Algae fuel
Encyclopedia
Algae fuel might be an alternative to fossil fuel
and uses algae
as its source of natural deposits. Several companies and government agencies are funding efforts to reduce capital and operating costs and make algae fuel production commercially viable. Harvested algae, like fossil fuel, release when burnt but unlike fossil fuel the is taken out of the atmosphere by the growing algae.
High oil prices, competing demands between foods and other biofuel sources, and the world food crisis, have ignited interest in algaculture
(farming algae) for making vegetable oil, biodiesel
, bioethanol, biogasoline
, biomethanol, biobutanol and other biofuel
s, using land that is not suitable for agriculture. Among algal fuels' attractive characteristics: they do not affect fresh water
resources, can be produced using ocean and wastewater
, and are biodegradable and relatively harmless to the environment if spilled. Algae cost more per unit mass (as of 2010, food grade algae costs ~$5000/tonne), due to high capital and operating costs, yet are claimed to yield between 10 and 100 times more energy per unit area than other second-generation biofuel crops. One biofuels company has claimed that algae can produce more oil in an area the size of a two car garage than a football field of soybean
s, because almost the entire algal organism can use sunlight to produce lipids, or oil. The United States Department of Energy
estimates that if algae fuel replaced all the petroleum fuel in the United States, it would require 15000 square miles (38,849.8 km²) which is only 0.42% of the U.S. map. This is less than the area of corn
harvested in the United States in 2000. However, these claims remain unrealized, commercially. According to the head of the Algal Biomass Organization algae fuel can reach price parity with oil in 2018 if granted production tax credits.
of dry biomass in relation to the fresh biomass; e.g. if the dry mass factor is 5%, one would need 20 kg of wet algae (algae in the media) to get 1 kg of dry algae cells.
Lipid content is the percentage of oil in relation to the dry biomass needed to get it, i.e. if the algae lipid content is 40%, one would need 2.5 kg of dry algae to get 1 kg of oil.
content can be fermented into bioethanol and biobutanol.
may be the only viable method by which to produce enough automotive fuel to replace current world diesel usage. If algae-derived biodiesel were to replace the annual global production of 1.1bn tons of conventional diesel, a land mass of 57.3 million hectares would be required. This compares highly favourable to other biofuels.
Microalgae have much faster growth rates than terrestrial crops. The per unit area yield of oil from algae is estimated to be from between 5,000 to 20,000 US gallons per acre per year (4,700 to 18,000 m3/km2·a). This is 7 to 30 times greater than the next best crop, Chinese tallow
(700 US gal/acre·a or 650 m3/km2·a).
Studies show that some species of algae can produce up to 60% of their dry weight in the form of oil. Because the cells grow in aqueous suspension, where they have more efficient access to water, and dissolved nutrients, microalgae are capable of producing large amounts of biomass and usable oil in either high rate algal ponds or photobioreactors. This oil can then be turned into biodiesel
which could be sold for use in automobiles. Regional production of microalgae and processing into biofuels will provide economic benefits to rural communities.
or diatom
s using only a solar powered biorefinery
. This fuel has an energy density
10% less than gasoline
, and greater than that of either ethanol
or methanol
. In most gasoline engines, butanol can be used in place of gasoline with no modifications. In several tests, butanol consumption is similar to that of gasoline, and when blended with gasoline, provides better performance and corrosion resistance than that of ethanol or E85
.
The green waste left over from the algae oil extraction can be used to produce butanol.
BiobutanolMain article: Butanol fuel
is gasoline produced from biomass
such as algae
. Like traditionally produced gasoline, it contains between 6 (hexane
) and 12 (dodecane
) carbon atoms per molecule and can be used in internal-combustion engines.
a form of natural gas can be produced from algae in various methods, namely Gasification
, Pyrolysis
and Anaerobic Digestion
. In Gasification and Pyrolysis methods methane is extracted under high temperature and pressure. Anaerobic Digestion is a straight forward method involved in decomposition of algae into simple components then transforming it into fatty acids using microbes like acidific bacteria followed by removing any solid particles and finally adding methanogenic bacteria to release a gas mixture containing methane.
system which is being commercialized by BioFields
in Puerto Libertad
, Sonora
, Mexico utilizes seawater and industrial exhaust to produce ethanol.
, (processing the oil with an alcohol and a catalyst to produce biodiesel). The drawback is that it does require modifications to a normal diesel engine. Transesterified biodiesel
can be run in an unmodified modern diesel engine, provided the fuel system is using all non-rubber lines, o-rings and seals, which accounts for most diesel vehicles made after 1993. Viton is the best rubber-sustitute for older diesel vehicle fuel lines and components when running biodiesel. As of 2006, the new standard for petroleum diesel in the United States is ultra-low sulfur diesel
.
where methods like hydrocracking or hydrogenation
can be used to transform the vegetable oil into standard fuels like gasoline
and diesel.
Trials have been carried with aviation biofuel by Air New Zealand
, and Virgin Airlines
.
In February 2010, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
announced that the U.S. military was about to begin large-scale production oil from algal ponds into jet fuel. After extraction at a cost of $2 per gallon, the oil will be refined at less than $3 a gallon. A larger-scale refining operation, producing 50 million gallons a year, is expected to go into production in 2013, with the possibility of lower per gallon costs so that algae-based fuel would be competitive with fossil fuels. The projects, run by the companies SAIC
and General Atomics
, are expected to produce 1,000 gallons of oil per acre per year from algal ponds.
. As algae have a harvesting cycle of 1–10 days, it permits several harvests in a very short time frame, a differing strategy to yearly crops (Chisti 2007).
Algae can also be grown on land that is not suitable for other established crops, for instance, arid land, land with excessively saline soil, and drought-stricken land. This minimizes the issue of taking away pieces of land from the cultivation of food crops (Schenk et al. 2008). Algae can grow 20 to 30 times faster than food crops.
-laden water through plastic or borosilicate glass tubes (called "bioreactor
s" ) that are exposed to sunlight (and so called photobioreactor
s or PBR).
Running a PBR is more difficult than an open pond
, and more costly, but also more effective.
Algae can also grow on marginal lands, such as in desert
areas where the groundwater is saline, rather than utilize fresh water.
Because algae strains with lower lipid
content may grow as much as 30 times faster than those with high lipid content, the difficulties in efficient biodiesel production from algae lie in finding an algal strain, with a combination of high lipid content and fast growth rate, that isn't too difficult to harvest; and a cost-effective cultivation system (i.e., type of photobioreactor) that is best suited to that strain. There is also a need to provide concentrated to increase the rate of production.
In a closed system (not exposed to open air) there is not the problem of contamination by other
organisms blown in by the air. The problem for a closed system is finding a cheap source of sterile .
Several experimenters have found the from a smokestack works well for growing algae. To be economical, some experts think that algae farming for biofuels will have to be done as part of cogeneration
, where it can make use of waste heat, and help soak up pollution.
was the decision to focus their efforts exclusively on open-ponds; this makes the entire effort dependent upon the hardiness of the strain chosen, requiring it to be unnecessarily resilient in order to withstand wide swings in temperature and pH, and competition from invasive algae and bacteria. Open systems using a monoculture are also vulnerable to viral infection. The energy that a high-oil strain invests into the production of oil is energy that is not invested into the production of proteins or carbohydrates, usually resulting in the species being less hardy, or having a slower growth rate. Algal species with a lower oil content, not having to divert their energies away from growth, have an easier time in the harsher conditions of an open system.
Some open sewage ponds trial production has been done in Marlborough, New Zealand
.
. The preference towards microalgae is due largely to its less complex structure, fast growth rate, and high oil content (for some species). However, some research is being done into using seaweeds for biofuels, probably due to the high availability of this resource.
The following species listed are currently being studied for their suitability as a mass-oil producing crop, across various locations worldwide:
In addition, due to its high growth rate, Ulva
has been investigated as a fuel for use in the SOFT cycle, (SOFT stands for Solar Oxygen Fuel Turbine), a closed-cycle power generation system suitable for use in arid, subtropical regions.
Some commercial interests into large scale algal-cultivation systems are looking to tie in to existing infrastructures, such as cement factories, coal power plants, or sewage treatment facilities. This approach changes wastes into resources to provide the raw materials, and nutrients, for the system.
Aquaflow Bionomic Corporation of New Zealand
announced that it has produced its first sample of homegrown bio-diesel fuel with algae sourced from local sewerage
pond
s. A small quantity of laboratory produced oil was mixed with 95% regular diesel.
A feasibility study using marine microalgae in a photobioreactor is being done by The International Research Consortium on Continental Margins at the Jacobs University Bremen.
The Department of Environmental Science at Ateneo de Manila University
in the Philippines
, is working on producing biofuel from a local species of algae.
NBB
’s Feedstock Development program is addressing production of algae on the horizon to expand available material for biodiesel in a sustainable manner.
(N), phosphorus
(P), and potassium
(K), are important for plant growth and are essential parts of fertilizer. Silica and iron
, as well as several trace elements, may also be considered important marine nutrients as the lack of one can limit the growth of, or productivity in, an area.
, UK – home to The Famous Grouse
Whisky – percolate CO2 made during the whisky distillation through a microalgae bioreactor. Each tonne of microalgae absorbs two tonnes of CO2. Scottish Bioenergy, who run the project, sell the microalgae as high value, protein-rich food for fisheries. In the future, they will use the algae residues to produce renewable energy through anaerobic digestion
.
. If waste water is not processed before it reaches the algae, it will contaminate the algae in the reactor, and at the very least, kill much of the desired algae strain. In biogas
facilities, organic waste is often converted to a mixture of carbon dioxide, methane
, and organic fertilizer. Organic fertilizer that comes out of the digester
is liquid, and nearly suitable for algae growth, but it must first be cleaned and sterilized.
The utilization of wastewater and ocean water instead of freshwater is strongly advocated due to the continuing depletion of freshwater resources. However, heavy metals, trace metals, and other contaminants in wastewater can decrease the ability of cells to produce lipids biosynthetically and also impact various other workings in the machinery of cells. The same is true for ocean water, but the contaminants are found in different concentrations. Thus, agricultural-grade fertilizer is the preferred source of nutrients, but heavy metals are again a problem, especially for strains of algae that are susceptible to these metals. In open pond systems the use of strains of algae that can deal with high concentrations of heavy metals could prevent other organisms from infesting these systems (Schenk et al. 2008). In some instances it has even been shown that strains of algae can remove over 90% of nickel and zinc from industrial wastewater in relatively short periods of time (Chong, Wong et al. 1998).
Whereas technical problems, such as harvesting, are being addressed successfully by the industry, the high up-front investment of algae-to-biofuels facilities is seen by many as a major obstacle to the success of this technology. Only few studies on the economic viability are publicly available, and must often rely on the little data (often only engineering estimates) available in the public domain. Dmitrov examined the GreenFuels photobioreactor and estimated that algae oil would only be competitive at an oil price of $800 per barrel. A study by Alabi at al. examined raceways, photobioreactors and anaerobic fermenters to make biofuels from algae and found that photobioreactors are too expensive to make biofuels. Raceways might be cost-effective in warm climates with very low labor costs, and fermenters may become cost-effective subsequent to significant process improvements. The group found that capital cost, labor cost and operational costs (fertilizer, electricity, etc.) by themselves are too high for algae biofuels to be cost-competitive with conventional fuels. Similar results were found by others, suggesting that unless new, cheaper ways of harnessing algae for biofuels production are found, their great technical potential may never become economically accessible.
which are working on producing oil from algae include:University of Glasgow
, University of Brighton
, Cambridge University, University College London
, Imperial College London
, Cranfield University
and Newcastle University. In Spain
, it is also relevant the research carried out by the CSIC
´s Instituto de Bioquímica Vegetal y Fotosíntesis (Microalgae Biotechnology
Group, Seville
).
Ukraine
plans to produce biofuel using a special type of algae.
, launched in 1978, was a research program funded by the United States Department of Energy
(DoE) which was tasked with investigating the use of algae for the production of energy. The program initially focused efforts on the production of hydrogen
, shifting primary research to studying oil production in 1982. From 1982 until its end in 1996, the majority of the program research was focused on the production of transportation fuels, notably biodiesel
, from algae. In 1995, as part of overall efforts to lower budget demands, the DoE decided to end the program. Research stopped in 1996 and staff began compiling their research for publication.
US universities which are working on producing oil from algae include: The University of Arizona, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
,, University of California San Diego, University of Texas at Austin
, University of Maine
, University of Kansas
, The College of William and Mary, Northern Illinois university, University of Texas at San Antonio, Old Dominion University
, Utah State University
, New Mexico State University
, and Missouri University of Science and Technology
.
At the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
and the Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution the wastewater from domestic and industrial sources contain rich organic compounds that are being used to accelerate the growth of algae. The Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering at University of Georgia
is exploring microalgal biomass production using industrial wastewater. Algaewheel, based in Indianapolis, Indiana
, presented a proposal to build a facility in Cedar Lake, Indiana
that uses algae to treat municipal wastewater, using the sludge
byproduct to produce biofuel.
Sapphire Energy
(San Diego) has produced green crude from algae.
Solazyme
(South San Francisco, California
) has produced a fuel suitable for powering jet aircraft from algae.
, A2BE Carbon Capture Corporation, National Renewable Energy Labs, Scripps Institution of Oceanography
, Benemann Associates, Mont Vista Capital and Montana State University
.
Global air carriers Air New Zealand
, Continental
, Virgin Atlantic Airways
, and biofuel technology developer UOP
, a Honeywell
company, will be the first wave of aviation-related members, together with Boeing, to join Algal Biomass Organization.
The National Algae Association
(NAA) is a non-profit organization of algae researchers, algae production companies and the investment community who share the goal of commercializing algae oil as an alternative feedstock for the biofuels markets. The NAA gives its members a forum to efficiently evaluate various algae technologies for potential early stage company opportunities.
The European Algae Biomass Association
(EABA) is the European association representing both research and industry in the field of algae technologies, currently with 79 members. The association is headquartered in Florence, Italy.
The general objective of the European Algae Biomass Association (EABA) is to promote mutual interchange and cooperation in the field of biomass production and use, including biofuels uses and all other utilisations. It aims at creating, developing and maintaining solidarity and links between its Members and at defending their interests at European and international level. Its main target is to act as a catalyst for fostering synergies among scientists, industrialists and decision makers in order to promote the development of research, technology and industrial capacities in the field of Algae.
Pond Biofuels Inc. in Canada has grown algae directly off of a cement plant smokestack emissions, and used waste heat to dry the algae, as well.
Ocean Nutrition Canada
in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada has found a new strain of algae that appears capable of producing oil at a rate 60 times greater than other types of algae being used for the generation of biofuels.
VG Energy, a subsidiary of Viral Genetics Incorporated, claims to have discovered a new method of increasing algal lipid production by disrupting the metabolic pathways that would otherwise divert photosynthetic energy towards carbohydrate production. Using these techniques, the company states that lipid production could be increased several-fold, potentially making algal biofuels cost-competitive with existing fossil fuels.
Algae production from the warm water discharge of a nuclear power plant has been piloted by Patrick C. Kangas at Peach Bottom Atomic Power Station, owned by Exelon Corporation. This process takes advantage of the relatively high temperature water to sustain algae growth even during winter months.
Fossil fuel
Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms. The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of years, and sometimes exceeds 650 million years...
and uses algae
Algae
Algae are a large and diverse group of simple, typically autotrophic organisms, ranging from unicellular to multicellular forms, such as the giant kelps that grow to 65 meters in length. They are photosynthetic like plants, and "simple" because their tissues are not organized into the many...
as its source of natural deposits. Several companies and government agencies are funding efforts to reduce capital and operating costs and make algae fuel production commercially viable. Harvested algae, like fossil fuel, release when burnt but unlike fossil fuel the is taken out of the atmosphere by the growing algae.
High oil prices, competing demands between foods and other biofuel sources, and the world food crisis, have ignited interest in algaculture
Algaculture
Algaculture is a form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae.The majority of algae that are intentionally cultivated fall into the category of microalgae...
(farming algae) for making vegetable oil, biodiesel
Biodiesel
Biodiesel refers to a vegetable oil- or animal fat-based diesel fuel consisting of long-chain alkyl esters. Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting lipids with an alcohol....
, bioethanol, biogasoline
Biogasoline
Biogasoline is gasoline produced from biomass such as algae. Like traditionally produced gasoline, it contains between 6 and 12 carbon atoms per molecule and can be used in internal-combustion engines...
, biomethanol, biobutanol and other biofuel
Biofuel
Biofuel is a type of fuel whose energy is derived from biological carbon fixation. Biofuels include fuels derived from biomass conversion, as well as solid biomass, liquid fuels and various biogases...
s, using land that is not suitable for agriculture. Among algal fuels' attractive characteristics: they do not affect fresh water
Fresh Water
Fresh Water is the debut album by Australian rock and blues singer Alison McCallum, released in 1972. Rare for an Australian artist at the time, it came in a gatefold sleeve...
resources, can be produced using ocean and wastewater
Wastewater
Wastewater is any water that has been adversely affected in quality by anthropogenic influence. It comprises liquid waste discharged by domestic residences, commercial properties, industry, and/or agriculture and can encompass a wide range of potential contaminants and concentrations...
, and are biodegradable and relatively harmless to the environment if spilled. Algae cost more per unit mass (as of 2010, food grade algae costs ~$5000/tonne), due to high capital and operating costs, yet are claimed to yield between 10 and 100 times more energy per unit area than other second-generation biofuel crops. One biofuels company has claimed that algae can produce more oil in an area the size of a two car garage than a football field of soybean
Soybean
The soybean or soya bean is a species of legume native to East Asia, widely grown for its edible bean which has numerous uses...
s, because almost the entire algal organism can use sunlight to produce lipids, or oil. The United States Department of Energy
United States Department of Energy
The United States Department of Energy is a Cabinet-level department of the United States government concerned with the United States' policies regarding energy and safety in handling nuclear material...
estimates that if algae fuel replaced all the petroleum fuel in the United States, it would require 15000 square miles (38,849.8 km²) which is only 0.42% of the U.S. map. This is less than the area of corn
Maize
Maize known in many English-speaking countries as corn or mielie/mealie, is a grain domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mesoamerica in prehistoric times. The leafy stalk produces ears which contain seeds called kernels. Though technically a grain, maize kernels are used in cooking as a vegetable...
harvested in the United States in 2000. However, these claims remain unrealized, commercially. According to the head of the Algal Biomass Organization algae fuel can reach price parity with oil in 2018 if granted production tax credits.
Factors
Dry mass factor is the percentagePercentage
In mathematics, a percentage is a way of expressing a number as a fraction of 100 . It is often denoted using the percent sign, “%”, or the abbreviation “pct”. For example, 45% is equal to 45/100, or 0.45.Percentages are used to express how large/small one quantity is, relative to another quantity...
of dry biomass in relation to the fresh biomass; e.g. if the dry mass factor is 5%, one would need 20 kg of wet algae (algae in the media) to get 1 kg of dry algae cells.
Lipid content is the percentage of oil in relation to the dry biomass needed to get it, i.e. if the algae lipid content is 40%, one would need 2.5 kg of dry algae to get 1 kg of oil.
Fuels
The vegoil algae product can then be harvested and converted into biodiesel or green-colored crude oil. The algae’s carbohydrateCarbohydrate
A carbohydrate is an organic compound with the empirical formula ; that is, consists only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with a hydrogen:oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 . However, there are exceptions to this. One common example would be deoxyribose, a component of DNA, which has the empirical...
content can be fermented into bioethanol and biobutanol.
Biodiesel
Currently most research into efficient algal-oil production is being done in the private sector, but predictions from small scale production experiments bear out that using algae to produce biodieselBiodiesel
Biodiesel refers to a vegetable oil- or animal fat-based diesel fuel consisting of long-chain alkyl esters. Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting lipids with an alcohol....
may be the only viable method by which to produce enough automotive fuel to replace current world diesel usage. If algae-derived biodiesel were to replace the annual global production of 1.1bn tons of conventional diesel, a land mass of 57.3 million hectares would be required. This compares highly favourable to other biofuels.
Microalgae have much faster growth rates than terrestrial crops. The per unit area yield of oil from algae is estimated to be from between 5,000 to 20,000 US gallons per acre per year (4,700 to 18,000 m3/km2·a). This is 7 to 30 times greater than the next best crop, Chinese tallow
Chinese tallow
Sapium sebifera, formerly referred to as Triadica sebiferum, is commonly known as the Chinese tallow tree, Florida aspen, Chicken Tree, and Gray Popcorn Tree . The tree is native to eastern Asia, and is most commonly associated with eastern China, Taiwan, and Japan...
(700 US gal/acre·a or 650 m3/km2·a).
Studies show that some species of algae can produce up to 60% of their dry weight in the form of oil. Because the cells grow in aqueous suspension, where they have more efficient access to water, and dissolved nutrients, microalgae are capable of producing large amounts of biomass and usable oil in either high rate algal ponds or photobioreactors. This oil can then be turned into biodiesel
Biodiesel
Biodiesel refers to a vegetable oil- or animal fat-based diesel fuel consisting of long-chain alkyl esters. Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting lipids with an alcohol....
which could be sold for use in automobiles. Regional production of microalgae and processing into biofuels will provide economic benefits to rural communities.
Biobutanol
Butanol can be made from algaeAlgae
Algae are a large and diverse group of simple, typically autotrophic organisms, ranging from unicellular to multicellular forms, such as the giant kelps that grow to 65 meters in length. They are photosynthetic like plants, and "simple" because their tissues are not organized into the many...
or diatom
Diatom
Diatoms are a major group of algae, and are one of the most common types of phytoplankton. Most diatoms are unicellular, although they can exist as colonies in the shape of filaments or ribbons , fans , zigzags , or stellate colonies . Diatoms are producers within the food chain...
s using only a solar powered biorefinery
Biorefinery
A biorefinery is a facility that integrates biomass conversion processes and equipment to produce fuels, power, heat, and value-added chemicals from biomass...
. This fuel has an energy density
Energy density
Energy density is a term used for the amount of energy stored in a given system or region of space per unit volume. Often only the useful or extractable energy is quantified, which is to say that chemically inaccessible energy such as rest mass energy is ignored...
10% less than gasoline
Gasoline
Gasoline , or petrol , is a toxic, translucent, petroleum-derived liquid that is primarily used as a fuel in internal combustion engines. It consists mostly of organic compounds obtained by the fractional distillation of petroleum, enhanced with a variety of additives. Some gasolines also contain...
, and greater than that of either ethanol
Ethanol fuel
Ethanol fuel is ethanol , the same type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It is most often used as a motor fuel, mainly as a biofuel additive for gasoline. World ethanol production for transport fuel tripled between 2000 and 2007 from 17 billion to more than 52 billion litres...
or methanol
Methanol fuel
Methanol is an alternative fuel for internal combustion and other engines, either in combination with gasoline or directly . It is used in racing cars and in China...
. In most gasoline engines, butanol can be used in place of gasoline with no modifications. In several tests, butanol consumption is similar to that of gasoline, and when blended with gasoline, provides better performance and corrosion resistance than that of ethanol or E85
E85
E85 is an abbreviation for an ethanol fuel blend of up to 85% denatured ethanol fuel and gasoline or other hydrocarbon by volume. E85 is commonly used by flex-fuel vehicles in the US, Canada, and Europe. Some of the benefits of E85 over conventional gasoline powered vehicles include the potential...
.
The green waste left over from the algae oil extraction can be used to produce butanol.
BiobutanolMain article: Butanol fuel
Biogasoline
BiogasolineBiogasoline
Biogasoline is gasoline produced from biomass such as algae. Like traditionally produced gasoline, it contains between 6 and 12 carbon atoms per molecule and can be used in internal-combustion engines...
is gasoline produced from biomass
Biomass
Biomass, as a renewable energy source, is biological material from living, or recently living organisms. As an energy source, biomass can either be used directly, or converted into other energy products such as biofuel....
such as algae
Algae
Algae are a large and diverse group of simple, typically autotrophic organisms, ranging from unicellular to multicellular forms, such as the giant kelps that grow to 65 meters in length. They are photosynthetic like plants, and "simple" because their tissues are not organized into the many...
. Like traditionally produced gasoline, it contains between 6 (hexane
Hexane
Hexane is a hydrocarbon with the chemical formula C6H14; that is, an alkane with six carbon atoms.The term may refer to any of four other structural isomers with that formula, or to a mixture of them. In the IUPAC nomenclature, however, hexane is the unbranched isomer ; the other four structures...
) and 12 (dodecane
Dodecane
Dodecane is a liquid alkane hydrocarbon with the chemical formula CH310CH3 , an oily liquid of the paraffin series. It has 355 isomers....
) carbon atoms per molecule and can be used in internal-combustion engines.
Methane
MethaneMethane
Methane is a chemical compound with the chemical formula . It is the simplest alkane, the principal component of natural gas, and probably the most abundant organic compound on earth. The relative abundance of methane makes it an attractive fuel...
a form of natural gas can be produced from algae in various methods, namely Gasification
Gasification
Gasification is a process that converts organic or fossil based carbonaceous materials into carbon monoxide, hydrogen, carbon dioxide and methane. This is achieved by reacting the material at high temperatures , without combustion, with a controlled amount of oxygen and/or steam...
, Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is a thermochemical decomposition of organic material at elevated temperatures without the participation of oxygen. It involves the simultaneous change of chemical composition and physical phase, and is irreversible...
and Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic digestion
Anaerobic digestion is a series of processes in which microorganisms break down biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen. It is used for industrial or domestic purposes to manage waste and/or to release energy....
. In Gasification and Pyrolysis methods methane is extracted under high temperature and pressure. Anaerobic Digestion is a straight forward method involved in decomposition of algae into simple components then transforming it into fatty acids using microbes like acidific bacteria followed by removing any solid particles and finally adding methanogenic bacteria to release a gas mixture containing methane.
Ethanol
The AlgenolAlgenol
Algenol, headquartered in Bonita Springs, Florida, is a company developing a process to produce ethanol directly from algae. Rather than grow algae and then harvest them, the ethanol is removed without killing the algae...
system which is being commercialized by BioFields
BioFields (Renewable and Sustainable Energy)
BioFields is a Mexican industrial group that produces biofuels from blue-green algae .The company was founded in 2006, it has a commercial agreement with Algenol Biofuels the company that owns the technology to Direct Ethanol, which allows the production of blue-green algae based biofuels...
in Puerto Libertad
Puerto Libertad (Sonora)
Puerto Libertad is a town and port of the Mexican state of Sonora, Mexico located on the north coast of the Gulf of California, in the municipality of Pitiquito....
, Sonora
Sonora
Sonora officially Estado Libre y Soberano de Sonora is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided into 72 municipalities; the capital city is Hermosillo....
, Mexico utilizes seawater and industrial exhaust to produce ethanol.
SVO
The algal-oils feedstock that is used to produce biodiesels can also be used for fuel directly as "Straight Vegetable Oil", (SVO). The benefit of using the oil in this manner is that it doesn't require the additional energy needed for transesterificationTransesterification
In organic chemistry, transesterification is the process of exchanging the organic group R″ of an ester with the organic group R′ of an alcohol. These reactions are often catalyzed by the addition of an acid or base catalyst...
, (processing the oil with an alcohol and a catalyst to produce biodiesel). The drawback is that it does require modifications to a normal diesel engine. Transesterified biodiesel
Biodiesel
Biodiesel refers to a vegetable oil- or animal fat-based diesel fuel consisting of long-chain alkyl esters. Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting lipids with an alcohol....
can be run in an unmodified modern diesel engine, provided the fuel system is using all non-rubber lines, o-rings and seals, which accounts for most diesel vehicles made after 1993. Viton is the best rubber-sustitute for older diesel vehicle fuel lines and components when running biodiesel. As of 2006, the new standard for petroleum diesel in the United States is ultra-low sulfur diesel
Ultra-low sulfur diesel
Ultra-low-sulfur diesel is a term used to describe diesel fuel with substantially lowered sulfur content...
.
Hydrocracking to traditional transport fuels
Vegetable oil can be used as feedstock for an oil refineryOil refinery
An oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an industrial process plant where crude oil is processed and refined into more useful petroleum products, such as gasoline, diesel fuel, asphalt base, heating oil, kerosene, and liquefied petroleum gas...
where methods like hydrocracking or hydrogenation
Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation, to treat with hydrogen, also a form of chemical reduction, is a chemical reaction between molecular hydrogen and another compound or element, usually in the presence of a catalyst. The process is commonly employed to reduce or saturate organic compounds. Hydrogenation typically...
can be used to transform the vegetable oil into standard fuels like gasoline
Gasoline
Gasoline , or petrol , is a toxic, translucent, petroleum-derived liquid that is primarily used as a fuel in internal combustion engines. It consists mostly of organic compounds obtained by the fractional distillation of petroleum, enhanced with a variety of additives. Some gasolines also contain...
and diesel.
Jet fuel
Rising jet fuel prices are putting severe pressure on airline companies, creating an incentive for algal jet fuel research. The International Air Transport Association, for example, supports research, development and deployment of algal fuels. IATA’s goal is for its members to be using 10% alternative fuels by 2017.Trials have been carried with aviation biofuel by Air New Zealand
Air New Zealand
Air New Zealand Limited is the national airline and flag carrier of New Zealand. Based in Auckland, New Zealand, the airline operates scheduled passenger flights to 26 domestic destinations and 24 international destinations in 15 countries across Asia, Europe, North America and Oceania, and is...
, and Virgin Airlines
Virgin Airlines
Virgin Airlines may refer to any of these airlines:*Virgin Atlantic Airways*Virgin America*Virgin Blue Holdings**Virgin Australia**V Australia**Pacific Blue Airlines**Polynesian Blue*Air Asia X*Virgin Nigeria Currently Air Nigeria...
.
In February 2010, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency is an agency of the United States Department of Defense responsible for the development of new technology for use by the military...
announced that the U.S. military was about to begin large-scale production oil from algal ponds into jet fuel. After extraction at a cost of $2 per gallon, the oil will be refined at less than $3 a gallon. A larger-scale refining operation, producing 50 million gallons a year, is expected to go into production in 2013, with the possibility of lower per gallon costs so that algae-based fuel would be competitive with fossil fuels. The projects, run by the companies SAIC
Science Applications International Corporation
SAIC is a FORTUNE 500 scientific, engineering and technology applications company headquartered in the United States with numerous federal, state, and private sector clients...
and General Atomics
General Atomics
General Atomics is a nuclear physics and defense contractor headquartered in San Diego, California. General Atomics’ research into fission and fusion matured into competencies in related technologies, allowing the company to expand into other fields of research...
, are expected to produce 1,000 gallons of oil per acre per year from algal ponds.
Algae cultivation
Algae can produce up to 300 times more oil per acre than conventional crops, such as rapeseed, palms, soybeans, or jatrophaJatropha
Jatropha is a genus of approximately 175 succulent plants, shrubs and trees , from the family Euphorbiaceae. The name is derived from the Greek words ἰατρός , meaning "physician," and τροφή , meaning "nutrition," hence the common name physic nut. Mature plants produce separate male and female...
. As algae have a harvesting cycle of 1–10 days, it permits several harvests in a very short time frame, a differing strategy to yearly crops (Chisti 2007).
Algae can also be grown on land that is not suitable for other established crops, for instance, arid land, land with excessively saline soil, and drought-stricken land. This minimizes the issue of taking away pieces of land from the cultivation of food crops (Schenk et al. 2008). Algae can grow 20 to 30 times faster than food crops.
Photobioreactors
Most companies pursuing algae as a source of biofuels are pumping nutrientNutrient
A nutrient is a chemical that an organism needs to live and grow or a substance used in an organism's metabolism which must be taken in from its environment. They are used to build and repair tissues, regulate body processes and are converted to and used as energy...
-laden water through plastic or borosilicate glass tubes (called "bioreactor
Bioreactor
A bioreactor may refer to any manufactured or engineered device or system that supports a biologically active environment. In one case, a bioreactor is a vessel in which a chemical process is carried out which involves organisms or biochemically active substances derived from such organisms. This...
s" ) that are exposed to sunlight (and so called photobioreactor
Photobioreactor
thumb|upright|[[Moss bioreactor|Moss photobioreactor]] with [[Physcomitrella patens]]A photobioreactor is a bioreactor that incorporates some type of light source to provide photonic energy input into the reactor...
s or PBR).
Running a PBR is more difficult than an open pond
Pond
A pond is a body of standing water, either natural or man-made, that is usually smaller than a lake. A wide variety of man-made bodies of water are classified as ponds, including water gardens, water features and koi ponds; all designed for aesthetic ornamentation as landscape or architectural...
, and more costly, but also more effective.
Algae can also grow on marginal lands, such as in desert
Desert
A desert is a landscape or region that receives an extremely low amount of precipitation, less than enough to support growth of most plants. Most deserts have an average annual precipitation of less than...
areas where the groundwater is saline, rather than utilize fresh water.
Because algae strains with lower lipid
Lipid
Lipids constitute a broad group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins , monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, phospholipids, and others...
content may grow as much as 30 times faster than those with high lipid content, the difficulties in efficient biodiesel production from algae lie in finding an algal strain, with a combination of high lipid content and fast growth rate, that isn't too difficult to harvest; and a cost-effective cultivation system (i.e., type of photobioreactor) that is best suited to that strain. There is also a need to provide concentrated to increase the rate of production.
Closed loop system
Another obstacle preventing widespread mass production of algae for biofuel production has been the equipment and structures needed to begin growing algae in large quantities. Maximum use of existing agriculture processes and hardware is the goal.In a closed system (not exposed to open air) there is not the problem of contamination by other
organisms blown in by the air. The problem for a closed system is finding a cheap source of sterile .
Several experimenters have found the from a smokestack works well for growing algae. To be economical, some experts think that algae farming for biofuels will have to be done as part of cogeneration
Cogeneration
Cogeneration is the use of a heat engine or a power station to simultaneously generate both electricity and useful heat....
, where it can make use of waste heat, and help soak up pollution.
Open pond
Open-pond systems for the most part have been given up for the cultivation of algae with high-oil content. Many believe that a major flaw of the Aquatic Species ProgramAquatic Species Program
The Aquatic Species Program was a research program in the United States launched in 1978 by President Jimmy Carter and was funded by the United States Department of Energy, which over the course of nearly two decades looked into the production of energy using algae. Initially, the funding of the...
was the decision to focus their efforts exclusively on open-ponds; this makes the entire effort dependent upon the hardiness of the strain chosen, requiring it to be unnecessarily resilient in order to withstand wide swings in temperature and pH, and competition from invasive algae and bacteria. Open systems using a monoculture are also vulnerable to viral infection. The energy that a high-oil strain invests into the production of oil is energy that is not invested into the production of proteins or carbohydrates, usually resulting in the species being less hardy, or having a slower growth rate. Algal species with a lower oil content, not having to divert their energies away from growth, have an easier time in the harsher conditions of an open system.
Some open sewage ponds trial production has been done in Marlborough, New Zealand
Marlborough, New Zealand
Marlborough is one of the regions of New Zealand, located in the northeast of the South Island. Marlborough is a unitary authority, both a region and a district, and its council is located at Blenheim. Marlborough is known for its dry climate, the picturesque Marlborough Sounds, and sauvignon blanc...
.
Algae types
Research into algae for the mass-production of oil is mainly focused on microalgae; organisms capable of photosynthesis that are less than 0.4 mm in diameter, including the diatoms and cyanobacteria; as opposed to macroalgae, such as seaweedSeaweed
Seaweed is a loose, colloquial term encompassing macroscopic, multicellular, benthic marine algae. The term includes some members of the red, brown and green algae...
. The preference towards microalgae is due largely to its less complex structure, fast growth rate, and high oil content (for some species). However, some research is being done into using seaweeds for biofuels, probably due to the high availability of this resource.
The following species listed are currently being studied for their suitability as a mass-oil producing crop, across various locations worldwide:
- Botryococcus brauniiBotryococcus brauniiBotryococcus braunii is a green, pyramid shaped planktonic microalga that is of potentially great importance in the field of biotechnology. Colonies held together by a lipid biofilm matrix can be found in temperate or tropical oligotrophic lakes and estuaries, and will bloom when in the presence...
- ChlorellaChlorellaChlorella is a genus of single-celled green algae, belonging to the phylum Chlorophyta. It is spherical in shape, about 2 to 10 μm in diameter, and is without flagella. Chlorella contains the green photosynthetic pigments chlorophyll-a and -b in its chloroplast...
- Dunaliella tertiolecta
- GracilariaGracilariaGracilaria is a genus of red algae notable for its economic importance as an agarophyte, as well as its use as a food for humans and various species of shellfish...
- Pleurochrysis carteraePleurochrysis carteraePleurochrysis carterae is a unicellular coccolithophorid alga that has the ability to calcify subcellularly. They produce calcified scales, known as coccoliths, which are deposited on the surface of the cell resulting in the formation of a coccosphere...
(also called CCMP647). - SargassumSargassumSargassum is a genus of brown macroalga in the order Fucales. Numerous species are distributed throughout the temperate and tropical oceans of the world, where they generally inhabit shallow water and coral reefs. However, the genus may be best known for its planktonic species...
, with 10 times the output volume of Gracilaria.
In addition, due to its high growth rate, Ulva
Sea lettuce
The sea lettuces comprise the genus Ulva, a group of edible green algae that is widely distributed along the coasts of the world's oceans. The type species within the genus Ulva is Ulva lactuca Linnaeus, "lactuca" meaning lettuce...
has been investigated as a fuel for use in the SOFT cycle, (SOFT stands for Solar Oxygen Fuel Turbine), a closed-cycle power generation system suitable for use in arid, subtropical regions.
Specific research
Companies such as Sapphire Energy are using genetic engineering and chemically induced mutations to produce algae suitable for use as a crop.Some commercial interests into large scale algal-cultivation systems are looking to tie in to existing infrastructures, such as cement factories, coal power plants, or sewage treatment facilities. This approach changes wastes into resources to provide the raw materials, and nutrients, for the system.
Aquaflow Bionomic Corporation of New Zealand
New Zealand
New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...
announced that it has produced its first sample of homegrown bio-diesel fuel with algae sourced from local sewerage
Sanitary sewer
A sanitary sewer is a separate underground carriage system specifically for transporting sewage from houses and commercial buildings to treatment or disposal. Sanitary sewers serving industrial areas also carry industrial wastewater...
pond
Pond
A pond is a body of standing water, either natural or man-made, that is usually smaller than a lake. A wide variety of man-made bodies of water are classified as ponds, including water gardens, water features and koi ponds; all designed for aesthetic ornamentation as landscape or architectural...
s. A small quantity of laboratory produced oil was mixed with 95% regular diesel.
A feasibility study using marine microalgae in a photobioreactor is being done by The International Research Consortium on Continental Margins at the Jacobs University Bremen.
The Department of Environmental Science at Ateneo de Manila University
Ateneo de Manila University
The Ateneo de Manila University is a private teaching and research university run by the Society of Jesus in the Philippines. It began in 1859 when the City of Manila handed control of the Escuela Municipal de Manila in Intramuros, Manila, to the Jesuits...
in the Philippines
Philippines
The Philippines , officially known as the Republic of the Philippines , is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam...
, is working on producing biofuel from a local species of algae.
NBB
National Biodiesel Board
The National Biodiesel Board is a commercial trade association representing the biodiesel industry as the unifying and coordinating body for research and development in the United States. Its mission is to advance the interests of members by creating sustainable biodiesel industry growth. NBB...
’s Feedstock Development program is addressing production of algae on the horizon to expand available material for biodiesel in a sustainable manner.
Nutrients
Nutrients like nitrogenNitrogen
Nitrogen is a chemical element that has the symbol N, atomic number of 7 and atomic mass 14.00674 u. Elemental nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, and mostly inert diatomic gas at standard conditions, constituting 78.08% by volume of Earth's atmosphere...
(N), phosphorus
Phosphorus
Phosphorus is the chemical element that has the symbol P and atomic number 15. A multivalent nonmetal of the nitrogen group, phosphorus as a mineral is almost always present in its maximally oxidized state, as inorganic phosphate rocks...
(P), and potassium
Potassium
Potassium is the chemical element with the symbol K and atomic number 19. Elemental potassium is a soft silvery-white alkali metal that oxidizes rapidly in air and is very reactive with water, generating sufficient heat to ignite the hydrogen emitted in the reaction.Potassium and sodium are...
(K), are important for plant growth and are essential parts of fertilizer. Silica and iron
Iron
Iron is a chemical element with the symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series. It is the most common element forming the planet Earth as a whole, forming much of Earth's outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earth's crust...
, as well as several trace elements, may also be considered important marine nutrients as the lack of one can limit the growth of, or productivity in, an area.
Carbon Dioxide
The Glenturret Distillery in PerthshirePerthshire
Perthshire, officially the County of Perth , is a registration county in central Scotland. It extends from Strathmore in the east, to the Pass of Drumochter in the north, Rannoch Moor and Ben Lui in the west, and Aberfoyle in the south...
, UK – home to The Famous Grouse
The Famous Grouse
The Famous Grouse is a brand of blended Scotch whisky, first produced by Matthew Gloag & Son Ltd. in 1897, and now produced by The Edrington Group. The malt whiskies used in The Famous Grouse blend include The Glenrothes, Highland Park Single Malt and Macallan Single Malt. Its emblem is the Red...
Whisky – percolate CO2 made during the whisky distillation through a microalgae bioreactor. Each tonne of microalgae absorbs two tonnes of CO2. Scottish Bioenergy, who run the project, sell the microalgae as high value, protein-rich food for fisheries. In the future, they will use the algae residues to produce renewable energy through anaerobic digestion
Anaerobic digestion
Anaerobic digestion is a series of processes in which microorganisms break down biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen. It is used for industrial or domestic purposes to manage waste and/or to release energy....
.
Wastewater
A possible nutrient source is waste water from the treatment of sewage, agricultural, or flood plain run-off, all currently major pollutants and health risks. However, this waste water cannot feed algae directly and must first be processed by bacteria, through anaerobic digestionAnaerobic digestion
Anaerobic digestion is a series of processes in which microorganisms break down biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen. It is used for industrial or domestic purposes to manage waste and/or to release energy....
. If waste water is not processed before it reaches the algae, it will contaminate the algae in the reactor, and at the very least, kill much of the desired algae strain. In biogas
Biogas
Biogas typically refers to a gas produced by the biological breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen. Organic waste such as dead plant and animal material, animal dung, and kitchen waste can be converted into a gaseous fuel called biogas...
facilities, organic waste is often converted to a mixture of carbon dioxide, methane
Methane
Methane is a chemical compound with the chemical formula . It is the simplest alkane, the principal component of natural gas, and probably the most abundant organic compound on earth. The relative abundance of methane makes it an attractive fuel...
, and organic fertilizer. Organic fertilizer that comes out of the digester
Digester
A digester is a huge vessel where chemical or biological reactions are carried out. These are used in different types of process industries.Digester may also refer to :* Digester-Processes where digesters are used:* Anaerobic digestion...
is liquid, and nearly suitable for algae growth, but it must first be cleaned and sterilized.
The utilization of wastewater and ocean water instead of freshwater is strongly advocated due to the continuing depletion of freshwater resources. However, heavy metals, trace metals, and other contaminants in wastewater can decrease the ability of cells to produce lipids biosynthetically and also impact various other workings in the machinery of cells. The same is true for ocean water, but the contaminants are found in different concentrations. Thus, agricultural-grade fertilizer is the preferred source of nutrients, but heavy metals are again a problem, especially for strains of algae that are susceptible to these metals. In open pond systems the use of strains of algae that can deal with high concentrations of heavy metals could prevent other organisms from infesting these systems (Schenk et al. 2008). In some instances it has even been shown that strains of algae can remove over 90% of nickel and zinc from industrial wastewater in relatively short periods of time (Chong, Wong et al. 1998).
Investment and economic viability
There is always uncertainty about the success of new products and investors have to consider carefully the proper energy sources in which to invest. A drop in fossil fuel oil prices might make consumers and therefore investors lose interest in renewable energy. Algal fuel companies are learning that investors have different expectations about returns and length of investments. AlgaePro Systems found in its talks with investors that while one wants at least 5 times the returns on their investment, others would only be willing to invest in a profitable operation over the long term. Every investor has its own unique stipulations that are obstacles to further algae fuel development. Additional concerns consider the potential environmental impact of Algal fuel development, as well as secondary impacts on wildlife such as bears and fish.Whereas technical problems, such as harvesting, are being addressed successfully by the industry, the high up-front investment of algae-to-biofuels facilities is seen by many as a major obstacle to the success of this technology. Only few studies on the economic viability are publicly available, and must often rely on the little data (often only engineering estimates) available in the public domain. Dmitrov examined the GreenFuels photobioreactor and estimated that algae oil would only be competitive at an oil price of $800 per barrel. A study by Alabi at al. examined raceways, photobioreactors and anaerobic fermenters to make biofuels from algae and found that photobioreactors are too expensive to make biofuels. Raceways might be cost-effective in warm climates with very low labor costs, and fermenters may become cost-effective subsequent to significant process improvements. The group found that capital cost, labor cost and operational costs (fertilizer, electricity, etc.) by themselves are too high for algae biofuels to be cost-competitive with conventional fuels. Similar results were found by others, suggesting that unless new, cheaper ways of harnessing algae for biofuels production are found, their great technical potential may never become economically accessible.
Europe
Universities in the United KingdomUnited Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
which are working on producing oil from algae include:University of Glasgow
University of Glasgow
The University of Glasgow is the fourth-oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotland's four ancient universities. Located in Glasgow, the university was founded in 1451 and is presently one of seventeen British higher education institutions ranked amongst the top 100 of the...
, University of Brighton
University of Brighton
The University of Brighton is an English university of the United Kingdom, with a community of over 23,000 students and 2,600 staff based on campuses in Brighton, Eastbourne and Hastings. It has one of the best teaching quality ratings in the UK and a strong research record, factors which...
, Cambridge University, University College London
University College London
University College London is a public research university located in London, United Kingdom and the oldest and largest constituent college of the federal University of London...
, Imperial College London
Imperial College London
Imperial College London is a public research university located in London, United Kingdom, specialising in science, engineering, business and medicine...
, Cranfield University
Cranfield University
Cranfield University is a British postgraduate university based on two campuses, with a research-oriented focus. The main campus is at Cranfield, Bedfordshire and the second is the Defence Academy of the United Kingdom based at Shrivenham, Oxfordshire. The main campus is unique in the United...
and Newcastle University. In Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
, it is also relevant the research carried out by the CSIC
CSIC
The Spanish National Research Council is the largest public institution dedicated to research in Spain and the third largest in Europe...
´s Instituto de Bioquímica Vegetal y Fotosíntesis (Microalgae Biotechnology
Biotechnology
Biotechnology is a field of applied biology that involves the use of living organisms and bioprocesses in engineering, technology, medicine and other fields requiring bioproducts. Biotechnology also utilizes these products for manufacturing purpose...
Group, Seville
Seville
Seville is the artistic, historic, cultural, and financial capital of southern Spain. It is the capital of the autonomous community of Andalusia and of the province of Seville. It is situated on the plain of the River Guadalquivir, with an average elevation of above sea level...
).
Ukraine
Ukraine
Ukraine is a country in Eastern Europe. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after Russia...
plans to produce biofuel using a special type of algae.
United States
The Aquatic Species ProgramAquatic Species Program
The Aquatic Species Program was a research program in the United States launched in 1978 by President Jimmy Carter and was funded by the United States Department of Energy, which over the course of nearly two decades looked into the production of energy using algae. Initially, the funding of the...
, launched in 1978, was a research program funded by the United States Department of Energy
United States Department of Energy
The United States Department of Energy is a Cabinet-level department of the United States government concerned with the United States' policies regarding energy and safety in handling nuclear material...
(DoE) which was tasked with investigating the use of algae for the production of energy. The program initially focused efforts on the production of hydrogen
Hydrogen
Hydrogen is the chemical element with atomic number 1. It is represented by the symbol H. With an average atomic weight of , hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant chemical element, constituting roughly 75% of the Universe's chemical elemental mass. Stars in the main sequence are mainly...
, shifting primary research to studying oil production in 1982. From 1982 until its end in 1996, the majority of the program research was focused on the production of transportation fuels, notably biodiesel
Biodiesel
Biodiesel refers to a vegetable oil- or animal fat-based diesel fuel consisting of long-chain alkyl esters. Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting lipids with an alcohol....
, from algae. In 1995, as part of overall efforts to lower budget demands, the DoE decided to end the program. Research stopped in 1996 and staff began compiling their research for publication.
US universities which are working on producing oil from algae include: The University of Arizona, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
The University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign is a large public research-intensive university in the state of Illinois, United States. It is the flagship campus of the University of Illinois system...
,, University of California San Diego, University of Texas at Austin
University of Texas at Austin
The University of Texas at Austin is a state research university located in Austin, Texas, USA, and is the flagship institution of the The University of Texas System. Founded in 1883, its campus is located approximately from the Texas State Capitol in Austin...
, University of Maine
University of Maine
The University of Maine is a public research university located in Orono, Maine, United States. The university was established in 1865 as a land grant college and is referred to as the flagship university of the University of Maine System...
, University of Kansas
University of Kansas
The University of Kansas is a public research university and the largest university in the state of Kansas. KU campuses are located in Lawrence, Wichita, Overland Park, and Kansas City, Kansas with the main campus being located in Lawrence on Mount Oread, the highest point in Lawrence. The...
, The College of William and Mary, Northern Illinois university, University of Texas at San Antonio, Old Dominion University
Old Dominion University
Old Dominion University is a state university located in Norfolk, Virginia, United States, and is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools...
, Utah State University
Utah State University
Utah State University is a public university located in Logan, Utah. It is a land-grant and space-grant institution and is accredited by the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities....
, New Mexico State University
New Mexico State University
New Mexico State University at Las Cruces , is a major land-grant university in Las Cruces, New Mexico, United States...
, and Missouri University of Science and Technology
Missouri University of Science and Technology
Missouri University of Science and Technology is an institution of higher learning located in Rolla, Missouri, United States, and part of the University of Missouri System...
.
At the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution is a private, nonprofit research and higher education facility dedicated to the study of all aspects of marine science and engineering and to the education of marine researchers. Established in 1930, it is the largest independent oceanographic research...
and the Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution the wastewater from domestic and industrial sources contain rich organic compounds that are being used to accelerate the growth of algae. The Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering at University of Georgia
University of Georgia
The University of Georgia is a public research university located in Athens, Georgia, United States. Founded in 1785, it is the oldest and largest of the state's institutions of higher learning and is one of multiple schools to claim the title of the oldest public university in the United States...
is exploring microalgal biomass production using industrial wastewater. Algaewheel, based in Indianapolis, Indiana
Indianapolis, Indiana
Indianapolis is the capital of the U.S. state of Indiana, and the county seat of Marion County, Indiana. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city's population is 839,489. It is by far Indiana's largest city and, as of the 2010 U.S...
, presented a proposal to build a facility in Cedar Lake, Indiana
Cedar Lake, Indiana
-Demographics:As of the census of 2000, there were 9,279 people, 3,394 households, and 2,450 families residing in the town. The population density was 1,366.3 people per square mile . There were 3,681 housing units at an average density of 542.0 per square mile...
that uses algae to treat municipal wastewater, using the sludge
Sludge
Sludge refers to the residual, semi-solid material left from industrial wastewater, or sewage treatment processes. It can also refer to the settled suspension obtained from conventional drinking water treatment, and numerous other industrial processes...
byproduct to produce biofuel.
Sapphire Energy
Sapphire Energy
Sapphire Energy is a San Diego-based energy company that produces oil made from algae.- History :On May 29, 2008 the Los Angeles Times reported that Sapphire expects to introduce its first fuels based on green crude. Sapphire Energy announced a second round investment, including the Microsoft...
(San Diego) has produced green crude from algae.
Solazyme
Solazyme
Solazyme Inc. is a publicly held United States alternative energy company specializing in the production of algal fuel for use in ground and air transportation. Solazyme uses proprietary technology to transform a range of low-cost plant-based sugars into high-value oils...
(South San Francisco, California
South San Francisco, California
South San Francisco is a city in San Mateo County, California, United States, located on the San Francisco Peninsula in the San Francisco Bay Area...
) has produced a fuel suitable for powering jet aircraft from algae.
Other
The Algal Biomass Organization (ABO) is formed by Boeing Commercial AirplanesBoeing Commercial Airplanes
Boeing Commercial Airplanes designs, assembles, markets and sells large commercial jet aircraft and provides product-related maintenance and training to customers worldwide...
, A2BE Carbon Capture Corporation, National Renewable Energy Labs, Scripps Institution of Oceanography
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
Scripps Institution of Oceanography in La Jolla, California, is one of the oldest and largest centers for ocean and earth science research, graduate training, and public service in the world...
, Benemann Associates, Mont Vista Capital and Montana State University
Montana State University - Bozeman
Montana State University – Bozeman is a public university located in Bozeman, Montana. It is the state's land-grant university and primary campus in the Montana State University System, which is part of the Montana University System...
.
Global air carriers Air New Zealand
Air New Zealand
Air New Zealand Limited is the national airline and flag carrier of New Zealand. Based in Auckland, New Zealand, the airline operates scheduled passenger flights to 26 domestic destinations and 24 international destinations in 15 countries across Asia, Europe, North America and Oceania, and is...
, Continental
Continental
Continental is the adjective form of continent.Continental may also refer to:* Continental , an album by UK band Saint Etienne* Continental , a brand of dried and pre-packaged foods used by Unilever in Australia...
, Virgin Atlantic Airways
Virgin Atlantic Airways
Virgin Atlantic Airways Limited is a British airline owned by Sir Richard Branson's Virgin Group and Singapore Airlines...
, and biofuel technology developer UOP
UOP
UOP is an initialism that may stand for the following:* University of the People, an online university* University of Peradeniya in Sri Lanka* University of Peshawar, in Peshawar, Pakistan* University of Pune in India...
, a Honeywell
Honeywell
Honeywell International, Inc. is a major conglomerate company that produces a variety of consumer products, engineering services, and aerospace systems for a wide variety of customers, from private consumers to major corporations and governments....
company, will be the first wave of aviation-related members, together with Boeing, to join Algal Biomass Organization.
The National Algae Association
National Algae Association
The National Algae Association is a United States trade organization for renewable energy companies and researchers involved in the production and distribution of biofuels made from algae....
(NAA) is a non-profit organization of algae researchers, algae production companies and the investment community who share the goal of commercializing algae oil as an alternative feedstock for the biofuels markets. The NAA gives its members a forum to efficiently evaluate various algae technologies for potential early stage company opportunities.
The European Algae Biomass Association
European Algae Biomass Association
The European Algae Biomass Association , established on June 2, 2009, is the European association representing both research and industry in the field of algae technologies- History :...
(EABA) is the European association representing both research and industry in the field of algae technologies, currently with 79 members. The association is headquartered in Florence, Italy.
The general objective of the European Algae Biomass Association (EABA) is to promote mutual interchange and cooperation in the field of biomass production and use, including biofuels uses and all other utilisations. It aims at creating, developing and maintaining solidarity and links between its Members and at defending their interests at European and international level. Its main target is to act as a catalyst for fostering synergies among scientists, industrialists and decision makers in order to promote the development of research, technology and industrial capacities in the field of Algae.
Pond Biofuels Inc. in Canada has grown algae directly off of a cement plant smokestack emissions, and used waste heat to dry the algae, as well.
Ocean Nutrition Canada
Ocean Nutrition Canada
Ocean Nutrition Canada , a subsidiary of Clearwater Fine Foods, the world’s largest Omega-3 eicosapentaenoic acid docosahexaenoic acid solutions provider, has a pioneering approach to wellness through innovation...
in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada has found a new strain of algae that appears capable of producing oil at a rate 60 times greater than other types of algae being used for the generation of biofuels.
VG Energy, a subsidiary of Viral Genetics Incorporated, claims to have discovered a new method of increasing algal lipid production by disrupting the metabolic pathways that would otherwise divert photosynthetic energy towards carbohydrate production. Using these techniques, the company states that lipid production could be increased several-fold, potentially making algal biofuels cost-competitive with existing fossil fuels.
Algae production from the warm water discharge of a nuclear power plant has been piloted by Patrick C. Kangas at Peach Bottom Atomic Power Station, owned by Exelon Corporation. This process takes advantage of the relatively high temperature water to sustain algae growth even during winter months.
See also
- ABE fermentationABE fermentationAcetone-butanol-ethanol fermentation is a process that uses bacterial fermentation to produce acetone, n-butanol, and ethanol from starch. It was the primary process used to make acetone during World War II, such as to produce cordite. The process is anaerobic , similar to how yeast ferments...
- AlgenolAlgenolAlgenol, headquartered in Bonita Springs, Florida, is a company developing a process to produce ethanol directly from algae. Rather than grow algae and then harvest them, the ethanol is removed without killing the algae...
- AlgacultureAlgacultureAlgaculture is a form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae.The majority of algae that are intentionally cultivated fall into the category of microalgae...
- Biochemical engineeringBiochemical engineeringBiochemical engineering is a branch of chemical engineering or biological engineering that mainly deals with the design and construction of unit processes that involve biological organisms or molecules, such as bioreactors...
- Biological hydrogen productionBiological hydrogen productionBiohydrogen reactors use a method of photobiological water splitting which is done in a closed photobioreactor based on the production of hydrogen by algae. Algae produce hydrogen under certain conditions. In 2000 it was discovered that if C...
- Butanol fuelButanol fuelButanol may be used as a fuel in an internal combustion engine. Because its longer hydrocarbon chain causes it to be fairly non-polar, it is more similar to gasoline than it is to ethanol...
- Carbon neutrality
- CyanotoxinCyanotoxinCyanotoxins are toxins produced by bacteria called cyanobacteria . Cyanobacteria are found almost everywhere, but particularly in lakes and in the ocean where, under certain conditions, they reproduce exponentially to form blooms. Blooming cyanobacteria can produce cyanotoxins in such...
- Helioculture
- International Renewable Energy AllianceInternational Renewable Energy AllianceInternational Renewable Energy Alliance is a formal partnership entered into on 4 June 2004 by four non-profit international organisations:* International Hydropower Association ,* International Solar Energy Society ,...
- List of algal fuel producers
- Ocean thermal energy conversionOcean thermal energy conversionOcean Thermal Energy Conversion uses the difference between cooler deep and warmer shallow or surface ocean waters to run a heat engine and produce useful work, usually in the form of electricity....
- PhycologyPhycologyPhycology is the scientific study of algae. Phycology is a branch of life science and often is regarded as a subdiscipline of botany....
- PhytoplanktonPhytoplanktonPhytoplankton are the autotrophic component of the plankton community. The name comes from the Greek words φυτόν , meaning "plant", and πλαγκτός , meaning "wanderer" or "drifter". Most phytoplankton are too small to be individually seen with the unaided eye...
- Thermal depolymerizationThermal depolymerizationThermal depolymerization is a depolymerization process using hydrous pyrolysis for the reduction of complex organic materials into light crude oil. It mimics the natural geological processes thought to be involved in the production of fossil fuels...
External links
- A Report on Commercial Usage and Production of Algal Oil
- Algal Biomass Organization
- Algae Industry Magazine
- European Algae Biomass Association - EABA
- Work on biofuels and Better Than Corn? Algae Set to Beat Out Other Biofuel Feedstocks (Worldwatch InstituteWorldwatch InstituteThe Worldwatch Institute is a globally focused environmental research organization based in Washington, D.C. Worldwatch was named as one of the top ten sustainable development research organizations by Globescan Survey of Sustainability Experts.-Mission:...
). - Bio-Hydrocarbons from Algae -Impacts of temperature, light and salinity on algae growth (RIRDC).
- Phyco, algal fuel wiki
- (Archived 2009-10-25)
- worldchanging.com Better Than Corn? Algae Set to Beat Out Other Biofuel Feedstocks
- A Sober Look at Biofuels from Algae (Biodiesel Magazine)
- Biofuels from microalgae