija'ib' based on the style of Structure 4, although it was possibly the Ilocab who had conquered much of the region. The K'iche' tended to place their newly installed ruling elite in a mountain-top fortress securing the population in the valleys below. However, substantial portions of the original Mam population remained in place.
The K'iche' rebuilt over earlier Classic period structures in a distinctively K'iche' style. The basic K'iche layout consists of a westward facing temple with a steep talud-tablero
Talud-tablero
Talud-tablero is an architectural style. It consists of a platform structure, or the tablero, on top of an inward-sloping surface or panel, the talud. It may also be referred to as the slope-and-panel style.-Cultural significance:...
facade flanked by two unequally sized wings, this was likely to have been the temple of Awilix
Awilix
Awilix was a goddess of the Postclassic K'iche' Maya, who had a large kingdom in the highlands of Guatemala. She was the patron deity of the Nija'ib' noble lineage at the K'iche' capital Q'umarkaj, with a large temple in the city...
, patron goddess of the Nija'ib' K'iche'. A longer palace structure lies to the north, facing southwards and the ballcourt to the southwest. This K'iche' layout was somewhat distorted by the reuse of the earlier architecture, with the typical Mam settlement layout being built along an axis running from southeast to northwest. The K'iche' did not completely redesign the entire site along a K'iche' pattern and the juxtaposition of Mam and K'iche' style complexes demonstrates the fusing of the local and intrusive elite lineages.
Excavations have uncovered examples of metalwork
Metallurgy in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica
The emergence of metallurgy in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica occurred relatively late in the region's history, with distinctive works of metal apparent in West Mexico by roughly AD 800, and perhaps as early as AD 600...
at Zaculeu. These were small ornamental pieces, an example is a representaion of a butterfly worked from tumbaga
Tumbaga
Tumbaga was the name given by Spaniards to a non-specific alloy of gold and copper which they found in widespread use in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica and South America.-Composition and properties:...
, an alloy
Alloy
An alloy is a mixture or metallic solid solution composed of two or more elements. Complete solid solution alloys give single solid phase microstructure, while partial solutions give two or more phases that may or may not be homogeneous in distribution, depending on thermal history...
of gold
Gold
Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au and an atomic number of 79. Gold is a dense, soft, shiny, malleable and ductile metal. Pure gold has a bright yellow color and luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without oxidizing in air or water. Chemically, gold is a...
and copper
Copper
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; an exposed surface has a reddish-orange tarnish...
, dated to the Postclassic period.
Spanish conquest
Although a state of hostilities existed between the Mam and the K'iche' of Q'umarkaj after the rebellion of the Kaqchikel people against their K'iche' allies, when the Spanish conquistadorsConquistador
Conquistadors were Spanish soldiers, explorers, and adventurers who brought much of the Americas under the control of Spain in the 15th to 16th centuries, following Europe's discovery of the New World by Christopher Columbus in 1492...
arrived there was a shift in the political landscape. Conquistador Pedro de Alvarado
Pedro de Alvarado
Pedro de Alvarado y Contreras was a Spanish conquistador and governor of Guatemala. He participated in the conquest of Cuba, in Juan de Grijalva's exploration of the coasts of Yucatan and the Gulf of Mexico, and in the conquest of Mexico led by Hernan Cortes...
described how the Mam king Kayb'il B'alam
Kayb'il B'alam
Kayb'il B'alam was a 16th-century leader of the Mam people Maya kingdom in the western highlands of Guatemala. During the time of the Spanish invasion, the Mam population was mainly situated in Xinabahul...
was received with great honour in Q'umarkaj.
At the time of the Spanish Conquest
Spanish colonization of the Americas
Colonial expansion under the Spanish Empire was initiated by the Spanish conquistadores and developed by the Monarchy of Spain through its administrators and missionaries. The motivations for colonial expansion were trade and the spread of the Christian faith through indigenous conversions...
, the main Mam population was situated in Xinabahul (also spelled Chinabjul), now the city of Huehuetenango
Huehuetenango
Huehuetenango is a city and a municipality in the highlands of western Guatemala. It is also the capital of the department of Huehuetenango. The municipality's population was over 81,000 people in 2002...
, but Zaculeu's fortifications led to its use as a refuge during the conquest. The refuge was attacked by Gonzalo de Alvarado y Chávez
Gonzalo de Alvarado
Gonzalo de Alvarado was the name of two Spanish conquistadors, both related to Pedro de Alvarado and participating in the conquest of Mexico and Central America...
, cousin of conquistador Pedro de Alvarado, in 1525, with 120 soldiers, and some 2,000 Mexican and K'iche' allies. The city was defended by Kayb'il B'alam commanding some 5,000 people (the chronicles are not clear if this is the number of soldiers or the total population of Zaculeu).
After a siege lasting several months the Mam were reduced to starvation. Kayb'il B'alam finally surrendered the city to the Spanish in October of 1525. When the Spanish entered the city they found 1,800 dead Indians, with the survivors eating the corpses of the dead. After this Zaculeu was abandoned, and the new city of Huehuetenango established some 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) away.
Modern history
American explorer John Lloyd StephensJohn Lloyd Stephens
John Lloyd Stephens was an American explorer, writer, and diplomat. Stephens was a pivotal figure in the rediscovery of Maya civilization throughout Middle America and in the planning of the Panama railroad....
and English architect Frederick Catherwood
Frederick Catherwood
Frederick Catherwood was an English artist and architect, best remembered for his meticulously detailed drawings of the ruins of the Maya civilization. He explored Mesoamerica in the mid 19th century with writer John Lloyd Stephens...
visited the site in 1840, at which time the site was a confused jumble of overgrown ruins. Stephens published a description of the archaeological remains a year later, although Catherwood did not draw any of the structures due to the poor state of the remains. The two did excavate one of the mounds and recovered some ceramic vessels, which Catherwood did draw.
On 24 April 1931, the site was declared a National Monument under the name of Tzaculeu. On 23 February 1946, the site was renamed as Zaculeu and a license to excavate was issued to the United Fruit Company
United Fruit Company
It had a deep and long-lasting impact on the economic and political development of several Latin American countries. Critics often accused it of exploitative neocolonialism and described it as the archetypal example of the influence of a multinational corporation on the internal politics of the...
, which immediately began archaeological excavations and restorations of the structures under the direction of John M. Dimick. This later included re-coating a number of the buildings with white plaster
Plaster
Plaster is a building material used for coating walls and ceilings. Plaster starts as a dry powder similar to mortar or cement and like those materials it is mixed with water to form a paste which liberates heat and then hardens. Unlike mortar and cement, plaster remains quite soft after setting,...
, as it was known that many were originally, but this has seldom been redone in restoring Pre-Columbian buildings.
On 12 June 1970 the site was declared a National Precolumbian Monument by accord of the Guatemalan Ministry
Ministries of Guatemala
The executive branch of Guatemala includes 13 ministries:...
of Education (MINEDUC).
Site description
The site of Zaculeu was probably chosen for its proximity to the Seleguá RiverSeleguá River
The Selegua is a river in Guatemala. The river flows northwards from its sources in the highlands of Huehuetenango until it crosses the border with Mexico at , and continues northwards into the Presa de La Angostura, one of Mexico's largest artificial lakes. The river's length in Guatemala is 102...
, providing a permanent water supply, together with its easily defendable hilltop location. Zaculeu has 43 structures and the majority of construction activity took place in one burst in the Early Classic, with only minor alterations thereafter. The smaller platforms situated in the plazas were late additions and show the influence of central Mexico. The entrance to the site was via a narrow land bridge to the north, which was protected by a fortified structure that occupied three quarters of the width of the land bridge.
The ceremonial centre of the city consisted of 43 structures clustered in an area of 1400 square metres (15,069.5 sq ft).
The architecture
Maya architecture
A unique and spectacular style, Maya architecture spans several thousands of years. Often the most dramatic and easily recognizable as Maya are the stepped pyramids from the Terminal Pre-classic period and beyond. Being based on the general Mesoamerican architectural traditions these pyramids...
at the site includes talud-tablero
Talud-tablero
Talud-tablero is an architectural style. It consists of a platform structure, or the tablero, on top of an inward-sloping surface or panel, the talud. It may also be referred to as the slope-and-panel style.-Cultural significance:...
style buildings with double stairways. The facades of some of the buildings have cylindrical columns, a feature found in other parts of Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica is a region and culture area in the Americas, extending approximately from central Mexico to Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, within which a number of pre-Columbian societies flourished before the Spanish colonization of the Americas in the 15th and...
. Artefacts recovered from the site include items fashioned from turquoise
Turquoise
Turquoise is an opaque, blue-to-green mineral that is a hydrous phosphate of copper and aluminium, with the chemical formula CuAl648·4. It is rare and valuable in finer grades and has been prized as a gem and ornamental stone for thousands of years owing to its unique hue...
and metal artefacts
Metallurgy in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica
The emergence of metallurgy in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica occurred relatively late in the region's history, with distinctive works of metal apparent in West Mexico by roughly AD 800, and perhaps as early as AD 600...
crafted from gold
Gold
Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au and an atomic number of 79. Gold is a dense, soft, shiny, malleable and ductile metal. Pure gold has a bright yellow color and luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without oxidizing in air or water. Chemically, gold is a...
, silver
Silver
Silver is a metallic chemical element with the chemical symbol Ag and atomic number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it has the highest electrical conductivity of any element and the highest thermal conductivity of any metal...
and copper
Copper
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; an exposed surface has a reddish-orange tarnish...
and their alloys demonstrating the city's participation in the wider trade networks of the Postclassic Period. These metal artefacts were either influenced by or imported from Mexico and southern Central America
Central America
Central America is the central geographic region of the Americas. It is the southernmost, isthmian portion of the North American continent, which connects with South America on the southeast. When considered part of the unified continental model, it is considered a subcontinent...
.
The structures at Zaculeu were grouped around small plazas and were generally built from masonry
Masonry
Masonry is the building of structures from individual units laid in and bound together by mortar; the term masonry can also refer to the units themselves. The common materials of masonry construction are brick, stone, marble, granite, travertine, limestone; concrete block, glass block, stucco, and...
coated with a thick layer of plaster, fragments of which bear floral and geometric designs, indicating the structures were originally brightly painted. Stones were undressed and cemented in adobe
Adobe
Adobe is a natural building material made from sand, clay, water, and some kind of fibrous or organic material , which the builders shape into bricks using frames and dry in the sun. Adobe buildings are similar to cob and mudbrick buildings. Adobe structures are extremely durable, and account for...
mortar. No evidence of corbel vaulting
Corbel arch
A corbel arch is an arch-like construction method that uses the architectural technique of corbeling to span a space or void in a structure, such as an entranceway in a wall or as the span of a bridge...
has been found and very little in the way of stone sculpture, with the architecture
Maya architecture
A unique and spectacular style, Maya architecture spans several thousands of years. Often the most dramatic and easily recognizable as Maya are the stepped pyramids from the Terminal Pre-classic period and beyond. Being based on the general Mesoamerican architectural traditions these pyramids...
completely lacking stone sculpture. Burials from the Early Classic yielded a rich array of finds but Late Classic burials were accompanied by a lesser variety of offerings.
An Early Classic tomb was inserted under the main pyramid
Mesoamerican pyramids
Mesoamerican pyramids, pyramid-shaped structures, are an important part of ancient Mesoamerican architecture. These structures were usually step pyramids with temples on top – more akin to the ziggurats of Mesopotamia than to the pyramids of Ancient Egypt...
at Zaculeu, it had been tunnelled from the volcanic ash
Volcanic ash
Volcanic ash consists of small tephra, which are bits of pulverized rock and glass created by volcanic eruptions, less than in diameter. There are three mechanisms of volcanic ash formation: gas release under decompression causing magmatic eruptions; thermal contraction from chilling on contact...
underlying the structure. A broad stairway descended to the tomb from the main plaza. The tomb itself was painted red and the floor was scattered with the remains of more than 100 ceramic vessels that has been crushed when the roof of the tomb collapsed. Also found were the remains of 34 pyrite
Pyrite
The mineral pyrite, or iron pyrite, is an iron sulfide with the formula FeS2. This mineral's metallic luster and pale-to-normal, brass-yellow hue have earned it the nickname fool's gold because of its resemblance to gold...
mirrors of a type similar to those found at Kaminaljuyu
Kaminaljuyu
Kaminaljuyu is a Pre-Columbian site of the Maya civilization that was primarily occupied from 1500 BC to AD 1200. Kaminaljuyu has been described as one of the greatest of all archaeological sites in the New World by Michael Coe, although its remains today - a few mounds only - are far less...
. A sizeable quantity of jade
Jade use in Mesoamerica
Jade use in Mesoamerica was largely influenced by the conceptualization of the material as a rare and valued commodity among pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures, such as the Olmec, the Maya, and the various groups in the Valley of Mexico. The only source from which the indigenous cultures could...
was recovered from the tomb, including beads and earplug
Earplug
An earplug is a device that is meant to be inserted in the ear canal to protect the wearer's ears from loud noises or the intrusion of water, foreign bodies, dust or excessive wind.-Protection from water:...
s. Some of the jade beads had been carved to represent human and parrot faces. The tomb contained the bones of four or more individuals and the ceramic offerings included decorated tripod vessels, polychrome bowls and a polychrome cylindrical vase that had a painted band of hieroglyphs
Maya script
The Maya script, also known as Maya glyphs or Maya hieroglyphs, is the writing system of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization of Mesoamerica, presently the only Mesoamerican writing system that has been substantially deciphered...
. One ceramic bowl is painted in a negative painting style that is similar to finds from Nebaj
Nebaj
Nebaj is an archaeological site of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization, located in the western Guatemala highlands....
.
The site core is laid out around eight plazas. Some of the structures were restored by the United Fruit Company, most of these border Plazas 1 and 2. Structures 1 and 2 are pyramid temples. Structures 4, 6 and 10 are palace structures, long buildings with internal chambers and benches used as residences and for administrative purposes.
Plazas
Plaza 1 is the main plaza at the site. It measures 54 by and is closed on all four sides by pyramid temples.Plaza 2 is a large plaza at the southeast of the site core, south of Plaza 1. It is bordered on the southeastern side by Structure 4, on the northeast by Structure 1, on the northwest by the ballcourt and on the southwest by Plaza 3.
Plaza 3 is a small plaza at the southern extreme of the site core, southwest of Plaza 2 and south of the ballcourt.
Plaza 4 is at the northwest side of the site core. It is closed on the northeastern side by Structure 10, on the southeast by Structure 13 and on the southwest by the ballcourt. Plazas 5 and 6 are located immediately to the west.
Plaza 5 is a small plaza immediately west of Plaza 4 and northwest of the ballcourt. It is divided from Plaza 6 to the northwest by Structure 21.
Plaza 6 is another small plaza to the west of Plaza 4. It is enclosed on three sides by a building complex with Structure 21 on the southeast side.
Plaza 7 is a small plaza at the western extreme of the site core, to the west of Plazas 5 and 6.
Plaza 8 is an enclosed plaza to the southwest of the ballcourt. Structure 2, a pyramid, closes the northwest side and Structure 3 closes the southeast side.
Structures
Structure 1 is a 39 feet (11.9 m) high pyramid on the southeast side of Plaza 1. It has eight stepped sections topped by a summit shrine. The shrine has three doorways approached via a double stairway rising from the plaza below. The pyramid was rebuilt seven times with the visible remains dating to the Early Postclassic. The earliest phase of construction dates to the Early Classic period.Structure 2 is a pyramid on the northwest side of the sunken Plaza 8. It is largely unrestored. Structure 3 lies across the plaza to the southeast. It is a platform with a twin stairway facing northwest onto the plaza.
Structure 3 is on the southeast side of Plaza 8, facing onto the plaza opposite Structure 2. It is immediately south of the ballcourt.
Structure 4 is an unusual combination of temple and palace. It is situated on the southeast side of Plaza 2. The structure consists of a central pyramidal base flanked by two attached range structures. The pyramidal base is topped by a shrine containing three rooms, the final room of the three is circular. The temple has three steep stairways flanked by balustrades. The main stairway ascends directly from the plaza, those on either side are perpendicular
Perpendicular
In geometry, two lines or planes are considered perpendicular to each other if they form congruent adjacent angles . The term may be used as a noun or adjective...
to the main stairway. The balustrade of each stairway terminates at the top in a vertical panel. The temple facade is in good condition although the roof of the temple is missing. The range structures are unequal in size and each contains a single long room atop a low platform. The facade of each of these rooms once possessed a row of columns although only stumps remain in situ. This temple-palace is K'iche' in style and has been identified with the Nija'ib' lineage of the K'iche', being very similar to the Temple of Awilix at Q'umarkaj. A tomb was excavated in Structure 4, it consisted of a complete skeleton with associated offerings that included two tripod earthenware bowls, one with duck effigies, a tripod incense burner
Censer
Censers are any type of vessels made for burning incense. These vessels vary greatly in size, form, and material of construction. They may consist of simple earthenware bowls or fire pots to intricately carved silver or gold vessels, small table top objects a few centimetres tall to as many as...
, a flint knife, nine obsidian
Obsidian use in Mesoamerica
Obsidian is a naturally formed volcanic glass that was an important part of the material culture of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. Obsidian was a highly integrated part of daily and ritual life, and its widespread and varied use may be a significant contributor to Mesoamerica's lack of metallurgy...
knives, five jade
Jade use in Mesoamerica
Jade use in Mesoamerica was largely influenced by the conceptualization of the material as a rare and valued commodity among pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures, such as the Olmec, the Maya, and the various groups in the Valley of Mexico. The only source from which the indigenous cultures could...
beads and some fragments of gold.
Structure 6 is a temple on the northeast side of Plaza 1. It rises in stepped sections topped by a summit shrine and was accessed via a stairway from the plaza that divided in two near the summit. Only the lower sections of the walls and columns of the shrine remain.
Structure 9 is a large mound on the northwest side of Plaza 1. The last phase of construction shows evidence of the interruption of construction by the Spanish Conquest. Terraces were absent on three sides of the structure with only the lowest level having been built on the fourth. Early Classic ceramic caches were discovered under Structure 9.
Structure 10 borders the northeast side of Plaza 4 and is unrestored although some original stonework is evident. It is a very long building accessed via three stairways ascending from the plaza. The structure has been investigated by archaeologists and was found to have multiple doorways opening into a single long room.
Structures 11 and 12 are small platforms in the middle of Plaza 1. They have both been restored.
Structure 13 is on the southwest side of Plaza 1, dividing that Plaza from Plaza 2. It was accessed via a double stairway ascending from Plaza 1. This double stairway gave access to the first level of the temple structure only; from there, a wide single stairway continued to the summit shrine. Only the lower sections of the walls and columns of the temple superstructure remain. The earliest phase of construction dates to the Early Classic and consisted of a low platform that supported a perishable superstructure.
Structures 15 and 16 are both low platforms located in Plaza 2, on an axis running directly northwest across the plaza from the central temple of Structure 4.
Structure 17 is a pyramidal base in Plaza 2, to the west of Structures 15 and 16. It supported two rooms accessed via a double stairway on the northwest side of the temple. The entrance to outermost room once had two columns, although now only the lower portions of the walls and columns remain.
Structure 21 is a low platform in Plaza 5, it is partially restored and has a stairway on the northwest side.
The Ballcourt
Mesoamerican ballcourt
A Mesoamerican ballcourt is a large masonry structure of a type used in Mesoamerica for over 2,700 years to play the Mesoamerican ballgame, particularly the hip-ball version of the ballgame. Over 1,300 ballcourts have been identified, 60% in the last 20 years alone...
consists of Structures 22 and 23, it was used for the ceremonial Mesoamerican ballgame
Mesoamerican ballgame
The Mesoamerican ballgame or Tlatchtli in Náhuatl was a sport with ritual associations played since 1,000 B.C. by the pre-Columbian peoples of Ancient Mexico and Central America...
. It is an I-shaped sunken ballcourt with sloping walls. The two structures forming the sides of the ballcourt once supported buildings, now only the lower sections of their walls remain. The ballcourt is oriented northwest to southeast and is 48 metres (157.5 ft) long.
Structure 37 is not associated with any of the eight plazas of the site core, standing about 50 metres (164 ft) northeast of Structure 4 and a similar distance east of Structure 1. It was investigated by archaeologists but has not been restored, although some of the original stonework and plaster coating is visible.