Zaporozhian Host
Encyclopedia
The Zaporozhian Cossacks or simply Zaporozhians were Ukrainian
Cossacks who lived beyond the rapids
of the Dnieper river, the land also known as the Great Meadow in Central Ukraine. Today most of its territory is flooded by the waters of Kakhovka Reservoir
.
The Zaporizhian Sich
grew rapidly in the 15th century from serfs fleeing the more controlled parts of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth. establishing itself as a well-respected political entity with a parliamentary system of government. During the course of the 16th, 17th and well into the 18th centuries the Zaporozhian Cossacks became a strong political and military force that challenged the authority of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Tsardom of Russia
, the Ottoman Empire
, and its vassal the Crimean Khanate
. The Host went through a series of conflicts and alliances involving the three powers before falling into the Russian sphere of influence and eventually being forcibly disbanded in the late 18th century by the Russian Empire
, with most of the population relocated to the Kuban
region in the South edge of the Russian Empire
, where the Cossacks served a valuable role of defending the Empire against the fierce Caucasian tribes and in return had a great degree of freedom granted by the Tsars.
The name Zaporozhtsi comes from the location of their fortress, the Sich, in Zaporozhzhia, the ‘land beyond the rapids’ (from za ‘beyond’ and poróhy ‘river rapids’).
organized a festival in the region to recognize the 500th Anniversary of the Zaporizhian Cossackdom. It is not certain, but there are signs and stories of similar people living in the steppes as early as the 12th century AD. At that time they were not called Cossacks since cossack is a Turkish word meaning a "free men."(Cossack has the same Turkic root as Kazak. It later became known as a Russian word for "free booter.") During the early 1100's, other Asiatic tribes occupied the steppes of modern southern Ukraine, in such places as Polovci, Pechenihu, Kasahu and others. Yet there were also groups of people who fled into these wild steppes from the cultivated lands of Kyivan Rus in order to escape oppression or criminal pursuit. Their lifestyle largely resembled that of the people we now call Cossacks. They would mainly survive from hunting and fishing and raiding the Asiatic tribes for horses and food. In the 1500's a great organizer, Dmytro "Bayda" Vushneveckiy, a Ukrainian noble, organized these different groups into a strong military organization. Cossacks were mostly made up of Ukrainian serfs who preferred the dangerous freedom of the Wild Steppes rather than life under the rule of Polish nobles. However, many serfs from Poland and Muscovy and even Tatars from Crimea could become part of the Cossack host. There were certain tests they had to pass, including accepting Orthodoxy as their religion, crossing themselves and reciting the Creed and other prayers.
were a part of the Commonwealth army until 1699.
Around the end of the 16th century, relations between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire, which were not cordial to begin with, were further strained by increasing Cossack aggression. From the second part of the 16th century, Cossacks started raiding Ottoman territories. The Polish government could not control the fiercely independent Cossacks, but since they were nominally subjects of the Commonwealth, it was held responsible for the raids by their victims. Reciprocally, the Tatars
living under Ottoman rule launched raids into the Commonwealth, mostly in the sparsely inhabited south-east territories of Ukraine. Cossacks, however, were raiding wealthy merchant port cities in the heart of the Ottoman Empire, which were just two days away by boat from the mouth of the Dnipro
. By 1615 and 1625, Cossacks had even managed to raze townships on the outskirts of Constantinople
, forcing the Ottoman Sultan to flee his palace. Consecutive treaties between Ottoman Empire and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth called for both parties to keep the Cossacks and Tatars in check, but enforcement was almost non-existent on both sides. In internal agreements, forced by the Polish side, Cossacks agreed to burn their boats and stop raiding. However, boats could be rebuilt quickly, and the Cossack lifestyle glorified raids and booty. During this time, the Habsburg Empire sometimes covertly employed Cossack raiders to ease Ottoman pressure on their own borders. Many Cossacks and Tatars shared an animosity towards each other due to the damage done by raids from both sides. Cossack raids followed by Tatar retaliation, or Tatar raids followed by Cossack retaliation were an almost regular occurrence. The ensuing chaos and string of retaliations often turned the entire south-eastern Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth border into a low-intensity war zone and led to escalation of Commonwealth-Ottoman warfare, from the Moldavian Magnate Wars
to the Battle of Cecora
and Wars in 1633–1634.
Cossack numbers expanded with Ukrainian peasants running from serf
dom in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Attempts by the szlachta
to turn the Zaporozhian Cossacks into serfs eroded the Cossacks' once fairly strong loyalty towards the Commonwealth. Cossack ambitions to be recognised as equal to the szlachta were constantly rebuffed, and plans for transforming the Polish-Lithuanian Two-Nations Commonwealth into Three Nations (with the Ukrainian Cossack people) made little progress due to the Cossacks' unpopularity. The Cossacks' strong historic allegiance to the Eastern Orthodox Christianity put them at odds with the Catholic
-dominated Commonwealth. Tensions increased when Commonwealth policies turned from relative tolerance to suppression of the Orthodox church, making the Cossacks strongly anti-Catholic, which at the time was synonymous with anti-Polish.
The waning loyalty of the Cossacks and the szlachta's arrogance towards them resulted in several Cossack uprisings against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the early 17th century. Finally, the King's adamant refusal to cede to the Cossack's demand to expand the Cossack Registry was the last straw that prompted the largest and most successful of these: the Khmelnytsky uprising
that started in 1648. The uprising became one of a series of catastrophic events for the Commonwealth known as The Deluge
, which greatly weakened the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and set the stage for its disintegration 100 years later. Even though Poland probably had the best cavalry in Europe, their infantry was inferior, however, Ukrainian Cossacks posed the best infantry during the middle 1600s. Since Poland recruited most of its infantry power from Ukraine, and once Ukraine became free from Polish rule, the army of the Commonwealth suffered greatly.
The Zaporizhian Host as a military political establishment has developed based upon unique traditions and customs, the Cossack Code which was formed mostly among the cossacks of Zaporizhian Host over decades. The host had its own military and territorially administrative division: 38 kurin
s and five to eight palanka
s (territorial districts) as well as an original system of administration with three levels: military leaders, military officials, leaders of march and palankas. All officership (military starshyna) was elected by the General Military Council for a year on January 1. Based on the same customs and traditions the rights and duties of officers were explicitly codified. In Zaporizhian Host has developed an original judicial system, in a base of which laid the customary Cossack Code. The norms of the code were affirmed by those social relations that have developed among cossacks. Some sources refer to the Zaporizhian Sich as a "cossack republic", as the highest power in it belonged to the assembly of all its members, and because its leaders (starshyna) were elected.
Officially the leader of Zaporizhian Host never carried the title of Hetman, while all leaders of cossacks formations were unofficially referred to as one. The highest body of administration in Zaporozhian Host was the Sich Rada (council). The council was the highest legislative, administrative, and judicial body of the Zaporizhian Host. Decisions of the council were considered the opinion of whole host and obligated to its execution each member of the cossack comradeship. At Sich Rada were reviewed issues of internal and foreign policies, conducted elections of military starshyna (officership), division of assigned land, punishment of criminals who committed the worst crimes etc.
The Zaporizhian Host, while being closely associated with the Cossack Hetmanate
, had its own administration and orders. For military operations cossacks of the host organized into Kish. Kish is an old term for a reinforced camp that was used in 11th-16th centuries and later adopted by cossacks. Kish was the central body of government in Sich under jurisdiction of which were administrative, military, financial, legal, and other affairs. Kish was elected on annual bases at the Sich Rada (Black Rada). Black Rada was a council of all cossacks. Kish election were taken place either on January 1, October 1 (Intercession of the Theotokos holiday - Pokrova), or on the 2nd-3rd day of Easter.
There was a cossack military court, which severely punished violence and stealing among compatriots, bringing women to the Sich, consumption of alcohol in periods of conflict, etc. There were also churches and school
s, providing religious services and basic education
. Principally, the Christian Orthodox
religion was preferred and was a part of the national identity.
In times of peace, Cossacks were engaged in their occupations, living with their families, studying strategy, languages and educating recruits. As opposed to other armies, Cossacks were free to choose their preferred weapon. Wealthy Cossacks preferred to wear heavy armour
, while infantrymen preferred to wear simple clothes, although they also occasionally wore chain mail
.
At that time, the Cossacks were one of the finest military organizations in Europe
, and were employed by Russian, Polish, and French empires.
on August 20, 1576 to Bohdan Ruzhynsky, among which were khoruhva, bunchuk
, bulawa
, and a seal with a coat of arms on which was depicted a cossack with a rifle (samopal). The kleinody were assigned to hetman's assistants for safekeeping, thus there have appeared such ranks as khorunzhy (flag-bearer), bunchuzhny (staff-keeper) etc. Later part of Cossack kleinody became pernach
s, kettledrums (lytavry), kurin banners (badges), batons, and others.
The highest symbol of power was bulawa
that was carried by hetmans and kish otamans. For example, Bohdan Khmelnytsky
already from 1648 carried a silver gold-covered bulawa decorated with perls and other valuable gem stones. The cossack colonels had pernachs (shestopers) - smaller ribbed bulawas which were carried behind a belt.
The seal of the Zaporizhian Host was produced in a round form out of silver with a depiction of cossack in a gabled cap on a head, in kaftan
with buttons on a chest, with a saber (shablya), powder flask on a side, and a self-made rifle (samopal) on the left shoulder. Around the seal was an inscription «Печать славного Війська Запорізького Низового» (The Seal of the glorious Zaporizhian Host). Palanka's and kurin's seals were either round or rectangular with images of lions, deers, horses, moon, stars, crowns, lances, sabers, and bows.
Khoruhva was mostly of a crimson color embroidered with coats of arms, saints, crosses, and others. It was always carried in front of the army next to hetman or otaman. A badge (znachok) was a name for a kurin's or company's (sotnia
) banners. There was a tradition when the newly elected colonel was required at his own expense prepare palanka's banner. One of the banners was preserved until 1845 in Kuban
and was fabricated out of tissue of two colors: yellow and blue. Kettledrums (lytavry) were large copper boilers that were fitted with a leather which served for transmission of various signals (calling cossacks to a council, raising an alarm etc.).
Each item of kleinody was granted to a clearly assigned member of cossack officership (starshina
- seniors). For example, in Zaporizhian Host bulawa was given to the otaman; khoruhva - to the whole host although carried by a khorunzhy; bunchuk also was given to otaman, but carried by a bunchuzhny or bunchuk comrade; the seal was preserved by a military judge, while seals of kurin - to kurin otaman and seals of palanka - to colonel of a certain palanka; kettledrums were in possession of a dovbysh (drummer); staffs - to a military yesaul
; badges were given to all 38 kurins in possession to the assigned badge comrades. All items of kleidony excepts of kettledrum sticks were stored in the Sich's Pokrova church treasury and were taking out only on a special order of kish otaman. The kettledrum sticks were kept in the kurin with the assigned dovbysh. Sometimes part of kleidony was considered a great silver inkwell
(kalamar), an attribute of a military scribe (pysar) of Zaporizhian Host. Similar kleinods had the officership of the Cossack Hetmanate
, cossacks of Kuban, Danube, and other cossack societies.
Upon the destruction of the Sich and liquidation of cossacks (in Ukraine) the kleidony were gathered and given away for storage in Hermitage
and Transfiguration Cathedral
in Saint Petersburg
, Kremlin Armoury
in Moscow
as well as other places of storage. By the end of 19th century the Hermitage stored 17 kurin banners and one khoruhva, the Transfiguration Cathedral contained 20 kurin banners, three bunchuks, one silver bulawa, and one silver gold-covered baton. Today the fate of those national treasures of Ukrainian people is unknown. After the February Revolution
in 1917 the Russian Provisional Government
adopted the decisions of returning them to Ukraine, however, due to the events of the October Revolution
of the same year the decision was not executed. With the proclamation of independence the Ukrainian government has risen in front of leadership of the Russian Federation the issue of returning the national cultural valuables, however no specific agreements were ever reached.
After the Treaty of Pereyaslav
in 1654, Ukraine became a suzerainty
under the protection of the Russian Tsar, although for a considerable period of time it enjoyed nearly complete autonomy
. After Khmelnytsky
's death in 1657, his successor, Ivan Vyhovsky
, alarmed by the growing Russian interference in the affairs of the Hetmanate, initiated a turn towards Poland. An attempt was made to return to the three-constituent Commonwealth of nations with the Zaporozhian cossacks joining the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth by signing the Treaty of Hadiach
(1658). The treaty, ratified by the Polish Sejm
(parliament), was rejected at the Hermanivka Rada by the Cossack rank and file, which would not accept a union with Catholic
Poland that they perceived as an oppressor of Orthodox Christianity
. The angered cossacks executed Polkovnyks (colonels) Prokip Vereshchaka and Stepan Sulyma, Vyhovsky's associates at the Polish Sejm and Vyhovsky himself narrowly escaped death.
After Khmelnytsky's death, the Zaporozhians maintained a largely separate government from Hetmanate
, where the hetmans ruled. The Zaporozhians elected their own leaders, known as Kosh otaman, for one-year terms. In this period, friction between the cossacks of Hetmanate and the Zaporozhians escalated.
Cossacks who in the past fought for their independence from Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
, were involved into several uprisings against the Russian Tsar, in fear of losing their privileges and autonomy. In 1709, for example, the Zaporozhian Host led by Kost Hordiienko joined Hetman Ivan Mazepa
against Russia. Mazepa was previously a trusted adviser and close friend to the Russian Emperor Peter the Great but allied himself with Charles XII of Sweden
against Peter I. After the defeat at the Battle of Poltava
Peter ordered a retaliatory destruction of the Sich.
With the death of Mazepa in Bessarabia
in 1709, his council elected his former general chancellor, Pylyp Orlyk
, as his successor. Orlyk issued the project of the Constitution, where he promised to limit the authority of the Hetman, preserve the privileged position of the Zaporozhians, take measures towards achieving social equality among them, and steps towards the separation of Ukraine from the Russian State—should he manage to obtain power in Ukraine. With the support of Charles XII, Orlyk made an alliance with the Crimean Tatars
and Ottomans against Russia, but following the early successes of their 1711 attack on Russia, their campaign was defeated, and Orlyk returned into exile. The Zaporozhians built a new Sich under Ottoman protection, the Oleshky Sich on the lower Dnieper.
Although some of the Zaporozhian cossacks returned to Moscow's protection, their popular leader Kost Hordiienko was resolute in his anti-Russian attitude and no rapprochement
was possible until his death in 1733.
, one of the "anti-Mazepist" Polkovnyks (Colonels) as their Hetman. While advocating for the preservation for the Hetmanate autonomy and privileges of Cossack nobility, Skoropadsky was careful to avoid open confrontation, and remained loyal to the union with Russia. To accommodate Russian military needs, Skoropadsky allowed for stationing of ten Russian regiment
s in the territory of the Hetmanate. At the same time, Cossacks took part in the construction, fortification and channel development projects in Saint Petersburg
, to establish a new Northern Russian capital. Many did not return, and it is often stated that St. Peterburg "was built on bones".
In 1734, as Russia was preparing for a new war against the Ottoman Empire
, an agreement was made between Russia and the Zaporozhian cossacks. Under the Treaty of Lubny, the Zaporozhian Cossacks regained all of their former lands, privileges, laws and customs, in exchange for serving under the command of a Russian Army stationed in Kiev
. A new sich
(Nova Sich) was built to replace the one that had been destroyed by Peter I
. Concerned about the possibility of Russian interference in Zaporozhia's internal affairs, the Cossacks began to settle their lands with Ukrainian peasants fleeing serfdom
in Polish and Russian proper. By 1762, 33,700 Cossacks and over 150,000 peasants populated Zaporozhia.
By the late 18th century, much of the Cossack officer class in Ukraine was incorporated into the Imperial Russian nobility
(Dvoryanstvo), but many of the rank and file Cossacks, including a substantial portion of the old Zaporozhians, were reduced to peasant status. They were able to maintain their freedom and continued to provide refuge for those fleeing serfdom in Russia and Poland, including followers of the Russian Cossack Yemelyan Pugachev
, which aroused the anger of Russian Empress Catherine II. As a result, by 1775 the number of runaway serfs from the Hetmanate
and Polish-ruled Ukraine to Zaporizhiya
rose to 100,000.
After the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca
, which annexed the Crimean Khanate
into Russia, the need for further southern frontier defence (which the Zaporozhians carried out) no longer existed. Colonisation of New Russia began, one of the colonies, located just next to the lands of the Zaporozhian Sich was New Serbia. This escalated conflicts over land ownership with the Cossacks which often turned violent.
on May 7, 1775. General Pyotr Tekeli received orders to occupy the main Zaporozhian fortress, the Sich, and liquidate it. The plan was kept secret and regiments returning from the Russo-Turkish war, in which Cossacks also participated, were mobilized for the operation. They included 31 regiments (65,000 men in total). The attack took place on May 15, and continued to June 8. The order was given by Grigory Potemkin
, who formally became an honorary Zaporozhian Cossack under the name of Hrytsko Nechesa a few years prior. Potemkin, in his turn, was given a direct order from Empress Catherine II, which she explained in her Decree of August 8, 1775:
On June 5, 1775, General Tekeli's forces divided into 5 detachments and surrounded the Sich
with artillery and infantry. The lack of southern borders and enemies in the past years had a profound effect on the combat-ability of the Cossacks, who realised the Russian infantry was to destroy them only after being surrounded. To trick the Cossacks, a rumour was spread that the army was crossing Cossack lands en route to guard the borders. The surprise encirclement put a devastating blow to the morale of the Cossacks.
Petro Kalnyshevsky
was given two hours to decide on the Empress's ultimatum
. Under the guidance of a starshyna Lyakh, behind Kalnyshevky's back a conspiracy was formed with a group of 50 Cossacks to go fishing in the river Ingul next to the Southern Buh in Ottoman provinces. The pretext was enough to allow the Russians to let the Cossacks out of the siege, who were joined by five thousand others. The fleeing Cossacks traveled to the Danube Delta
where they formed the new Danube Sich, under the protectorate of the Ottoman Empire
.
When Tekeli became aware of the escape, there was little left to do for the remaining 12 thousand Cossacks. The Sich was razed to the ground. The Cossacks were disarmed in the mostly bloodless operation while their treasury and archives were confiscated. Petro Kalnyshevsky
was arrested and exiled to the Solovki
, where he lived in confinement to 112 years of age. Most upper level Cossack Council members, such as Pavlo Holovaty
and Ivan Hloba, were repressed and exiled as well, although lower level commanders and rank and file Cossacks were allowed to join the Russian hussar
and dragoon
regiments.
, who would now support the Ottoman Empire in the next war was also troublesome for the Russians.
In 1784 Potemkin formed the Host of the Loyal Zaporozhians (Войско верных Запорожцев) and settled them between the Southern Bug
and Dniester
rivers. For their invaluable service during the Russo-Turkish War, 1787-1792 they were rewarded with the Kuban
land and migrated there in 1792.
In 1828, the Danubian Sich
ceased to exist after it was pardoned by Emperor Nicholas I, and under amnesty settled on the shores of the Northern Azov
between Berdyansk and Mariupol
forming the Azov Cossack Host
. Finally in 1862 they too migrated to the Kuban and merged with the Kuban Cossack Host. The Kuban Cossacks served Russia's interests right up to the October Revolution
and their descendants are now undergoing active regeneration both culturally and militarily. The 30,000 descendants of those cossacks who refused to return to Russia in 1828 still live in the Danube delta region of Romania
, where they pursue the traditional Cossack lifestyle of hunting and fishing and are known as Rusnaks.
, Russia
, Poland
, Turkey
and other states that came in contact with it.
The shifting alliances in the Cossacks have generated a large amount of controversy, especially during the 20th century. For Russians the Pereyaslav Rada gave Tsardom of Russia
, and later Russian Empire
the impulse to take over the Ruthenia
n lands, claim rights as the sole successor of the Kievan Rus'
and for the Russian Tsar to be declared the protector of all Russias, culminating in the Pan-Slavism
movement of the 19th century.
Today, most of the modern descendants of the Zaporozhians, the Kuban Cossacks
, remain loyal towards Russia, many fought in the local conflicts following the dissolution of the Soviet Union and today, just like before the revolution when they made up the private guard of the Emperor, the majority of the Kremlin Presidential Regiment
is made from Kuban Cossacks.
For Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Zaporozhian Cossacks, and the Khmelnytskyi Uprising effectively marked the beginning of its finale with the Deluge
, which led to the gradual demise of the Commonwealth ending the Partitions of Poland
in the late 18th century.
A similar fate awaited both the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire, having endured numerous raids and attacks from them both, the Zaporozhian Cossacks aided the Russian Army in ending Turkey's ambitions of expanding into northern and central Europe, and like Poland, after the loss of Crimea, the Ottoman Empire began to demise.
However the most important historical legacy of the Zaporozhian Cossacks is found in modern Ukraine
. It was their independence and will, and the memory left by their demise that would in the latter half of the 19th century shape and influence the idea of Ukrainian self-determination
and independence. Ukrainian historians, such as Adrian Kaschenko (1858–1921), Olena Apanovych
and others go on to interpret the final abolishment of the Zaporizhian Sich in 1775, as the destruction of the Cossack historic stronghold perceived as the bastion of protection of the Ukrainians and their ways of life, was the final blow that brought Ukrainians to the total submission of the Russian Empire.
The Ukrainian aspect of the Zaporozhians would be the stimulus of the emerging Ukrainian self awareness in the middle of the 19th century and culminate in a distinct Ukrainian nationality who would claim the Zaporozhian Cossacks as their progenitors. During the Soviet times this point of view was slightly watered down in order to prevent the rise of nationalist sentiment, but at the same time supported (and becoming official) to create a negative image of the Russian Imperialist policies, yet retaining the Russophilic tendency of the Zaporozhians to justify Ukraine being part of the Soviet Union.
Zaporozhian attire, songs and music found its way into official state dance and music ensembles, which stylized the image of Ukraine in the years to come. Since the Independence of Ukraine in 1991
, attempts at regenerating the Cossack lifestyle have diverged into politics, horsemanship and cultural endeavours.
Ukrainians
Ukrainians are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Ukraine, which is the sixth-largest nation in Europe. The Constitution of Ukraine applies the term 'Ukrainians' to all its citizens...
Cossacks who lived beyond the rapids
Zaporizhia (region)
Zaporizhia , Russian: Запоро́жье, Zaporozhye) is a historical region which is situated about the Dnieper River, below the Dnieper rapids , , hence the name, translated as "territory beyond the rapids"...
of the Dnieper river, the land also known as the Great Meadow in Central Ukraine. Today most of its territory is flooded by the waters of Kakhovka Reservoir
Kakhovka Reservoir
The Kakhovka Reservoir is a water reservoir located on the Dnieper River. It covers a total surface area of 2,155 square kilometres in the territories of the Kherson, Zaporizhia, and the Dnipropetrovsk Oblasts of Ukraine...
.
The Zaporizhian Sich
Zaporizhian Sich
Zaporizhian Sich was socio-political, grassroot, military organization of Ukrainian cossacks placed beyond Dnieper rapids. Sich existed between the 16th and 18th centuries in the region around the today's Kakhovka Reservoir...
grew rapidly in the 15th century from serfs fleeing the more controlled parts of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth. establishing itself as a well-respected political entity with a parliamentary system of government. During the course of the 16th, 17th and well into the 18th centuries the Zaporozhian Cossacks became a strong political and military force that challenged the authority of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Tsardom of Russia
Tsardom of Russia
The Tsardom of Russia was the name of the centralized Russian state from Ivan IV's assumption of the title of Tsar in 1547 till Peter the Great's foundation of the Russian Empire in 1721.From 1550 to 1700, Russia grew 35,000 km2 a year...
, the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
, and its vassal the Crimean Khanate
Crimean Khanate
Crimean Khanate, or Khanate of Crimea , was a state ruled by Crimean Tatars from 1441 to 1783. Its native name was . Its khans were the patrilineal descendants of Toqa Temür, the thirteenth son of Jochi and grandson of Genghis Khan...
. The Host went through a series of conflicts and alliances involving the three powers before falling into the Russian sphere of influence and eventually being forcibly disbanded in the late 18th century by the Russian Empire
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
, with most of the population relocated to the Kuban
Kuban
Kuban is a geographic region of Southern Russia surrounding the Kuban River, on the Black Sea between the Don Steppe, Volga Delta and the Caucasus...
region in the South edge of the Russian Empire
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
, where the Cossacks served a valuable role of defending the Empire against the fierce Caucasian tribes and in return had a great degree of freedom granted by the Tsars.
The name Zaporozhtsi comes from the location of their fortress, the Sich, in Zaporozhzhia, the ‘land beyond the rapids’ (from za ‘beyond’ and poróhy ‘river rapids’).
Origins
It is not clear when the first Cossack communities on the Lower Dnipro began to form. However, in early September 1990 the People's Movement of UkrainePeople's Movement of Ukraine
The People's Movement of Ukraine is a Ukrainian center-right political party...
organized a festival in the region to recognize the 500th Anniversary of the Zaporizhian Cossackdom. It is not certain, but there are signs and stories of similar people living in the steppes as early as the 12th century AD. At that time they were not called Cossacks since cossack is a Turkish word meaning a "free men."(Cossack has the same Turkic root as Kazak. It later became known as a Russian word for "free booter.") During the early 1100's, other Asiatic tribes occupied the steppes of modern southern Ukraine, in such places as Polovci, Pechenihu, Kasahu and others. Yet there were also groups of people who fled into these wild steppes from the cultivated lands of Kyivan Rus in order to escape oppression or criminal pursuit. Their lifestyle largely resembled that of the people we now call Cossacks. They would mainly survive from hunting and fishing and raiding the Asiatic tribes for horses and food. In the 1500's a great organizer, Dmytro "Bayda" Vushneveckiy, a Ukrainian noble, organized these different groups into a strong military organization. Cossacks were mostly made up of Ukrainian serfs who preferred the dangerous freedom of the Wild Steppes rather than life under the rule of Polish nobles. However, many serfs from Poland and Muscovy and even Tatars from Crimea could become part of the Cossack host. There were certain tests they had to pass, including accepting Orthodoxy as their religion, crossing themselves and reciting the Creed and other prayers.
Within Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Cossacks for their part were mostly happy to plunder everybody more or less equally, although in the 16th century, with the dominance of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth extending south, the Zaporozhian Cossacks were mostly, if tentatively, regarded by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as their subjects. Registered CossacksRegistered Cossacks
Registered Cossacks is the term used for Cossacks formations of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth armies.-Establishing:The registered cossacks were created on the King's edict of Sigismund II Augustus on June 5, 1572 confirming the orders of the Crown Hetman Jerzy Jazłowiecki. The first senior ...
were a part of the Commonwealth army until 1699.
Around the end of the 16th century, relations between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire, which were not cordial to begin with, were further strained by increasing Cossack aggression. From the second part of the 16th century, Cossacks started raiding Ottoman territories. The Polish government could not control the fiercely independent Cossacks, but since they were nominally subjects of the Commonwealth, it was held responsible for the raids by their victims. Reciprocally, the Tatars
Tatars
Tatars are a Turkic speaking ethnic group , numbering roughly 7 million.The majority of Tatars live in the Russian Federation, with a population of around 5.5 million, about 2 million of which in the republic of Tatarstan.Significant minority populations are found in Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan,...
living under Ottoman rule launched raids into the Commonwealth, mostly in the sparsely inhabited south-east territories of Ukraine. Cossacks, however, were raiding wealthy merchant port cities in the heart of the Ottoman Empire, which were just two days away by boat from the mouth of the Dnipro
Dnieper River
The Dnieper River is one of the major rivers of Europe that flows from Russia, through Belarus and Ukraine, to the Black Sea.The total length is and has a drainage basin of .The river is noted for its dams and hydroelectric stations...
. By 1615 and 1625, Cossacks had even managed to raze townships on the outskirts of Constantinople
Constantinople
Constantinople was the capital of the Roman, Eastern Roman, Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman Empires. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and wealthiest city.-Names:...
, forcing the Ottoman Sultan to flee his palace. Consecutive treaties between Ottoman Empire and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth called for both parties to keep the Cossacks and Tatars in check, but enforcement was almost non-existent on both sides. In internal agreements, forced by the Polish side, Cossacks agreed to burn their boats and stop raiding. However, boats could be rebuilt quickly, and the Cossack lifestyle glorified raids and booty. During this time, the Habsburg Empire sometimes covertly employed Cossack raiders to ease Ottoman pressure on their own borders. Many Cossacks and Tatars shared an animosity towards each other due to the damage done by raids from both sides. Cossack raids followed by Tatar retaliation, or Tatar raids followed by Cossack retaliation were an almost regular occurrence. The ensuing chaos and string of retaliations often turned the entire south-eastern Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth border into a low-intensity war zone and led to escalation of Commonwealth-Ottoman warfare, from the Moldavian Magnate Wars
Moldavian Magnate Wars
The Moldavian Magnate Wars refer to the period at the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century when the magnates of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth intervened in the affairs of Moldavia, clashing with the Habsburgs and the Ottoman Empire for domination and influence over the...
to the Battle of Cecora
Battle of Tutora (1620)
The Battle of Ţuţora was a battle between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Ottoman forces , fought from 17 September to 7 October 1620 in Moldavia, near the Prut River.- Prelude :Because of the failure of Commonwealth diplomatic mission to Constantinople, and violations of the Treaty of...
and Wars in 1633–1634.
Cossack numbers expanded with Ukrainian peasants running from serf
SERF
A spin exchange relaxation-free magnetometer is a type of magnetometer developed at Princeton University in the early 2000s. SERF magnetometers measure magnetic fields by using lasers to detect the interaction between alkali metal atoms in a vapor and the magnetic field.The name for the technique...
dom in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Attempts by the szlachta
Szlachta
The szlachta was a legally privileged noble class with origins in the Kingdom of Poland. It gained considerable institutional privileges during the 1333-1370 reign of Casimir the Great. In 1413, following a series of tentative personal unions between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of...
to turn the Zaporozhian Cossacks into serfs eroded the Cossacks' once fairly strong loyalty towards the Commonwealth. Cossack ambitions to be recognised as equal to the szlachta were constantly rebuffed, and plans for transforming the Polish-Lithuanian Two-Nations Commonwealth into Three Nations (with the Ukrainian Cossack people) made little progress due to the Cossacks' unpopularity. The Cossacks' strong historic allegiance to the Eastern Orthodox Christianity put them at odds with the Catholic
Catholicism
Catholicism is a broad term for the body of the Catholic faith, its theologies and doctrines, its liturgical, ethical, spiritual, and behavioral characteristics, as well as a religious people as a whole....
-dominated Commonwealth. Tensions increased when Commonwealth policies turned from relative tolerance to suppression of the Orthodox church, making the Cossacks strongly anti-Catholic, which at the time was synonymous with anti-Polish.
The waning loyalty of the Cossacks and the szlachta's arrogance towards them resulted in several Cossack uprisings against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the early 17th century. Finally, the King's adamant refusal to cede to the Cossack's demand to expand the Cossack Registry was the last straw that prompted the largest and most successful of these: the Khmelnytsky uprising
Khmelnytsky Uprising
The Khmelnytsky Uprising, was a Cossack rebellion in the Ukraine between the years 1648–1657 which turned into a Ukrainian war of liberation from Poland...
that started in 1648. The uprising became one of a series of catastrophic events for the Commonwealth known as The Deluge
The Deluge (Polish history)
The term Deluge denotes a series of mid-17th century campaigns in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In a wider sense it applies to the period between the Khmelnytsky Uprising of 1648 and the Truce of Andrusovo in 1667, thus comprising the Polish–Lithuanian theaters of the Russo-Polish and...
, which greatly weakened the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and set the stage for its disintegration 100 years later. Even though Poland probably had the best cavalry in Europe, their infantry was inferior, however, Ukrainian Cossacks posed the best infantry during the middle 1600s. Since Poland recruited most of its infantry power from Ukraine, and once Ukraine became free from Polish rule, the army of the Commonwealth suffered greatly.
Organization
Kurin
Kurin is a military term that was established by the cossacks.During the Second World War, the basic combat unit of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army was a kurin...
s and five to eight palanka
Palanka
-Places:In Serbia:* Bačka Palanka, a town and municipality in Vojvodina, Serbia* Smederevska Palanka, a town and municipality in Central Serbia, Serbia* Bela Palanka, a town and municipality in Central Serbia, Serbia...
s (territorial districts) as well as an original system of administration with three levels: military leaders, military officials, leaders of march and palankas. All officership (military starshyna) was elected by the General Military Council for a year on January 1. Based on the same customs and traditions the rights and duties of officers were explicitly codified. In Zaporizhian Host has developed an original judicial system, in a base of which laid the customary Cossack Code. The norms of the code were affirmed by those social relations that have developed among cossacks. Some sources refer to the Zaporizhian Sich as a "cossack republic", as the highest power in it belonged to the assembly of all its members, and because its leaders (starshyna) were elected.
Officially the leader of Zaporizhian Host never carried the title of Hetman, while all leaders of cossacks formations were unofficially referred to as one. The highest body of administration in Zaporozhian Host was the Sich Rada (council). The council was the highest legislative, administrative, and judicial body of the Zaporizhian Host. Decisions of the council were considered the opinion of whole host and obligated to its execution each member of the cossack comradeship. At Sich Rada were reviewed issues of internal and foreign policies, conducted elections of military starshyna (officership), division of assigned land, punishment of criminals who committed the worst crimes etc.
The Zaporizhian Host, while being closely associated with the Cossack Hetmanate
Cossack Hetmanate
The Hetmanate or Zaporizhian Host was the Ruthenian Cossack state in the Central Ukraine between 1649 and 1782.The Hetmanate was founded by first Ukrainian hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky during the Khmelnytsky Uprising . In 1654 it pledged its allegiance to Muscovy during the Council of Pereyaslav,...
, had its own administration and orders. For military operations cossacks of the host organized into Kish. Kish is an old term for a reinforced camp that was used in 11th-16th centuries and later adopted by cossacks. Kish was the central body of government in Sich under jurisdiction of which were administrative, military, financial, legal, and other affairs. Kish was elected on annual bases at the Sich Rada (Black Rada). Black Rada was a council of all cossacks. Kish election were taken place either on January 1, October 1 (Intercession of the Theotokos holiday - Pokrova), or on the 2nd-3rd day of Easter.
There was a cossack military court, which severely punished violence and stealing among compatriots, bringing women to the Sich, consumption of alcohol in periods of conflict, etc. There were also churches and school
School
A school is an institution designed for the teaching of students under the direction of teachers. Most countries have systems of formal education, which is commonly compulsory. In these systems, students progress through a series of schools...
s, providing religious services and basic education
Education
Education in its broadest, general sense is the means through which the aims and habits of a group of people lives on from one generation to the next. Generally, it occurs through any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts...
. Principally, the Christian Orthodox
Eastern Orthodox Church
The Orthodox Church, officially called the Orthodox Catholic Church and commonly referred to as the Eastern Orthodox Church, is the second largest Christian denomination in the world, with an estimated 300 million adherents mainly in the countries of Belarus, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Georgia, Greece,...
religion was preferred and was a part of the national identity.
In times of peace, Cossacks were engaged in their occupations, living with their families, studying strategy, languages and educating recruits. As opposed to other armies, Cossacks were free to choose their preferred weapon. Wealthy Cossacks preferred to wear heavy armour
Armour
Armour or armor is protective covering used to prevent damage from being inflicted to an object, individual or a vehicle through use of direct contact weapons or projectiles, usually during combat, or from damage caused by a potentially dangerous environment or action...
, while infantrymen preferred to wear simple clothes, although they also occasionally wore chain mail
Mail (armour)
Mail is a type of armour consisting of small metal rings linked together in a pattern to form a mesh.-History:Mail was a highly successful type of armour and was used by nearly every metalworking culture....
.
At that time, the Cossacks were one of the finest military organizations in Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
, and were employed by Russian, Polish, and French empires.
Cossack Kleinody
The most important items of the host were the Cossack Kleinody (always in plural) that consisted of valuable military distinctions, regalia, and attributes of the Ukrainian Cossacks and were used until the 19th century. Kleidony were awarded to Zaporizhian Cossacks by the Polish king Stefan BatoryStefan Batory
Stephen Báthory was a Hungarian noble Prince of Transylvania , then King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania . He was a member of the Somlyó branch of the noble Hungarian Báthory family...
on August 20, 1576 to Bohdan Ruzhynsky, among which were khoruhva, bunchuk
Bunchuk
A Bunchuk is a piece of horse or yak tail hair attached to the top of a pole, which is decorated with a trident, a ball or a crescent....
, bulawa
Bulawa
The bulawa is a ceremonial mace or baton. The word is of Turkish origin....
, and a seal with a coat of arms on which was depicted a cossack with a rifle (samopal). The kleinody were assigned to hetman's assistants for safekeeping, thus there have appeared such ranks as khorunzhy (flag-bearer), bunchuzhny (staff-keeper) etc. Later part of Cossack kleinody became pernach
Pernach
Pernach was a type of flanged mace developed since the 12th century in the region of Kievan Rus' and later widely used throughout Europe. The name comes from the Russian word перо meaning feather, reflecting the form of pernach that resembled an arrow with feathering.The most popular variety of...
s, kettledrums (lytavry), kurin banners (badges), batons, and others.
The highest symbol of power was bulawa
Bulawa
The bulawa is a ceremonial mace or baton. The word is of Turkish origin....
that was carried by hetmans and kish otamans. For example, Bohdan Khmelnytsky
Bohdan Khmelnytsky
Bohdan Zynoviy Mykhailovych Khmelnytsky was a hetman of the Zaporozhian Cossack Hetmanate of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . He led an uprising against the Commonwealth and its magnates which resulted in the creation of a Cossack state...
already from 1648 carried a silver gold-covered bulawa decorated with perls and other valuable gem stones. The cossack colonels had pernachs (shestopers) - smaller ribbed bulawas which were carried behind a belt.
The seal of the Zaporizhian Host was produced in a round form out of silver with a depiction of cossack in a gabled cap on a head, in kaftan
Kaftan
A kaftan is a man's coat usually reaching to the ankles with long sleeves, and which buttons down the front. It can be made of wool, cashmere, silk, or cotton. It is often worn with a sash....
with buttons on a chest, with a saber (shablya), powder flask on a side, and a self-made rifle (samopal) on the left shoulder. Around the seal was an inscription «Печать славного Війська Запорізького Низового» (The Seal of the glorious Zaporizhian Host). Palanka's and kurin's seals were either round or rectangular with images of lions, deers, horses, moon, stars, crowns, lances, sabers, and bows.
Khoruhva was mostly of a crimson color embroidered with coats of arms, saints, crosses, and others. It was always carried in front of the army next to hetman or otaman. A badge (znachok) was a name for a kurin's or company's (sotnia
Sotnia
Sotnia was a traditional division of the Cossack regiments. For example from earliest records of the Zaporizhian Sich, and means 'a hundred'. It is equivalent to company ....
) banners. There was a tradition when the newly elected colonel was required at his own expense prepare palanka's banner. One of the banners was preserved until 1845 in Kuban
Kuban
Kuban is a geographic region of Southern Russia surrounding the Kuban River, on the Black Sea between the Don Steppe, Volga Delta and the Caucasus...
and was fabricated out of tissue of two colors: yellow and blue. Kettledrums (lytavry) were large copper boilers that were fitted with a leather which served for transmission of various signals (calling cossacks to a council, raising an alarm etc.).
Each item of kleinody was granted to a clearly assigned member of cossack officership (starshina
Starshina
Starshina, or Starshyna , initially was a Cossacks officership, but in Soviet times was used as the top non-commissioned officer.Among Cossacks and in Ukraine, starshina was a collective noun for categories of officership or a military elite: junior starshina , general starshina , military...
- seniors). For example, in Zaporizhian Host bulawa was given to the otaman; khoruhva - to the whole host although carried by a khorunzhy; bunchuk also was given to otaman, but carried by a bunchuzhny or bunchuk comrade; the seal was preserved by a military judge, while seals of kurin - to kurin otaman and seals of palanka - to colonel of a certain palanka; kettledrums were in possession of a dovbysh (drummer); staffs - to a military yesaul
Yesaul
Yesaul, or Osaul , , a post and a rank in the Ukrainian and Russian Cossack units.The first records of the rank imply that it was introduced by Stefan Batory, King of Poland in 1576.-Cossacks in Russia:...
; badges were given to all 38 kurins in possession to the assigned badge comrades. All items of kleidony excepts of kettledrum sticks were stored in the Sich's Pokrova church treasury and were taking out only on a special order of kish otaman. The kettledrum sticks were kept in the kurin with the assigned dovbysh. Sometimes part of kleidony was considered a great silver inkwell
Inkwell
An inkwell is a small jar or container, often made of glass, porcelain, silver, brass, or pewter, used for holding ink in a place convenient for the person who is writing...
(kalamar), an attribute of a military scribe (pysar) of Zaporizhian Host. Similar kleinods had the officership of the Cossack Hetmanate
Cossack Hetmanate
The Hetmanate or Zaporizhian Host was the Ruthenian Cossack state in the Central Ukraine between 1649 and 1782.The Hetmanate was founded by first Ukrainian hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky during the Khmelnytsky Uprising . In 1654 it pledged its allegiance to Muscovy during the Council of Pereyaslav,...
, cossacks of Kuban, Danube, and other cossack societies.
Upon the destruction of the Sich and liquidation of cossacks (in Ukraine) the kleidony were gathered and given away for storage in Hermitage
Hermitage Museum
The State Hermitage is a museum of art and culture in Saint Petersburg, Russia. One of the largest and oldest museums of the world, it was founded in 1764 by Catherine the Great and has been opened to the public since 1852. Its collections, of which only a small part is on permanent display,...
and Transfiguration Cathedral
Transfiguration Cathedral (Saint Petersburg)
Transfiguration Cathedral is an Eastern Orthodox cathedral belonging to the Diocese of St. Petersburg. It is located on Transfiguration Square , just off Liteyny Prospekt near the Chernyshevskaya metro station...
in Saint Petersburg
Saint Petersburg
Saint Petersburg is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea...
, Kremlin Armoury
Kremlin Armoury
The Kremlin Armory is one of the oldest museums of Moscow, established in 1808 and located in the Moscow Kremlin .The Kremlin Armoury originated as the royal arsenal in 1508. Until the transfer of the court to St Petersburg, the Armoury was in charge of producing, purchasing and storing weapons,...
in Moscow
Moscow
Moscow is the capital, the most populous city, and the most populous federal subject of Russia. The city is a major political, economic, cultural, scientific, religious, financial, educational, and transportation centre of Russia and the continent...
as well as other places of storage. By the end of 19th century the Hermitage stored 17 kurin banners and one khoruhva, the Transfiguration Cathedral contained 20 kurin banners, three bunchuks, one silver bulawa, and one silver gold-covered baton. Today the fate of those national treasures of Ukrainian people is unknown. After the February Revolution
February Revolution
The February Revolution of 1917 was the first of two revolutions in Russia in 1917. Centered around the then capital Petrograd in March . Its immediate result was the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II, the end of the Romanov dynasty, and the end of the Russian Empire...
in 1917 the Russian Provisional Government
Russian Provisional Government
The Russian Provisional Government was the short-lived administrative body which sought to govern Russia immediately following the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II . On September 14, the State Duma of the Russian Empire was officially dissolved by the newly created Directorate, and the country was...
adopted the decisions of returning them to Ukraine, however, due to the events of the October Revolution
October Revolution
The October Revolution , also known as the Great October Socialist Revolution , Red October, the October Uprising or the Bolshevik Revolution, was a political revolution and a part of the Russian Revolution of 1917...
of the same year the decision was not executed. With the proclamation of independence the Ukrainian government has risen in front of leadership of the Russian Federation the issue of returning the national cultural valuables, however no specific agreements were ever reached.
Alliance with Russia
Treaty of Pereyaslav
The Treaty of Pereyaslav is known in history more as the Council of Pereiaslav.Council of Pereyalslav was a meeting between the representative of the Russian Tsar, Prince Vasili Baturlin who presented a royal decree, and Bohdan Khmelnytsky as the leader of Cossack Hetmanate. During the council...
in 1654, Ukraine became a suzerainty
Suzerainty
Suzerainty occurs where a region or people is a tributary to a more powerful entity which controls its foreign affairs while allowing the tributary vassal state some limited domestic autonomy. The dominant entity in the suzerainty relationship, or the more powerful entity itself, is called a...
under the protection of the Russian Tsar, although for a considerable period of time it enjoyed nearly complete autonomy
Autonomy
Autonomy is a concept found in moral, political and bioethical philosophy. Within these contexts, it is the capacity of a rational individual to make an informed, un-coerced decision...
. After Khmelnytsky
Bohdan Khmelnytsky
Bohdan Zynoviy Mykhailovych Khmelnytsky was a hetman of the Zaporozhian Cossack Hetmanate of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . He led an uprising against the Commonwealth and its magnates which resulted in the creation of a Cossack state...
's death in 1657, his successor, Ivan Vyhovsky
Ivan Vyhovsky
Ivan Vyhovsky was a hetman of the Ukrainian Cossacks during three years of the Russo-Polish War . He was the successor to the famous hetman and rebel leader Bohdan Khmelnytsky...
, alarmed by the growing Russian interference in the affairs of the Hetmanate, initiated a turn towards Poland. An attempt was made to return to the three-constituent Commonwealth of nations with the Zaporozhian cossacks joining the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth by signing the Treaty of Hadiach
Treaty of Hadiach
The Treaty of Hadiach was a treaty signed on 16 September 1658 in Hadiach between representatives of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Cossacks...
(1658). The treaty, ratified by the Polish Sejm
Sejm
The Sejm is the lower house of the Polish parliament. The Sejm is made up of 460 deputies, or Poseł in Polish . It is elected by universal ballot and is presided over by a speaker called the Marshal of the Sejm ....
(parliament), was rejected at the Hermanivka Rada by the Cossack rank and file, which would not accept a union with Catholic
Catholic
The word catholic comes from the Greek phrase , meaning "on the whole," "according to the whole" or "in general", and is a combination of the Greek words meaning "about" and meaning "whole"...
Poland that they perceived as an oppressor of Orthodox Christianity
Orthodox Christianity
The term Orthodox Christianity may refer to:* the Eastern Orthodox Church and its various geographical subdivisions...
. The angered cossacks executed Polkovnyks (colonels) Prokip Vereshchaka and Stepan Sulyma, Vyhovsky's associates at the Polish Sejm and Vyhovsky himself narrowly escaped death.
Cossack Hetmanate
The Hetmanate or Zaporizhian Host was the Ruthenian Cossack state in the Central Ukraine between 1649 and 1782.The Hetmanate was founded by first Ukrainian hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky during the Khmelnytsky Uprising . In 1654 it pledged its allegiance to Muscovy during the Council of Pereyaslav,...
, where the hetmans ruled. The Zaporozhians elected their own leaders, known as Kosh otaman, for one-year terms. In this period, friction between the cossacks of Hetmanate and the Zaporozhians escalated.
Cossacks who in the past fought for their independence from Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was a dualistic state of Poland and Lithuania ruled by a common monarch. It was the largest and one of the most populous countries of 16th- and 17th‑century Europe with some and a multi-ethnic population of 11 million at its peak in the early 17th century...
, were involved into several uprisings against the Russian Tsar, in fear of losing their privileges and autonomy. In 1709, for example, the Zaporozhian Host led by Kost Hordiienko joined Hetman Ivan Mazepa
Ivan Mazepa
Ivan Stepanovych Mazepa , Cossack Hetman of the Hetmanate in Left-bank Ukraine, from 1687–1708. He was famous as a patron of the arts, and also played an important role in the Battle of Poltava where after learning of Peter I's intent to relieve him as acting Hetman of Ukraine and replace him...
against Russia. Mazepa was previously a trusted adviser and close friend to the Russian Emperor Peter the Great but allied himself with Charles XII of Sweden
Charles XII of Sweden
Charles XII also Carl of Sweden, , Latinized to Carolus Rex, Turkish: Demirbaş Şarl, also known as Charles the Habitué was the King of the Swedish Empire from 1697 to 1718...
against Peter I. After the defeat at the Battle of Poltava
Battle of Poltava
The Battle of Poltava on 27 June 1709 was the decisive victory of Peter I of Russia over the Swedish forces under Field Marshal Carl Gustav Rehnskiöld in one of the battles of the Great Northern War. It is widely believed to have been the beginning of Sweden's decline as a Great Power; the...
Peter ordered a retaliatory destruction of the Sich.
With the death of Mazepa in Bessarabia
Bessarabia
Bessarabia is a historical term for the geographic region in Eastern Europe bounded by the Dniester River on the east and the Prut River on the west....
in 1709, his council elected his former general chancellor, Pylyp Orlyk
Pylyp Orlyk
Pylyp Stepanovych Orlyk Pylyp Stepanovych Orlyk Pylyp Stepanovych Orlyk (born on October 11, 1672 in Kosuta, Ashmyany county, Grand Duchy of Lithuania (today in Vileyka Raion, Belarus), died on May 26, 1742 in Jassy, Principality of Moldavia (today Iaşi, Romania) was a Zaporozhian Cossack...
, as his successor. Orlyk issued the project of the Constitution, where he promised to limit the authority of the Hetman, preserve the privileged position of the Zaporozhians, take measures towards achieving social equality among them, and steps towards the separation of Ukraine from the Russian State—should he manage to obtain power in Ukraine. With the support of Charles XII, Orlyk made an alliance with the Crimean Tatars
Crimean Tatars
Crimean Tatars or Crimeans are a Turkic ethnic group that originally resided in Crimea. They speak the Crimean Tatar language...
and Ottomans against Russia, but following the early successes of their 1711 attack on Russia, their campaign was defeated, and Orlyk returned into exile. The Zaporozhians built a new Sich under Ottoman protection, the Oleshky Sich on the lower Dnieper.
Although some of the Zaporozhian cossacks returned to Moscow's protection, their popular leader Kost Hordiienko was resolute in his anti-Russian attitude and no rapprochement
Rapprochement
In international relations, a rapprochement, which comes from the French word rapprocher , is a re-establishment of cordial relations, as between two countries...
was possible until his death in 1733.
Annexation by the Russian Empire
Over the years the friction between the Cossacks and the Russian tsarist government lessened, and privileges were traded for a reduction in Cossack autonomy. The Ukrainian Cossacks who did not side with Mazepa elected Ivan SkoropadskyIvan Skoropadsky
Ivan Skoropadsky was a Hetman of the Ukrainian Cossacks, and the successor to the famous Hetman Ivan Mazepa.- Biography:...
, one of the "anti-Mazepist" Polkovnyks (Colonels) as their Hetman. While advocating for the preservation for the Hetmanate autonomy and privileges of Cossack nobility, Skoropadsky was careful to avoid open confrontation, and remained loyal to the union with Russia. To accommodate Russian military needs, Skoropadsky allowed for stationing of ten Russian regiment
Regiment
A regiment is a major tactical military unit, composed of variable numbers of batteries, squadrons or battalions, commanded by a colonel or lieutenant colonel...
s in the territory of the Hetmanate. At the same time, Cossacks took part in the construction, fortification and channel development projects in Saint Petersburg
Saint Petersburg
Saint Petersburg is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea...
, to establish a new Northern Russian capital. Many did not return, and it is often stated that St. Peterburg "was built on bones".
In 1734, as Russia was preparing for a new war against the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
, an agreement was made between Russia and the Zaporozhian cossacks. Under the Treaty of Lubny, the Zaporozhian Cossacks regained all of their former lands, privileges, laws and customs, in exchange for serving under the command of a Russian Army stationed in Kiev
Kiev
Kiev or Kyiv is the capital and the largest city of Ukraine, located in the north central part of the country on the Dnieper River. The population as of the 2001 census was 2,611,300. However, higher numbers have been cited in the press....
. A new sich
Sich
A sich is the administrative and military centre for Cossacks and especially the Zaporizhian Cossacks. It is derived from the Ukrainian word siktý, "to chop", meaning to clear a forest for an encampment, or to build a fortification with the trees that have been chopped down.The Zaporizhian Sich...
(Nova Sich) was built to replace the one that had been destroyed by Peter I
Peter I of Russia
Peter the Great, Peter I or Pyotr Alexeyevich Romanov Dates indicated by the letters "O.S." are Old Style. All other dates in this article are New Style. ruled the Tsardom of Russia and later the Russian Empire from until his death, jointly ruling before 1696 with his half-brother, Ivan V...
. Concerned about the possibility of Russian interference in Zaporozhia's internal affairs, the Cossacks began to settle their lands with Ukrainian peasants fleeing serfdom
Serfdom
Serfdom is the status of peasants under feudalism, specifically relating to Manorialism. It was a condition of bondage or modified slavery which developed primarily during the High Middle Ages in Europe and lasted to the mid-19th century...
in Polish and Russian proper. By 1762, 33,700 Cossacks and over 150,000 peasants populated Zaporozhia.
By the late 18th century, much of the Cossack officer class in Ukraine was incorporated into the Imperial Russian nobility
Russian nobility
The Russian nobility arose in the 14th century and essentially governed Russia until the October Revolution of 1917.The Russian word for nobility, Dvoryanstvo , derives from the Russian word dvor , meaning the Court of a prince or duke and later, of the tsar. A nobleman is called dvoryanin...
(Dvoryanstvo), but many of the rank and file Cossacks, including a substantial portion of the old Zaporozhians, were reduced to peasant status. They were able to maintain their freedom and continued to provide refuge for those fleeing serfdom in Russia and Poland, including followers of the Russian Cossack Yemelyan Pugachev
Yemelyan Pugachev
Yemelyan Ivanovich Pugachov , was a pretender to the Russian throne who led a great Cossack insurrection during the reign of Catherine II...
, which aroused the anger of Russian Empress Catherine II. As a result, by 1775 the number of runaway serfs from the Hetmanate
Hetmanate
The Ukrainian State or The Hetmanate was a short-lived polity in Ukraine, installed by Ukrainian Cossacks and military organizations under the support of the Central Powers, after disbanding the Central Rada of the Ukrainian National Republic on 28 April 1918.-History:On April 29, 1918 the head...
and Polish-ruled Ukraine to Zaporizhiya
Zaporizhia (region)
Zaporizhia , Russian: Запоро́жье, Zaporozhye) is a historical region which is situated about the Dnieper River, below the Dnieper rapids , , hence the name, translated as "territory beyond the rapids"...
rose to 100,000.
After the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca
Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca
The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca was signed on 21 July 1774, in Küçük Kaynarca , Dobruja between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire after the Ottoman Empire was defeated in the...
, which annexed the Crimean Khanate
Crimean Khanate
Crimean Khanate, or Khanate of Crimea , was a state ruled by Crimean Tatars from 1441 to 1783. Its native name was . Its khans were the patrilineal descendants of Toqa Temür, the thirteenth son of Jochi and grandson of Genghis Khan...
into Russia, the need for further southern frontier defence (which the Zaporozhians carried out) no longer existed. Colonisation of New Russia began, one of the colonies, located just next to the lands of the Zaporozhian Sich was New Serbia. This escalated conflicts over land ownership with the Cossacks which often turned violent.
The end of the Zaporozhian Host (1775)
The decision to disband the Sich was adopted at the court council of Empress Catherine IICatherine II of Russia
Catherine II, also known as Catherine the Great , Empress of Russia, was born in Stettin, Pomerania, Prussia on as Sophie Friederike Auguste von Anhalt-Zerbst-Dornburg...
on May 7, 1775. General Pyotr Tekeli received orders to occupy the main Zaporozhian fortress, the Sich, and liquidate it. The plan was kept secret and regiments returning from the Russo-Turkish war, in which Cossacks also participated, were mobilized for the operation. They included 31 regiments (65,000 men in total). The attack took place on May 15, and continued to June 8. The order was given by Grigory Potemkin
Grigori Alexandrovich Potemkin
Prince Grigory Aleksandrovich Potemkin-Tavricheski was a Russian military leader, statesman, nobleman and favorite of Catherine the Great. He died during negotiations over the Treaty of Jassy, which ended a war with the Ottoman Empire that he had overseen....
, who formally became an honorary Zaporozhian Cossack under the name of Hrytsko Nechesa a few years prior. Potemkin, in his turn, was given a direct order from Empress Catherine II, which she explained in her Decree of August 8, 1775:
On June 5, 1775, General Tekeli's forces divided into 5 detachments and surrounded the Sich
Sich
A sich is the administrative and military centre for Cossacks and especially the Zaporizhian Cossacks. It is derived from the Ukrainian word siktý, "to chop", meaning to clear a forest for an encampment, or to build a fortification with the trees that have been chopped down.The Zaporizhian Sich...
with artillery and infantry. The lack of southern borders and enemies in the past years had a profound effect on the combat-ability of the Cossacks, who realised the Russian infantry was to destroy them only after being surrounded. To trick the Cossacks, a rumour was spread that the army was crossing Cossack lands en route to guard the borders. The surprise encirclement put a devastating blow to the morale of the Cossacks.
Petro Kalnyshevsky
Petro Kalnyshevsky
Kalnyshevsky Petro was the last Koshovyi Otaman of the Zaporozhian Host, serving in 1762 and from 1765 to 1775. Kalnyshevsky was the Hero in the Russo-Turkish war of 1768-1774 and was honoured with a gold medal with brilliants for courage.Being the leader of the Zaporozhian Host, Kalnyshevsky...
was given two hours to decide on the Empress's ultimatum
Ultimatum
An ultimatum is a demand whose fulfillment is requested in a specified period of time and which is backed up by a threat to be followed through in case of noncompliance. An ultimatum is generally the final demand in a series of requests...
. Under the guidance of a starshyna Lyakh, behind Kalnyshevky's back a conspiracy was formed with a group of 50 Cossacks to go fishing in the river Ingul next to the Southern Buh in Ottoman provinces. The pretext was enough to allow the Russians to let the Cossacks out of the siege, who were joined by five thousand others. The fleeing Cossacks traveled to the Danube Delta
Danube Delta
The Danube Delta is the second largest river delta in Europe, after the Volga Delta, and is the best preserved on the continent. The greater part of the Danube Delta lies in Romania , while its northern part, on the left bank of the Chilia arm, is situated in Ukraine . The approximate surface is...
where they formed the new Danube Sich, under the protectorate of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
.
When Tekeli became aware of the escape, there was little left to do for the remaining 12 thousand Cossacks. The Sich was razed to the ground. The Cossacks were disarmed in the mostly bloodless operation while their treasury and archives were confiscated. Petro Kalnyshevsky
Petro Kalnyshevsky
Kalnyshevsky Petro was the last Koshovyi Otaman of the Zaporozhian Host, serving in 1762 and from 1765 to 1775. Kalnyshevsky was the Hero in the Russo-Turkish war of 1768-1774 and was honoured with a gold medal with brilliants for courage.Being the leader of the Zaporozhian Host, Kalnyshevsky...
was arrested and exiled to the Solovki
Solovki
The Solovki prison camp was located on the Solovetsky Islands, in the White Sea). It was the "mother of the GULAG" according to Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn...
, where he lived in confinement to 112 years of age. Most upper level Cossack Council members, such as Pavlo Holovaty
Pavlo Holovaty
Pavlo Andriyovych Holovaty was a Ukrainian military figure, a Kosh Otoman of the Zaporozhian Sich and last military judge of the Zaporozhian Cossack Host...
and Ivan Hloba, were repressed and exiled as well, although lower level commanders and rank and file Cossacks were allowed to join the Russian hussar
Hussar
Hussar refers to a number of types of light cavalry which originated in Hungary in the 14th century, tracing its roots from Serbian medieval cavalry tradition, brought to Hungary in the course of the Serb migrations, which began in the late 14th century....
and dragoon
Dragoon
The word dragoon originally meant mounted infantry, who were trained in horse riding as well as infantry fighting skills. However, usage altered over time and during the 18th century, dragoons evolved into conventional light cavalry units and personnel...
regiments.
Aftermath
The after-effects of the Sich's destruction did not aid the Russian Empire. Supporting the increase in the privileges gained by the higher ranking leadership put a strain in the budget, whilst the stricter regulations of the regular Russian Army prevented many other Cossacks from integrating. The existence of the Danubian SichDanubian Sich
The Danubian Sich was a fortified settlement of Zaporozhian Cossacks who settled in the territory of the Ottoman Empire after their previous host was disbanded and the Zaporizhian Sich was destroyed....
, who would now support the Ottoman Empire in the next war was also troublesome for the Russians.
In 1784 Potemkin formed the Host of the Loyal Zaporozhians (Войско верных Запорожцев) and settled them between the Southern Bug
Southern Bug
The Southern Bug, also called Southern Buh), is a river located in Ukraine. The source of the river is in the west of Ukraine, in the Volyn-Podillia Upland, about 145 km from the Polish border, and flows southeasterly into the Bug Estuary through the southern steppes...
and Dniester
Dniester
The Dniester is a river in Eastern Europe. It runs through Ukraine and Moldova and separates most of Moldova's territory from the breakaway de facto state of Transnistria.-Names:...
rivers. For their invaluable service during the Russo-Turkish War, 1787-1792 they were rewarded with the Kuban
Kuban
Kuban is a geographic region of Southern Russia surrounding the Kuban River, on the Black Sea between the Don Steppe, Volga Delta and the Caucasus...
land and migrated there in 1792.
In 1828, the Danubian Sich
Danubian Sich
The Danubian Sich was a fortified settlement of Zaporozhian Cossacks who settled in the territory of the Ottoman Empire after their previous host was disbanded and the Zaporizhian Sich was destroyed....
ceased to exist after it was pardoned by Emperor Nicholas I, and under amnesty settled on the shores of the Northern Azov
Azov
-External links:** *...
between Berdyansk and Mariupol
Mariupol
Mariupol , formerly known as Zhdanov , is a port city in southeastern Ukraine. It is located on the coast of the Azov Sea, at the mouth of the Kalmius River. Mariupol is the largest city in Priazovye - a geographical region around Azov Sea, divided by Russia and Ukraine - and is also a popular sea...
forming the Azov Cossack Host
Azov Cossack Host
Azov Cossack Host was a Cossack host that existed on the northern shore of the Sea of Azov, between 1832 and 1862.The host was made up of several Cossack groups who were re-settled there. The most numerous were the former Danubian Sich Cossacks, who previously returned to Russian Patronage in 1828...
. Finally in 1862 they too migrated to the Kuban and merged with the Kuban Cossack Host. The Kuban Cossacks served Russia's interests right up to the October Revolution
October Revolution
The October Revolution , also known as the Great October Socialist Revolution , Red October, the October Uprising or the Bolshevik Revolution, was a political revolution and a part of the Russian Revolution of 1917...
and their descendants are now undergoing active regeneration both culturally and militarily. The 30,000 descendants of those cossacks who refused to return to Russia in 1828 still live in the Danube delta region of Romania
Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea...
, where they pursue the traditional Cossack lifestyle of hunting and fishing and are known as Rusnaks.
Legacy
Although in 1775 the Zaporozhian Host formally ceased to exist, it left a profound cultural, political and military legacy on UkraineUkraine
Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after Russia...
, Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
, Poland
Poland
Poland , officially the Republic of Poland , is a country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north...
, Turkey
Turkey
Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
and other states that came in contact with it.
The shifting alliances in the Cossacks have generated a large amount of controversy, especially during the 20th century. For Russians the Pereyaslav Rada gave Tsardom of Russia
Tsardom of Russia
The Tsardom of Russia was the name of the centralized Russian state from Ivan IV's assumption of the title of Tsar in 1547 till Peter the Great's foundation of the Russian Empire in 1721.From 1550 to 1700, Russia grew 35,000 km2 a year...
, and later Russian Empire
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
the impulse to take over the Ruthenia
Ruthenia
Ruthenia is the Latin word used onwards from the 13th century, describing lands of the Ancient Rus in European manuscripts. Its geographic and culturo-ethnic name at that time was applied to the parts of Eastern Europe. Essentially, the word is a false Latin rendering of the ancient place name Rus...
n lands, claim rights as the sole successor of the Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rus was a medieval polity in Eastern Europe, from the late 9th to the mid 13th century, when it disintegrated under the pressure of the Mongol invasion of 1237–1240....
and for the Russian Tsar to be declared the protector of all Russias, culminating in the Pan-Slavism
Pan-Slavism
Pan-Slavism was a movement in the mid-19th century aimed at unity of all the Slavic peoples. The main focus was in the Balkans where the South Slavs had been ruled for centuries by other empires, Byzantine Empire, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Venice...
movement of the 19th century.
Today, most of the modern descendants of the Zaporozhians, the Kuban Cossacks
Kuban Cossacks
Kuban Cossacks or Kubanians are Cossacks who live in the Kuban region of Russia. Most of the Kuban Cossacks are of descendants of two major groups who were re-settled in the Western Northern Caucasus during the Caucasus War in the late 18th century...
, remain loyal towards Russia, many fought in the local conflicts following the dissolution of the Soviet Union and today, just like before the revolution when they made up the private guard of the Emperor, the majority of the Kremlin Presidential Regiment
Kremlin Regiment
Kremlin Regiment is a unique military regiment, a part of Russian Federal Protective Service with the status of a special unit. The regiment ensures the security of the Kremlin and its treasures and guards the highest state officials...
is made from Kuban Cossacks.
For Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Zaporozhian Cossacks, and the Khmelnytskyi Uprising effectively marked the beginning of its finale with the Deluge
The Deluge (Polish history)
The term Deluge denotes a series of mid-17th century campaigns in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In a wider sense it applies to the period between the Khmelnytsky Uprising of 1648 and the Truce of Andrusovo in 1667, thus comprising the Polish–Lithuanian theaters of the Russo-Polish and...
, which led to the gradual demise of the Commonwealth ending the Partitions of Poland
Partitions of Poland
The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland for 123 years...
in the late 18th century.
A similar fate awaited both the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire, having endured numerous raids and attacks from them both, the Zaporozhian Cossacks aided the Russian Army in ending Turkey's ambitions of expanding into northern and central Europe, and like Poland, after the loss of Crimea, the Ottoman Empire began to demise.
However the most important historical legacy of the Zaporozhian Cossacks is found in modern Ukraine
Ukraine
Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after Russia...
. It was their independence and will, and the memory left by their demise that would in the latter half of the 19th century shape and influence the idea of Ukrainian self-determination
Ukrainian nationalism
Ukrainian nationalism refers to the Ukrainian version of nationalism.Although the current Ukrainian state emerged fairly recently, some historians, such as Mykhailo Hrushevskyi, Orest Subtelny and Paul Magosci have cited the medieval state of Kievan Rus' as an early precedents of specifically...
and independence. Ukrainian historians, such as Adrian Kaschenko (1858–1921), Olena Apanovych
Olena Apanovich
Olena Apanovych was a Ukrainian historian, researcher of Zaporozhian Cossackdom.-Biography:Olena Apanovych was born in Melekes of Simbirsk Governorate , Russia, in the family of the railroad clerk. By the memories of her relatives her mother gave birth to Olena in the railroad car...
and others go on to interpret the final abolishment of the Zaporizhian Sich in 1775, as the destruction of the Cossack historic stronghold perceived as the bastion of protection of the Ukrainians and their ways of life, was the final blow that brought Ukrainians to the total submission of the Russian Empire.
The Ukrainian aspect of the Zaporozhians would be the stimulus of the emerging Ukrainian self awareness in the middle of the 19th century and culminate in a distinct Ukrainian nationality who would claim the Zaporozhian Cossacks as their progenitors. During the Soviet times this point of view was slightly watered down in order to prevent the rise of nationalist sentiment, but at the same time supported (and becoming official) to create a negative image of the Russian Imperialist policies, yet retaining the Russophilic tendency of the Zaporozhians to justify Ukraine being part of the Soviet Union.
Zaporozhian attire, songs and music found its way into official state dance and music ensembles, which stylized the image of Ukraine in the years to come. Since the Independence of Ukraine in 1991
Declaration of Independence of Ukraine
The Act of Declaration of Independence of Ukraine was adopted by the Ukrainian parliament on August 24, 1991. The Act established Ukraine as an independent, democratic state....
, attempts at regenerating the Cossack lifestyle have diverged into politics, horsemanship and cultural endeavours.
See also
- Cossack hostCossack hostA Cossack host or Cossack viysko was an administrative subdivision of Cossacks in Imperial Russia...
- Crimean KhanateCrimean KhanateCrimean Khanate, or Khanate of Crimea , was a state ruled by Crimean Tatars from 1441 to 1783. Its native name was . Its khans were the patrilineal descendants of Toqa Temür, the thirteenth son of Jochi and grandson of Genghis Khan...
- Dmytro YavornytskyDmytro YavornytskyDmytro Yavornytsky , was a noted Ukrainian historian, archeologist, ethnographer, folklorist, and lexicographer. He was one of the most prominent researchers of the Ukrainian Cossacks, especially the Zaporozhian Cossacks , and the author of their first general history...
- Hetmans of Ukrainian CossacksHetmans of Ukrainian CossacksHetman of Ukrainian Cossacks as a title was not officially recognized internationally until the creation of the Ukrainian Hetmanate. With the creation of Registered Cossacks units their leaders were unofficially referred to as hetmans, however officially the title was known as the "Senior of His...
- Jewish CossacksJewish CossacksOf the different branches of Cossacks the only one that documents allowing Jews into their society were the Cossacks of Ukraine. When Poland and Lithuania were merged by King Sigismund Augustus into one commonwealth the provinces of Volhynia, Podilia and the rest of Ukraine were separated from...
- Khmelnytsky UprisingKhmelnytsky UprisingThe Khmelnytsky Uprising, was a Cossack rebellion in the Ukraine between the years 1648–1657 which turned into a Ukrainian war of liberation from Poland...
- Kuban CossacksKuban CossacksKuban Cossacks or Kubanians are Cossacks who live in the Kuban region of Russia. Most of the Kuban Cossacks are of descendants of two major groups who were re-settled in the Western Northern Caucasus during the Caucasus War in the late 18th century...
- Mezhyhirskyi MonasteryMezhyhirskyi MonasteryThe Mezhyhirya Transfiguration Monastery is a ruined Eastern Orthodox monastery that used to serve as a historic Prince-residency during the Medieval times located near the city of Vyshhorod . Today, the territory it used to be located in is part of the Vyshhorod Raion of Kiev Oblast in northern...
- Sloboda UkraineSloboda UkraineSloboda Ukraine was a historical region which developed and flourished in the 17th and 18th centuries on the southwestern frontier of the Tsardom of Russia....
- Tatar invasionsTatar invasionsThe Mongol invasion of Europe from the east took place over the course of three centuries, from the Middle Ages to the early modern period.The terms Tatars or Tartars are applied to nomadic Turkic peoples who, themselves, were conquered by Mongols and incorporated into their horde...
- Taras BulbaTaras BulbaTaras Bulba is a romanticized historical novel by Nikolai Gogol. It tells the story of an old Zaporozhian Cossack, Taras Bulba, and his two sons, Andriy and Ostap. Taras’ sons studied at the Kiev Academy and return home...
- Zaporizhian SichZaporizhian SichZaporizhian Sich was socio-political, grassroot, military organization of Ukrainian cossacks placed beyond Dnieper rapids. Sich existed between the 16th and 18th centuries in the region around the today's Kakhovka Reservoir...