Ambrosian Republic
Encyclopedia
The Golden Ambrosian Republic (Italian: Aurea Repubblica Ambrosiana; 1447–1450) was a short-lived government founded in Milan
by members of the University of Pavia
with popular support. With the aid of Francesco Sforza they held out against the forces of Venice
, but after a betrayal Sforza defected and captured Milan to become Duke himself, abolishing the Republic.
, Visconti
Duke of Milan, died on 13 August 1447, the city was thrown into confusion by the unexpectedness of the Duke's expiration and the quick way in which the claimants to the title acted. Filippo Maria had no heir through male bloodlines, but the day before his death had written a will dedicating the Duchy to Alfonso V of Aragon
. Among the other claimants were Charles, Duke of Orléans, nephew of Filippo Maria through his mother Valentina Visconti
, Filippo's cousins Albert
and Sigismund
of the House of Habsburg, great-grandsons of Bernabò Visconti
, and Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor
, who declared that the Duchy reverted back to the Holy Roman Empire
on the extinction of male heirs. But the two most prominent candidates supported by the Milanese population were Alfonso of Aragon and Francesco Sforza, the Duke's son-in-law by marrying Bianca Maria Visconti
. The Bracceschi, supporters of the King of Aragon, seized the Castello on the night of the 13th, almost before Filippo Maria died, forcing the captains to swear allegiance to Alfonso.
Despite the general support for either Alfonso or Sforza, other influential citizens believed that the old republic could be restored. Learned bodies, such as the College of Jurisprudence in Pavia, painted the days of the old republic as a golden age. The merchants, seeing the prosperity of Republican Venice, were behind this idea. On the morning of the 14th, Republicans stirred the populace to rise against the Bracceschi, led by Antonio Trivulzio, Giorgio Lampugnano
, Innocenzo Cotta, and Teodoro Bossi, members of the College of Jurisprudence. A Republic was declared behind the Palace of the Commune, and the captains abandoned their oaths to Alfonso but turned in favor of the Republic. The Braccheschi were driven from Milan, and the new republic was called the Golden Ambrosian Republic, named for St. Ambrose
, the 4th century bishop of Milan, who was taken on as the Republic's patron. They took the old constitution and revised it that same day as suited their needs, electing twenty-four Capitani e difensori della libertà, or "Captains and Defenders of Liberty," to frame laws, elected regularly and later reduced to twelve.
The idea of a radical renovation of liberties in the cities did not suit the powers of North Italy, who had been in league against the Visconti territorial gains in a decades-long series of wars interrupted by truces, most recently the Peace of Cremona of 20 November 1441. Venice was already at war with Milan, and the Republic was struck a sore blow as previously Milanese cities including Pavia
, Lodi, and Piacenza
defected or declared their independence. Besides the loss of support and defensive locations, the drop in revenue also caused a brief financial crisis resolved by the imposition of new taxes. Venice, now occupying Lodi and Piacenza, refused to listen to Milan's pleas for peace. Milan turned to Francesco Sforza, the greatest military leader of his day, offering him the position of Captain-General and the city of Brescia
. Although he wished to succeed Sforza, he decided to accept the position and promised rewards. A draft was declared in Milan on 13 September.
Sforza quickly captured independent Pavia
when its commander offered to surrender to him, and the Republic grudgingly allowed him to keep it with the title of Count, fearing that the Pavians and their large arsenal might instead offer themselves to Venice if they refused. Sforza promised the Pavians no new taxes, respect for the old laws, payment for his hired officials, and to repair the city bridges and walls. He kept these promises faithfully and so won over the people of Pavia, establishing his rulership. Pavia was previously almost a second capital to Milan, and gave Sforza his own seat of power. The city was also in a strategic location on the Po River
, situated where it could block the Venetians from coming to the relief of the beleaguered Piacenza via water. Returning to this siege and finding the city not likely to crumble by starvation, he resolved to storm it. Employing cannons in an almost unheard-of manner, he opened up a breach in the walls and sacked the city. The news of this sack was greeted by three days' rejoicing in Milan. Meanwhile, Milanese Captain Bartolomeo Colleoni
captured Tortona
which had previously proclaimed Sforza as its lord, stealing it from the now dangerously powerful Sforza. This caused further and even greater rejoicing, for the Milanese feared Sforza.
January, 1448 came, and the terms of the previous Captains and Defenders ended, and in the following election the Guelphs
rose to political prominence. Being especially adverse toward Sforza, they entered into negotiations for peace with Venice, which, also faced with Sforza's threat, was willing to come to terms, albeit dictated by herself. Two of the Ghibellines who helped to found the Republic, namely Lampugnano and Bossi, stirred the populace against them in a massive demonstration before the Court of Arengo. The Council of Nine Hundred was forced to abandon its plans for peace, and Sforza was given the go-ahead for his next campaign to seize the Adda River
. Sforza schemes were voted down by the Republic in favor of more traditional tactics, namely besieging Lodi directly. While this happened, the Venetian fleet under Andrea Quirini assaulted the bridge of Cremona
. However, Sforza's wife Bianca was there, and led the defense until he relieved the city. The Venetian fleet withdrew and entrenched while it waited for the arrival of the Venetian army. Sforza trapped the fleet behind its defenses and, with his unorthodox use of artillery, utterly destroyed or captured every one of the seventy ships. This victory was celebrated in Milan, but the leaders of the Republic still feared Sforza, and sent him off to occupy him with the Ghiarad'adda while Lodi and Caravaggio were besieged, hoping that their fall would end the war.
But ultimately the forces were brought together at Caravaggio, and both Sforza's Milanese and the Venetian army under Micheletto Attendolo
gathered there. The siege remained unbroken throughout July and until 15 September, when Attendolo launched a surprise-attack on Sforza, so rapid that he did not even have time to buckle on his armor. What might have been a rout Sforza turned into a great victory
as he set the example for his troops on the front line and utterly defeated the Venetian army, capturing three generals. Caravaggio fell, and despite rejoicing in Milan, little gratitude was given by the government to the architect of the victory, and the Republic sent him on to Lodi, determined to end the war. It was here, at the time when a satisfactory end to the war seemed evident, that the Milanese took a fatal misstep.
and Captains-General before being replaced as supreme military commanders by Sforza, convinced the suspicious Republic to work secretly against Sforza. Rumors were spread among the troops about not receiving payment at the end of the war if they remained with Sforza, and Sforza himself was ordered back from the siege of Brescia
, the city promised him, while the citizens were secretly told to hold out until peace, already in the works, was signed. Sforza learned of this treachery and defected to the Venetians for 13,000 ducats and the Duchy of Milan in return for the Ghiaradadda, Crema, and his service. The treaty was signed on 18 October 1448, and Sforza now undid everything he had labored for over the past year. With such a powerful man on the Venetian side, it was the beginning of the end of the Golden Ambrosian Republic. Public opinion, despite the government's position, was generally pro-Sforza, and only an impassioned, patriotic speech from Giorgio Lampugnano subdued it at last. The Piccinino brothers became Captains-General once more, but were not as capable as the brilliant Sforza.
This was reinforced by the internal dissention that was prominent in Milan. Crime and mob violence were rampant, and the harsh but empty measures against it only served to further divide the populace. Members of the government were filled with suspicion against one another. In an attempt to resolve the situation, the podestà
was given absolute power. Financial problems were also grave; fines, confiscations, and a state lottery were instituted to try to alleviate the deficit. Moreover, Guelphic aristocrats continued to be regularly elected over the Ghibellines, and began to make the Republic far less democratic. Carlo Gonzaga
, Captain of the People, lived luxuriously as an autocrat with his will as law. He was supported by Giovanni Appiani and Giovanni Ossona, tradesmen-turned-politicians, who were prominent in government affairs. Gonzaga began replacing his officials with unambitious men in his favor, and the Ghibellines saw their ideal of the Republic crumbling before their eyes. Lampugnano and his Ghibelline friends conspired against Gonzaga and the Guelphic regime, but were exposed by a letter intercepted by Gonzaga from Lampugnano to his friend Bossi. Gonzaga kept this knowledge secret, knowing that Lampugnano and Bossi were two of the most influential citizens since the formation of the Republic, but with the support of the vengeful Guelphic Captains and Defenders conspired to have them slain. Lampugnano and Bossi were sent as envoys to Frederick III in February of 1449, but on the road were caught and imprisoned. Lampugnano was beheaded without a trial, and Bossi was tortured until he gave the names of his fellow conspirators. Following the execution of the leaders there was a massacre of leading Ghibellines within the city, from which only a few, such as Vitaliano Borromeo, escaped to safety in Arona, Piedmont and elsewhere. The heads of the slain were placed upon pikes in the Piazza of the Broletto.
Meanwhile, the previous claimants to the Duchy began to see that Sforza would be a threat greater than the Ambrosian Republic. Louis of Savoy
invaded in spring of 1449, and Sforza sent Colleoni (who had earlier defected) to defeat him at Borgomanero
, leading to an uneasy peace. Sforza also faced treachery within his own ranks, added with the fact that he rashly accepted the defection of his great enemies the Piccinino brothers, who, upon gaining access to Monza, promptly returned it to Milan.
Lampugnano, unfortunately for the Guelphs, was considered a martyr for the Republic. This was made worse by the fact that the Guelphs in leadership refused to run elections in April, until in June they were forced by the populace. Ghibelline families took the reins of Milan in this election, and the Guelphs were defeated. However, the reprisals against the Guelphs, including the imprisonment of Appiani and Ossona who had been blamed (probably unjustly) for the massacre, led the populace to violently depose the Ghibellines and reinstall the extremist Guelphs. Gonzaga, however, whose friend Galeotto Toscano was a fatal casualty of the uprising, departed Milan to Crema, hoping to make peace with Sforza.
if he would abandon Crema. This was accepted, and Crema, without support, quickly capitulated..jpg)
To the Milanese, Sforza's victory now seemed certain, but he found his Venetian allies beginning to have doubts about their Captain-General. They decided that a Milan run by Sforza would be far more dangerous and detrimental to their interests than if it were run by a weak Republic. The last of the territory claimed by Venice, namely Crema, was now captured. Venice went behind Sforza's back and signed a peace treaty with the Republic. They conceded conquered land to the Republic in return for peace, and let Sforza keep only Pavia, Cremona, Piacenza, and a narrow strip of land. They ordered him to accept the treaty or find Venice his enemy. The Republic rejoiced, and the citizens were confident the war was over and their future was secured. But Sforza could not accept the conditions of the treaty, and decided to persevere in the struggle. He was already very powerful, and moreover was close to Milan. The Milanese in their assurance of peace had nearly exhausted their resources to plant crops and return to the old way of life. He was confident that Milan would quickly fall to him. After reinforcing his peace with Savoy with the concession of a few unimportant castles, he defeated the Venetians under his rival Sigismondo Malatesta and continued the siege.
Sforza chose for his headquarters the Borromeo castle of Peschiera
, south-east of the city. Starvation and suffering were rampant in Milan. At last Gaspare da Vimercate engineered a coup on 24 February 1450. The next day the citizens met, but the suggestions and opinions were of great variety, save that all condemned Venice for its apparent apathy. Da Vimercate convinced the people to surrender to Sforza. Sforza had made himself very popular for his generosity while on fighting for Milan. He had abstained from ravaging the countryside as was so common among commanders of his day, and after some debate the public was convinced. The following day terms were offered to Sforza, who accepted them. Sforza earned the devotion of the people by distributing food to the starving people. On 22 March 1450, he had himself declared capitano del popolo
, and by right of his wife, the Duke of Milan. He secured his popular support by letting many office-holders keep their positions and being very lenient in his reprisals. The leaders were briefly imprisoned or relegated to their estates, but were generally pardoned soon after, even knighting some of his old enemies at his coronation. Ghibellines were allowed to return in safety and were restored to favor.
, previously a contender for the succession of Milan. Sforza, however, allied himself with Medici
Florence
and his friend Cosimo de' Medici
against Venice and Aragonese
Naples. The continued war was finally closed by the peace of Lodi in 1454 with the House of Sforza
as the established rulers of the Duchy of Milan
During its three-year existence, the Ambrosian Republic won two major battles. The Lombards
defeated the French at the Battle of Bosco Marengo
in 1447 and the Venetians at the Battle of Caravaggio
in 1448. It was those victories that ensured the Republic all the territory of the former Duchy
.
Of the Republic, Niccolò Machiavelli
remarked "In order to create a Republic in Milan it would be necessary to exterminate all the nobility. . . . For there are, among the nobles, so many exalted personages that the laws do not suffice to repress them, and they must needs be kept under by a living voice and a royal power."
_-_foto_giovanni_dallorto_25-apr-2007.jpg)
The leading magistrates of the city, the capitani e defensori ("Captains and Defenders"), were in charge of the government, elected every six months beginning in August of 1447. They were originally numbered twenty-four but were eventually reduced to twelve.
Milan
Milan is the second-largest city in Italy and the capital city of the region of Lombardy and of the province of Milan. The city proper has a population of about 1.3 million, while its urban area, roughly coinciding with its administrative province and the bordering Province of Monza and Brianza ,...
by members of the University of Pavia
University of Pavia
The University of Pavia is a university located in Pavia, Lombardy, Italy. It was founded in 1361 and is organized in 9 Faculties.-History:...
with popular support. With the aid of Francesco Sforza they held out against the forces of Venice
Venice
Venice is a city in northern Italy which is renowned for the beauty of its setting, its architecture and its artworks. It is the capital of the Veneto region...
, but after a betrayal Sforza defected and captured Milan to become Duke himself, abolishing the Republic.
Foundation
When Filippo Maria ViscontiFilippo Maria Visconti
Filippo Maria Visconti was ruler of Milan from 1412 to 1447.-Biography:Filippo Maria Visconti, who had become nominal ruler of Pavia in 1402, succeeded his assassinated brother Gian Maria Visconti as Duke of Milan in 1412. They were the sons of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, Gian Maria's predecessor, by...
, Visconti
House of Visconti
Visconti is the family name of two important Italian noble dynasties of the Middle Ages. There are two distinct Visconti families: The first one in the Republic of Pisa in the mid twelfth century who achieved prominence first in Pisa, then in Sardinia where they became rulers of Gallura...
Duke of Milan, died on 13 August 1447, the city was thrown into confusion by the unexpectedness of the Duke's expiration and the quick way in which the claimants to the title acted. Filippo Maria had no heir through male bloodlines, but the day before his death had written a will dedicating the Duchy to Alfonso V of Aragon
Alfonso V of Aragon
Alfonso the Magnanimous KG was the King of Aragon , Valencia , Majorca, Sardinia and Corsica , and Sicily and Count of Barcelona from 1416 and King of Naples from 1442 until his death...
. Among the other claimants were Charles, Duke of Orléans, nephew of Filippo Maria through his mother Valentina Visconti
Valentina Visconti
Not to be confused with Valentina Visconti, Queen of CyprusValentina Visconti was the wife of Louis de Valois, Duke of Orléans, a younger brother of Charles VI of France....
, Filippo's cousins Albert
Albert VI, Archduke of Austria
Albert VI , also known as the Prodigal, from the House of Habsburg was, with his elder brother Emperor Frederick III, an Archduke of Inner Austria from 1424 and of Austria from 1457 until his death...
and Sigismund
Sigismund, Archduke of Austria
Sigismund of Austria, Duke, then Archduke of Further Austria was a Habsburg archduke of Austria and ruler of Tirol from 1446 to 1490....
of the House of Habsburg, great-grandsons of Bernabò Visconti
Bernabo Visconti
Bernabò Visconti was an Italian soldier and statesman, who was Lord of Milan.-Life:He was born in Milan, the son of Stefano Visconti and Valentina Doria. From 1346 to 1349 he lived in exile, until he was called back by his uncle Giovanni Visconti...
, and Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor
Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor
Frederick the Peaceful KG was Duke of Austria as Frederick V from 1424, the successor of Albert II as German King as Frederick IV from 1440, and Holy Roman Emperor as Frederick III from 1452...
, who declared that the Duchy reverted back to the Holy Roman Empire
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a realm that existed from 962 to 1806 in Central Europe.It was ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor. Its character changed during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, when the power of the emperor gradually weakened in favour of the princes...
on the extinction of male heirs. But the two most prominent candidates supported by the Milanese population were Alfonso of Aragon and Francesco Sforza, the Duke's son-in-law by marrying Bianca Maria Visconti
Bianca Maria Visconti
Bianca Maria Visconti was Duchess of Milan from 1450 to 1468.-Early years:Born near Settimo Pavese, Bianca Maria was the illegitimate daughter of Filippo Maria Visconti, Duke of Milan and last of the Visconti rulers, and Agnese del Maino, the only person the shy, secluded Filippo ever loved...
. The Bracceschi, supporters of the King of Aragon, seized the Castello on the night of the 13th, almost before Filippo Maria died, forcing the captains to swear allegiance to Alfonso.
Despite the general support for either Alfonso or Sforza, other influential citizens believed that the old republic could be restored. Learned bodies, such as the College of Jurisprudence in Pavia, painted the days of the old republic as a golden age. The merchants, seeing the prosperity of Republican Venice, were behind this idea. On the morning of the 14th, Republicans stirred the populace to rise against the Bracceschi, led by Antonio Trivulzio, Giorgio Lampugnano
Giorgio Lampugnano
Giorgio Lampugnano was a university professor of Pavia, husband of one Giovannina Omodei and father of the Ambrosian Republic.Lampugnano was the figurehead of the original four founders of the Ambrosian Republic, an inspiring public speaker. Lampugnano and his father-in-law Giovanni Omodei were...
, Innocenzo Cotta, and Teodoro Bossi, members of the College of Jurisprudence. A Republic was declared behind the Palace of the Commune, and the captains abandoned their oaths to Alfonso but turned in favor of the Republic. The Braccheschi were driven from Milan, and the new republic was called the Golden Ambrosian Republic, named for St. Ambrose
Ambrose
Aurelius Ambrosius, better known in English as Saint Ambrose , was a bishop of Milan who became one of the most influential ecclesiastical figures of the 4th century. He was one of the four original doctors of the Church.-Political career:Ambrose was born into a Roman Christian family between about...
, the 4th century bishop of Milan, who was taken on as the Republic's patron. They took the old constitution and revised it that same day as suited their needs, electing twenty-four Capitani e difensori della libertà, or "Captains and Defenders of Liberty," to frame laws, elected regularly and later reduced to twelve.
Early existence
Pavia
Pavia , the ancient Ticinum, is a town and comune of south-western Lombardy, northern Italy, 35 km south of Milan on the lower Ticino river near its confluence with the Po. It is the capital of the province of Pavia. It has a population of c. 71,000...
, Lodi, and Piacenza
Piacenza
Piacenza is a city and comune in the Emilia-Romagna region of northern Italy. It is the capital of the province of Piacenza...
defected or declared their independence. Besides the loss of support and defensive locations, the drop in revenue also caused a brief financial crisis resolved by the imposition of new taxes. Venice, now occupying Lodi and Piacenza, refused to listen to Milan's pleas for peace. Milan turned to Francesco Sforza, the greatest military leader of his day, offering him the position of Captain-General and the city of Brescia
Brescia
Brescia is a city and comune in the region of Lombardy in northern Italy. It is situated at the foot of the Alps, between the Mella and the Naviglio, with a population of around 197,000. It is the second largest city in Lombardy, after the capital, Milan...
. Although he wished to succeed Sforza, he decided to accept the position and promised rewards. A draft was declared in Milan on 13 September.
Sforza quickly captured independent Pavia
Pavia
Pavia , the ancient Ticinum, is a town and comune of south-western Lombardy, northern Italy, 35 km south of Milan on the lower Ticino river near its confluence with the Po. It is the capital of the province of Pavia. It has a population of c. 71,000...
when its commander offered to surrender to him, and the Republic grudgingly allowed him to keep it with the title of Count, fearing that the Pavians and their large arsenal might instead offer themselves to Venice if they refused. Sforza promised the Pavians no new taxes, respect for the old laws, payment for his hired officials, and to repair the city bridges and walls. He kept these promises faithfully and so won over the people of Pavia, establishing his rulership. Pavia was previously almost a second capital to Milan, and gave Sforza his own seat of power. The city was also in a strategic location on the Po River
Po River
The Po |Ligurian]]: Bodincus or Bodencus) is a river that flows either or – considering the length of the Maira, a right bank tributary – eastward across northern Italy, from a spring seeping from a stony hillside at Pian del Re, a flat place at the head of the Val Po under the northwest face...
, situated where it could block the Venetians from coming to the relief of the beleaguered Piacenza via water. Returning to this siege and finding the city not likely to crumble by starvation, he resolved to storm it. Employing cannons in an almost unheard-of manner, he opened up a breach in the walls and sacked the city. The news of this sack was greeted by three days' rejoicing in Milan. Meanwhile, Milanese Captain Bartolomeo Colleoni
Bartolomeo Colleoni
Bartolomeo Colleoni was a Venetian condottiero, who became Captain-General of the republic of Venice, where there is a famous statue showing him on horseback.-Biography:...
captured Tortona
Tortona
Tortona is a comune of Piemonte, in the Province of Alessandria, Italy. Tortona is sited on the right bank of the Scrivia between the plain of Marengo and the foothills of the Ligurian Apennines.-History:...
which had previously proclaimed Sforza as its lord, stealing it from the now dangerously powerful Sforza. This caused further and even greater rejoicing, for the Milanese feared Sforza.
January, 1448 came, and the terms of the previous Captains and Defenders ended, and in the following election the Guelphs
Guelphs and Ghibellines
The Guelphs and Ghibellines were factions supporting the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor, respectively, in central and northern Italy. During the 12th and 13th centuries, the split between these two parties was a particularly important aspect of the internal policy of the Italian city-states...
rose to political prominence. Being especially adverse toward Sforza, they entered into negotiations for peace with Venice, which, also faced with Sforza's threat, was willing to come to terms, albeit dictated by herself. Two of the Ghibellines who helped to found the Republic, namely Lampugnano and Bossi, stirred the populace against them in a massive demonstration before the Court of Arengo. The Council of Nine Hundred was forced to abandon its plans for peace, and Sforza was given the go-ahead for his next campaign to seize the Adda River
Adda River
The Adda is a river in North Italy, a tributary of the Po. It rises in the Alps near the border with Switzerland and flows through Lake Como. The Adda joins the Po a few kilometres upstream of Cremona. It is 313 kilometres long...
. Sforza schemes were voted down by the Republic in favor of more traditional tactics, namely besieging Lodi directly. While this happened, the Venetian fleet under Andrea Quirini assaulted the bridge of Cremona
Cremona
Cremona is a city and comune in northern Italy, situated in Lombardy, on the left bank of the Po River in the middle of the Pianura Padana . It is the capital of the province of Cremona and the seat of the local City and Province governments...
. However, Sforza's wife Bianca was there, and led the defense until he relieved the city. The Venetian fleet withdrew and entrenched while it waited for the arrival of the Venetian army. Sforza trapped the fleet behind its defenses and, with his unorthodox use of artillery, utterly destroyed or captured every one of the seventy ships. This victory was celebrated in Milan, but the leaders of the Republic still feared Sforza, and sent him off to occupy him with the Ghiarad'adda while Lodi and Caravaggio were besieged, hoping that their fall would end the war.
But ultimately the forces were brought together at Caravaggio, and both Sforza's Milanese and the Venetian army under Micheletto Attendolo
Micheletto Attendolo
thumb|350px|The decisive attack of Micheletto Attendolo at San Romano, part of The Battle of San Romano triptych by [[Paolo Uccello]]. [[Musée du Louvre]], [[Paris]].Micheletto Attendolo was an Italian condottiero....
gathered there. The siege remained unbroken throughout July and until 15 September, when Attendolo launched a surprise-attack on Sforza, so rapid that he did not even have time to buckle on his armor. What might have been a rout Sforza turned into a great victory
Battle of Caravaggio
The Battle of Caravaggio was fought near Caravaggio, in Lombardy , between the armies of the Ambrosian Republic and the Republic of Venice, on 15 September 1448....
as he set the example for his troops on the front line and utterly defeated the Venetian army, capturing three generals. Caravaggio fell, and despite rejoicing in Milan, little gratitude was given by the government to the architect of the victory, and the Republic sent him on to Lodi, determined to end the war. It was here, at the time when a satisfactory end to the war seemed evident, that the Milanese took a fatal misstep.
Sforza's defection and the Guelph-Ghibelline feud
In Milan, Sforza's enemies worked continually against him. The Piccinino brothers, sons of famous condottiere Niccolò PiccininoNiccolò Piccinino
Niccolò Piccinino was an Italian condottiero.-Biography:He was born at Perugia, was the son of a butcher.He began his military career in the service of Braccio da Montone, who at that time was waging war against Perugia on his own account, and at the death of his chief, shortly followed by that of...
and Captains-General before being replaced as supreme military commanders by Sforza, convinced the suspicious Republic to work secretly against Sforza. Rumors were spread among the troops about not receiving payment at the end of the war if they remained with Sforza, and Sforza himself was ordered back from the siege of Brescia
Brescia
Brescia is a city and comune in the region of Lombardy in northern Italy. It is situated at the foot of the Alps, between the Mella and the Naviglio, with a population of around 197,000. It is the second largest city in Lombardy, after the capital, Milan...
, the city promised him, while the citizens were secretly told to hold out until peace, already in the works, was signed. Sforza learned of this treachery and defected to the Venetians for 13,000 ducats and the Duchy of Milan in return for the Ghiaradadda, Crema, and his service. The treaty was signed on 18 October 1448, and Sforza now undid everything he had labored for over the past year. With such a powerful man on the Venetian side, it was the beginning of the end of the Golden Ambrosian Republic. Public opinion, despite the government's position, was generally pro-Sforza, and only an impassioned, patriotic speech from Giorgio Lampugnano subdued it at last. The Piccinino brothers became Captains-General once more, but were not as capable as the brilliant Sforza.
Podestà
Podestà is the name given to certain high officials in many Italian cities, since the later Middle Ages, mainly as Chief magistrate of a city state , but also as a local administrator, the representative of the Emperor.The term derives from the Latin word potestas, meaning power...
was given absolute power. Financial problems were also grave; fines, confiscations, and a state lottery were instituted to try to alleviate the deficit. Moreover, Guelphic aristocrats continued to be regularly elected over the Ghibellines, and began to make the Republic far less democratic. Carlo Gonzaga
Carlo Gonzaga of Milan
Carlo Gonzaga , Lord of Sabbioneta, was an Italian Guelph nobleman of the Mantuan House of Gonzaga who rose to the position of Captain of the People in the Ambrosian Republic of Milan, and eventually ruled practically as an autocrat. He was the younger son of Gianfrancesco Gonzaga and Paola...
, Captain of the People, lived luxuriously as an autocrat with his will as law. He was supported by Giovanni Appiani and Giovanni Ossona, tradesmen-turned-politicians, who were prominent in government affairs. Gonzaga began replacing his officials with unambitious men in his favor, and the Ghibellines saw their ideal of the Republic crumbling before their eyes. Lampugnano and his Ghibelline friends conspired against Gonzaga and the Guelphic regime, but were exposed by a letter intercepted by Gonzaga from Lampugnano to his friend Bossi. Gonzaga kept this knowledge secret, knowing that Lampugnano and Bossi were two of the most influential citizens since the formation of the Republic, but with the support of the vengeful Guelphic Captains and Defenders conspired to have them slain. Lampugnano and Bossi were sent as envoys to Frederick III in February of 1449, but on the road were caught and imprisoned. Lampugnano was beheaded without a trial, and Bossi was tortured until he gave the names of his fellow conspirators. Following the execution of the leaders there was a massacre of leading Ghibellines within the city, from which only a few, such as Vitaliano Borromeo, escaped to safety in Arona, Piedmont and elsewhere. The heads of the slain were placed upon pikes in the Piazza of the Broletto.
Meanwhile, the previous claimants to the Duchy began to see that Sforza would be a threat greater than the Ambrosian Republic. Louis of Savoy
Louis, Duke of Savoy
Louis I was Duke of Savoy from 1440 until his death.-Life:...
invaded in spring of 1449, and Sforza sent Colleoni (who had earlier defected) to defeat him at Borgomanero
Borgomanero
Borgomanero is a comune in the Province of Novara in the Italian region Piedmont, located about 90 km northeast of Turin and about 30 km northwest of Novara....
, leading to an uneasy peace. Sforza also faced treachery within his own ranks, added with the fact that he rashly accepted the defection of his great enemies the Piccinino brothers, who, upon gaining access to Monza, promptly returned it to Milan.
Lampugnano, unfortunately for the Guelphs, was considered a martyr for the Republic. This was made worse by the fact that the Guelphs in leadership refused to run elections in April, until in June they were forced by the populace. Ghibelline families took the reins of Milan in this election, and the Guelphs were defeated. However, the reprisals against the Guelphs, including the imprisonment of Appiani and Ossona who had been blamed (probably unjustly) for the massacre, led the populace to violently depose the Ghibellines and reinstall the extremist Guelphs. Gonzaga, however, whose friend Galeotto Toscano was a fatal casualty of the uprising, departed Milan to Crema, hoping to make peace with Sforza.
End of the Republic
Sforza was coming close to Milan itself in his conquests, and decided that since it was too powerful to be taken by force, he would surround it and starve the populace into surrender. With the loss of the outer cities by conquest or defection, Milan underwent famine. Gonzaga offered Crema to Sforza, hoping he would be tempted to take it himself and betray the Venetians. But Sforza remained staunch, and instead offered Gonzaga the city of TortonaTortona
Tortona is a comune of Piemonte, in the Province of Alessandria, Italy. Tortona is sited on the right bank of the Scrivia between the plain of Marengo and the foothills of the Ligurian Apennines.-History:...
if he would abandon Crema. This was accepted, and Crema, without support, quickly capitulated.
Sforza chose for his headquarters the Borromeo castle of Peschiera
Peschiera Borromeo
Peschiera Borromeo is a comune in the Province of Milan in the Italian region Lombardy, located about 12 km southeast of Milan. As of 31 December 2004, it had a population of 21,146 and an area of 23.5 km²...
, south-east of the city. Starvation and suffering were rampant in Milan. At last Gaspare da Vimercate engineered a coup on 24 February 1450. The next day the citizens met, but the suggestions and opinions were of great variety, save that all condemned Venice for its apparent apathy. Da Vimercate convinced the people to surrender to Sforza. Sforza had made himself very popular for his generosity while on fighting for Milan. He had abstained from ravaging the countryside as was so common among commanders of his day, and after some debate the public was convinced. The following day terms were offered to Sforza, who accepted them. Sforza earned the devotion of the people by distributing food to the starving people. On 22 March 1450, he had himself declared capitano del popolo
Capitano del popolo
The capitano del popolo was an administrative title used in Italy during the Middle Ages.It was created in the early 13th century when the populares, the increasing wealthy classes of merchants, professionals, craftsmen and, in maritime cities, ship-owners, who were of non-noble origin, were able...
, and by right of his wife, the Duke of Milan. He secured his popular support by letting many office-holders keep their positions and being very lenient in his reprisals. The leaders were briefly imprisoned or relegated to their estates, but were generally pardoned soon after, even knighting some of his old enemies at his coronation. Ghibellines were allowed to return in safety and were restored to favor.
Aftermath
Sforza remained at war with Venice for years after the downfall of the Ambrosian Republic. Venice allied herself with the kingdom of NaplesKingdom of Naples
The Kingdom of Naples, comprising the southern part of the Italian peninsula, was the remainder of the old Kingdom of Sicily after secession of the island of Sicily as a result of the Sicilian Vespers rebellion of 1282. Known to contemporaries as the Kingdom of Sicily, it is dubbed Kingdom of...
, previously a contender for the succession of Milan. Sforza, however, allied himself with Medici
Medici
The House of Medici or Famiglia de' Medici was a political dynasty, banking family and later royal house that first began to gather prominence under Cosimo de' Medici in the Republic of Florence during the late 14th century. The family originated in the Mugello region of the Tuscan countryside,...
Florence
Florence
Florence is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany and of the province of Florence. It is the most populous city in Tuscany, with approximately 370,000 inhabitants, expanding to over 1.5 million in the metropolitan area....
and his friend Cosimo de' Medici
Cosimo de' Medici
Còsimo di Giovanni degli Mèdici was the first of the Medici political dynasty, de facto rulers of Florence during much of the Italian Renaissance; also known as "Cosimo 'the Elder'" and "Cosimo Pater Patriae" .-Biography:Born in Florence, Cosimo inherited both his wealth and his expertise in...
against Venice and Aragonese
Crown of Aragon
The Crown of Aragon Corona d'Aragón Corona d'Aragó Corona Aragonum controlling a large portion of the present-day eastern Spain and southeastern France, as well as some of the major islands and mainland possessions stretching across the Mediterranean as far as Greece...
Naples. The continued war was finally closed by the peace of Lodi in 1454 with the House of Sforza
House of Sforza
Sforza was a ruling family of Renaissance Italy, based in Milan.-History:The dynasty was founded by Muzio Attendolo , called Sforza , a condottiero from Romagna serving the Angevin kings of Naples...
as the established rulers of the Duchy of Milan
Duchy of Milan
The Duchy of Milan , was created on the 1st of may 1395, when Gian Galeazzo Visconti, Lord of Milan, purchased a diploma for 100,000 Florins from King Wenceslaus. It was this diploma that installed, Gian Galeazzo as Duke of Milan and Count of Pavia...
During its three-year existence, the Ambrosian Republic won two major battles. The Lombards
Lombardy
Lombardy is one of the 20 regions of Italy. The capital is Milan. One-sixth of Italy's population lives in Lombardy and about one fifth of Italy's GDP is produced in this region, making it the most populous and richest region in the country and one of the richest in the whole of Europe...
defeated the French at the Battle of Bosco Marengo
Battle of Bosco Marengo
The Battle of Bosco Marengo was fought in the forests near Marengo on the 18th of October 1447 between a French army of the Duke of Orleans and a Lombard army of the Ambrosian Republic....
in 1447 and the Venetians at the Battle of Caravaggio
Battle of Caravaggio
The Battle of Caravaggio was fought near Caravaggio, in Lombardy , between the armies of the Ambrosian Republic and the Republic of Venice, on 15 September 1448....
in 1448. It was those victories that ensured the Republic all the territory of the former Duchy
Duchy of Milan
The Duchy of Milan , was created on the 1st of may 1395, when Gian Galeazzo Visconti, Lord of Milan, purchased a diploma for 100,000 Florins from King Wenceslaus. It was this diploma that installed, Gian Galeazzo as Duke of Milan and Count of Pavia...
.
Of the Republic, Niccolò Machiavelli
Niccolò Machiavelli
Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli was an Italian historian, philosopher, humanist, and writer based in Florence during the Renaissance. He is one of the main founders of modern political science. He was a diplomat, political philosopher, playwright, and a civil servant of the Florentine Republic...
remarked "In order to create a Republic in Milan it would be necessary to exterminate all the nobility. . . . For there are, among the nobles, so many exalted personages that the laws do not suffice to repress them, and they must needs be kept under by a living voice and a royal power."
First capitani e defensori
Porta Orientale
- Giovanni Marliani
- Giovanni Moresini
- Rolando or Oldrado Lampugnani
- Giovanni Olgiati
Porta Romana
- Bartolomeo Visconti
- Giovanni Omodei
- Giacomello Trivulzio
- Antonio Visconti, perhaps Antonio Trivulzi
Porta Vercellina
- Vitaliano Borromeo
- Guarnerio Castiglione
- Giacomo Coiro
- Simone Meraviglia
Porta Comasina
- Giacomo Dugnani
- Giorgio Lampugnani
- Luisino or Luigi Bossi
- Francesco Casati