Anglo-Burmese
Encyclopedia
The Anglo-Burmese, also known as the Anglo-Burmans, are a community of Eurasians
of Burmese and European descent, and emerged as a distinct community through mixed relations (sometimes permanent, sometimes temporary) between the British
and other European settlers and the indigenous peoples of Burma from 1826 until 1948 when Burma gained its independence from the United Kingdom
. Most who remained after 1962 adopted Burmese names, and converted to Buddhism to protect their families, jobs and assets. Those who could not adjust to the new way of life after Independence and the coming of military rule are dispersed throughout the world, with very few accurate estimates as to how many remain behind in military-ruled Burma (or Myanmar).
The term Anglo-Burmese is also used to refer to Eurasians of European and other Burmese ethnic minority groups (e.g. Shan, Karen
, Mon
, Chinese
) descent. It also, after 1937, included Anglo-Indian
residents in Burma. Collectively, in the Burmese language, Eurasians are specifically known as bo kabya; the term kabya refers to persons of mixed ancestry or dual ethnicity.
and Bamar
intermixed, and this multicultural community was collectively known as the Ba-yin-gyi. The community was established in Syriam (now known as Thanlyin
) on the outskirts of modern-day Yangon
. The settlement was founded by Felipe de Brito
. De Brito is said to have gone mad, having declared himself king of Lower Burma
, causing his outpost to be destroyed and himself executed by the Burmese king. Most of the small community of Eurasian and European settlers was banished inland to Shwebo
then known as Moksobo. Additionally, a small band of French soldiers captured in the late 18th century by the Burmese King was provided with Burmese wives and established a similar, small Eurasian community. In one of the last census counts conducted by the British in the 1930s, a number of people in Upper Burma still classified themselves as descendants of these bands of Portuguese and French soldiers. After the Portuguese and the French, the Dutch also established trade missions in Burma and along with them came Armenian settlers, both communities intermarrying with the already established Eurasians or marrying local Burmese people. The VOC (Dutch East India Company
) was active in Burma in the 18th century and many Anglo-Burmans of Dutch heritage are descended from the Dutch merchants who settled in the country. Today's Anglo-Burmese can count a very diverse lineage in their blood.
and Tenasserim) being annexed to British rule with a capital set up in Moulmein. The year 1852 saw a second war that added the delta province of Pegu to what became known as Lower Burma
or British Burma. Finally in 1885 after a plot was uncovered that the French intended to annex Upper Burma
, the British moved first with the total annexation of Burma, King Thibaw
and most of his relatives of importance were exiled to India, and Burma was made a province of British India. British settlers now began to settle in large numbers in Burma, intermixing with the local Burmans (Bamar) and other local ethnic groups, and the Eurasian community grew larger, some say larger than the Anglo-Indian community in India (see 'Finding George Orwell' by Emma Larkin). Frequently, European men took Burmese women as "temporary" wives, often deserting them and their offspring after their tours of duty ended in Burma but legal, long lasting marriages did also take place. Frequently, when a "temporary" relationship ended, the European father left behind a sum of money for the upkeep of their children, and sometimes the children were removed from their Burmese mothers and placed into convent schools run by Europeans, where their Burmese heritage was often undermined. The issue of mixed marriages, particularly between Bamar
women and British males, was to become a major issue in the independence movement as it further developed.
Anglo-Burmans represent a very diverse heritage, their Asian side primarily representing Burman blood, but also Karen
, Shan and Mon
as well as other smaller Burmese ethnic groups (Chin
, Kachin, Arakanese
for example). The European element included, aside from the British, other European influence, chiefly Greek
, Dutch
, Scandinavia
n, Irish
(who left their country when the Great Irish Famine), German
, Austria
n, French
, Portuguese
, Italian
and Russia
n. In addition, Iraq
i (Assyrian/Chaldean Christian), Armenia
n, Syria
n, Phoenician, Egypt
ian and Anglo-Indian
blood was also represented among Anglo-Burmans. By the 1920s, the Anglo-Burman community was a distinct ethnic group in Burma. In 1935, colonial Burma was plagued with riots due to the country having been swallowed into British India. In response, in 1937, as Burma separated officially from British India and formed a separate crown colony, Anglo-Burmans were officially recognised as an ethnic group under the Government of Burma Act. Having European blood, Anglo-Burmans were a privileged class, and became one of the dominant ethnic groups in Burmese life. They began assimilating to European customs, in particular British. Most Anglo-Burmans (unlike Anglo-Indians and the Burgher people
in Sri Lanka
) were able to trace at least a grandparent, if not a parent, originating from outside of Burma's borders. As such, the connection with the West was strong, and many Anglo-Burmans did not settle down as a truly indigenous ethnic group. Of course, some Anglo-Burmans did, and most of the community felt Burma was their own country, with no wish to "repatriate" to their European homeland. In fact, after Independence, when the Anglo-Burman Union carried out research among the community to gauge the feeling of its people with regard to nationality, it was discovered that around 60% intended to remain in Burma and take Burmese Citizenship (see John Clement Koop- The Eurasian Population in Burma) with the remaining 40% split between staying in Burma or leaving for Australia or the UK. Along with the British settlers, Anglo-Indians also came into Burma during colonial times to work on the railways and customs departments and intermarriage between the two groups (Anglo-Indian and Anglo-Burmese) was frequent, especially in Rangoon (Yangon) as both communities were innately drawn to one another. Community clubs were a mainstay of life during British rule, with most attending what was commonly called the 'Anglo-Indian/Domiciled European Club'.
Between 1935 and 1948, Burma quickly became the jewel of the East, with a flourishing economy based on agricultural produce (primarily rice
), oil, timber, gems and other natural resources. At this time, Rangoon was said to be the most cosmopolitan city east of the Suez Canal
and the city and its environs were estimated to hold at least 50% of the Anglo-Burmese community. During British rule, Rangoon and Maymyo became principal population centres for the Anglo-Burmese, although substantial communities also existed in the Ayeyarwady River
delta towns as well as in Mandalay
, Moulmein, Amherst (now Kyaikkami), Taunggyi
, Kalaw
, Toungoo, Pyinmana
, Meiktila
, Yenangyaung
and the mining towns of the Shan States. It is important to note that although prejudice did exist among some of the colonial settlers of European origin and equally among some Burmans, the Anglo-Burmese were not held in such contempt by the British and Burmans as were the Anglo-Indians by both the British and Indians in India, despite their similar origins and heritage. This was also reflected in the derogatory term bo kyet chee in Burmese to refer to Anglo-Indians in contrast to bo kabya which referred to Anglo-Burmans. Many Anglo-Indians in Burma never learnt to speak Burmese and managed to get by with Hindi or Urdu and this tended to alienate the local Burman people. As far as the host community was concerned, those willing to intermingle or blend in were as readily accepted as any kabya in the days of the Burmese kings, but those who looked down on the Burmese themselves were held in mutual contempt.
invaded East and Southeast Asia
, including Burma in hopes of creating an Empire for itself throughout Asia. Because of their European connections and appearance and fearful of Japanese rule, most Anglo-Burmans began making frantic preparations to leave the country for safety in India alongside the British. A vast majority of Anglo-Burmans made their way out of Burma by their own means, some by sea and others by air. Many were employed by government departments or were married to government employees and were able to flee on official evacuation convoys. Others stayed at their posts and ran the telegraphs and phone operations, railways and other infrastructure systems until it was too late to escape. Sadly, of those less fortunate who were left behind, many opted to trek through the jungles to safety in India. This exodus has become historically known as "The Trek" and many Anglo-Burmans alongside Europeans, Indians
and Chinese
died en route. Those who remained behind suffered horrendously. Many Anglo-Burmese during colonial times were concentrated in and around the town of Maymyo and as the Japanese took control of the country, they found many still located there and simply incarcerated them in concentration camps for fear of their loyalty to the British. However, Anglo-Burmese who resembled Bamar
were incognito and managed to pass, acting like the Burmans. Indeed, many Bamar sheltered their Eurasian friends and relatives from the Japanese and after the war, many Anglo-Burmans were not to forget this, refusing to take back their European names and dress, appreciative of the security and protection offered to them, and disgraced with the manner in which the British handled the evacuation of the country and the abandonment of the community. Others less fortunate during the war were interned in prison camps whilst others, particularly the Anglo-Burman women, were taken as servants and mistresses by the Japanese army, most often unwillingly. In 1944, Burma's colonial government met in exile at Simla
, India. Among those who attended were the Governor of Burma, Sir Reginald Dorman Smith, along with Anglo-Burman leaders (including James Barrington who was to become the first Ambassador for post-independence Burma to the U.S.A. and Canada), to discuss the future of Burma after the war and the status of the Anglo-Burmese community. After Japan was defeated, most Anglo-Burmans who had fled to India returned to Burma.
in 1944, where the Government of Burma in exile was stationed during the war, to discuss the future of the Anglo-Burmese community after the war.
The Anglo-Burmese delegates were :
One of the results of the conference was the giving of an assurance to the Anglo-Burmese community that they would be allowed to preserve their freedom of worship and allowed to teach their own religion, freedom to continue their own customs, and maintain their own language of English. In the Constituent Assembly of 1947, Anglo-Burmans were also to receive four assigned seats in the new parliament of independent Burma.
and severing all ties with the British Empire. The British left protectional clauses in the Constitution and the legislative makeup of independent Burma to take account of the Anglo-Burman people including, most importantly, reserved seats in the parliament of the newly established Union of Burma and a disproportionate number of Anglo-Burmans running the bureaucracy of day to day government and military operations. Aung San, prior to his death, had addressed the Anglo-Burman Union to press the issue of acceptance and the fears the community had for their presence in independent Burma. His assurances went to help with the decision by most of the community to remain in Burma after British withdrawal.
However, Aung San and his entire cabinet were assassinated prior to Independence and this sent a ripple effect through the entire country and among all ethnic minority groups, who Aung San had personally addressed to reassure them of their place in the new country. In February, 1948, ethnic rebellions immediately erupted throughout Burma, with the Kayin
taking most of the central part of the country, including Mandalay
and for a time, it was feared that Rangoon itself would fall to the rebels. Due to the insurrection and erupting civil war, there immediately followed, however, a stream of Anglo-Burmans leaving the country, who were fearful of what awaited them and the country since the end of British rule. At this time, about 30% of the population of Rangoon were reckoned as Anglo-Burmese. This proportion, however, was to decline steadily through to the late 1960s.
Following the British withdrawal in 1948, some Anglo-Burmans left Burma, primarily for the United Kingdom. It is an interesting irony of note that whereas both Anglo-Burmans and Anglo-Indians had tended to look down on the native Bamar, after they emigrated to Britain, many ended up calling themselves Burmese in white society, primarily due to British attitudes which refused to acknowledge those of mixed origins as their own. Many more remained behind in Burma and carried on with their lives. However through the 1950s, the situation steadily declined in the country, with armed insurrections and rebellions throughout the country, principally among the Kayin
people. Due to the perceived suffering the Bamar had encountered under British rule, affirmative action
of sorts was introduced by the government of U Nu
in the 1950s, primarily due to the disproportionate control the Anglo-Burmans had within government departments and the running of the country. Many Anglo-Burmans began to lose their jobs, to be replaced with pure Burmans as the bureaucracy of the country became increasingly Burmanized. Additional measures relating to the Burmese language were introduced so that in order to take the Matriculation exam to enter Rangoon University, prospective students were required to be fluent in written Burmese (which many Anglo-Burmans had not been taught), even though all books and most teaching were still carried out in English.
overthrew U Nu
's government and established strict military rule. It soon became apparent that this new military government had other plans as a socialist, xenophobic and isolationist regime was born. At this time, many more Anglo-Burmans left due to discriminatory measures taken against minority groups, particularly those the military deemed as vestiges of colonial rule, specifically the Anglo-Burmese and the Karen
. Anglo-Burmans already in the Armed Forces were dismissed and those who wanted to join were now barred. There were also mass dismissals of Anglo-Burmans from the Civil Service in departments where they had previously dominated such as the Railways, the Union of Burma Airways, Customs Department, Division of Forestry and Mining and the Ministry of Posts and Telegraphs. All schools were nationalised, the principal target being missionary schools, and English was no longer taught from kindergarten level as it had been before. Standards began to fall in the educational system in the country and the previously highly esteemed University of Rangoon was closed for some time, after which the Rangoon University Student Union (RUSU), hotbed of the nationalist movement during the 1930s and 1940s, was blown up by the military. Once the University reopened its doors, English as the principal medium of instruction was abolished and foreign institutions no longer accepted degrees obtained from the University. The Anglo-Burman Social Club in Rangoon was subsequently requisitioned by the military and turned into an officer’s mess and the Anglo-Burman Union was banned. During this time, many Anglo-Burmans left for Australia
and New Zealand
, with small numbers emigrating to Canada
and the U.S.A.
to protect their families, jobs and assets. Because of the similar heritage and roles played, and because Burma was historically part of the Empire as part of India, Anglo-Burmans were once counted as Anglo-Indians; today, Anglo-Indians still accept Anglo-Burmese as their "kith and kin" and world reunions of Anglo-Indians usually also include many who would also be classed more correctly as Anglo-Burmese, to reflect their Burmese, rather than Indian, blood.
, his daughters the actresses Kate Beckinsale
and Samantha Beckinsale
, the music critic Peter Barakan , the British TV personality Melanie Sykes
, the jazz musician Jamie Cullum
and his brother Ben Cullum and the singer Annabella Lwin
. The alternative musician Get Cape. Wear Cape. Fly
(né Sam Duckworth) is also Anglo-Burmese. The sons of Aung San Suu Kyi
and Michael Aris
, Alexander and Kim, are technically Anglo-Burmese, despite not stemming from the colonial era. There is also Zuleikha Robinson
, a British actress raised in Thailand and Malaysia by a Burmese-Indian mother and an English father.
Burmese writer Wendy Law-Yone
and her daughter Jocelyn Seagrave
, who is a U.S. actress, are also Anglo-Burmese.
was the medium of instruction with Burmese
as a second language. For some Anglo-Burmans who married full blooded Burmese, their children, whilst still being counted as Anglo-Burmans, were usually more openly exposed to the indigenous culture and spoke and used the Burmese language more frequently than their more "Anglo" counterparts. Notable schools include:
Eurasian (mixed ancestry)
The word Eurasian refers to people of mixed Asian and European ancestry. It was originally coined in 19th-century British India to refer to Anglo-Indians of mixed British and Indian descent....
of Burmese and European descent, and emerged as a distinct community through mixed relations (sometimes permanent, sometimes temporary) between the British
Great Britain
Great Britain or Britain is an island situated to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, and the largest European island, as well as the largest of the British Isles...
and other European settlers and the indigenous peoples of Burma from 1826 until 1948 when Burma gained its independence from the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
. Most who remained after 1962 adopted Burmese names, and converted to Buddhism to protect their families, jobs and assets. Those who could not adjust to the new way of life after Independence and the coming of military rule are dispersed throughout the world, with very few accurate estimates as to how many remain behind in military-ruled Burma (or Myanmar).
The term Anglo-Burmese is also used to refer to Eurasians of European and other Burmese ethnic minority groups (e.g. Shan, Karen
Karen people
The Karen or Kayin people , are a Sino-Tibetan language speaking ethnic group which resides primarily in southern and southeastern Burma . The Karen make up approximately 7 percent of the total Burmese population of approximately 50 million people...
, Mon
Mon people
The Mon are an ethnic group from Burma , living mostly in Mon State, Bago Division, the Irrawaddy Delta, and along the southern Thai–Burmese border. One of the earliest peoples to reside in Southeast Asia, the Mon were responsible for the spread of Theravada Buddhism in Burma and Thailand...
, Chinese
Burmese Chinese
The Burmese Chinese or Chinese Burmese are a group of overseas Chinese born or raised in Burma . Although the Chinese officially make up three percent of the population, the actual figure is believed to be much higher...
) descent. It also, after 1937, included Anglo-Indian
Anglo-Indian
Anglo-Indians are people who have mixed Indian and British ancestry, or people of British descent born or living in India, now mainly historical in the latter sense. British residents in India used the term "Eurasians" for people of mixed European and Indian descent...
residents in Burma. Collectively, in the Burmese language, Eurasians are specifically known as bo kabya; the term kabya refers to persons of mixed ancestry or dual ethnicity.
Earliest settlement
The first Anglo-Burmese community emerged in the early 17th century, as the PortuguesePortugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
and Bamar
Bamar
The Bamar are the dominant ethnic group of Burma , constituting approximately two-thirds of the population. The Bamar live primarily in the Irrawaddy basin, and speak the Burmese language, which is also the official language of Burma. Bamar customs and identity are closely intertwined with general...
intermixed, and this multicultural community was collectively known as the Ba-yin-gyi. The community was established in Syriam (now known as Thanlyin
Thanlyin
Thanlyin is a major port city of Myanmar, located across Bago River from the city of Yangon. Thanlyin Township comprises 17 quarters and 28 village tracts. It is home to the largest port in the country, Thilawa port.-History:...
) on the outskirts of modern-day Yangon
Yangon
Yangon is a former capital of Burma and the capital of Yangon Region . Although the military government has officially relocated the capital to Naypyidaw since March 2006, Yangon, with a population of over four million, continues to be the country's largest city and the most important commercial...
. The settlement was founded by Felipe de Brito
Philip de Brito
Filipe de Brito e Nicote or Nga Zinga was a Portuguese adventurer and mercenary in Rakhine service.Born to French father in Lisbon, Portugal, de Brito first traveled to Southeast Asia as a cabin boy. He eventually served under the King of Arakan, and became governor of Thanlyin in 1599...
. De Brito is said to have gone mad, having declared himself king of Lower Burma
Lower Burma
Lower Burma is a geographic region of Burma and includes the low-lying Irrawaddy delta , as well as coastal regions of the country ....
, causing his outpost to be destroyed and himself executed by the Burmese king. Most of the small community of Eurasian and European settlers was banished inland to Shwebo
Shwebo
Shwebo is a city in Sagaing Division, Myanmar, located 113 km northwest of Mandalay between the Irrawaddy and the Mu rivers. The city, also called Ratanasingha , was the capital of Myanmar from 1752 to 1760 during the Konbaung period....
then known as Moksobo. Additionally, a small band of French soldiers captured in the late 18th century by the Burmese King was provided with Burmese wives and established a similar, small Eurasian community. In one of the last census counts conducted by the British in the 1930s, a number of people in Upper Burma still classified themselves as descendants of these bands of Portuguese and French soldiers. After the Portuguese and the French, the Dutch also established trade missions in Burma and along with them came Armenian settlers, both communities intermarrying with the already established Eurasians or marrying local Burmese people. The VOC (Dutch East India Company
Dutch East India Company
The Dutch East India Company was a chartered company established in 1602, when the States-General of the Netherlands granted it a 21-year monopoly to carry out colonial activities in Asia...
) was active in Burma in the 18th century and many Anglo-Burmans of Dutch heritage are descended from the Dutch merchants who settled in the country. Today's Anglo-Burmese can count a very diverse lineage in their blood.
British administration
From 1825 onwards, border wars with the British ended with the coastal provinces of (ArakanRakhine State
Rakhine State is a Burmese state. Situated on the western coast, it is bordered by Chin State in the north, Magway Region, Bago Region and Ayeyarwady Region in the east, the Bay of Bengal to the west, and the Chittagong Division of Bangladesh to the northwest. It is located approximately between...
and Tenasserim) being annexed to British rule with a capital set up in Moulmein. The year 1852 saw a second war that added the delta province of Pegu to what became known as Lower Burma
Lower Burma
Lower Burma is a geographic region of Burma and includes the low-lying Irrawaddy delta , as well as coastal regions of the country ....
or British Burma. Finally in 1885 after a plot was uncovered that the French intended to annex Upper Burma
Upper Burma
Upper Burma refers to a geographic region of Burma , traditionally encompassing Mandalay and its periphery , or more broadly speaking, Kachin and Shan States....
, the British moved first with the total annexation of Burma, King Thibaw
Thibaw Min
Thibaw Min was the last king of the Konbaung dynasty of Burma . His reign ended when Burma was defeated by the forces of the British Empire in the Third Anglo-Burmese War, on 29 November 1885, prior to its official annexation on 1 January 1886....
and most of his relatives of importance were exiled to India, and Burma was made a province of British India. British settlers now began to settle in large numbers in Burma, intermixing with the local Burmans (Bamar) and other local ethnic groups, and the Eurasian community grew larger, some say larger than the Anglo-Indian community in India (see 'Finding George Orwell' by Emma Larkin). Frequently, European men took Burmese women as "temporary" wives, often deserting them and their offspring after their tours of duty ended in Burma but legal, long lasting marriages did also take place. Frequently, when a "temporary" relationship ended, the European father left behind a sum of money for the upkeep of their children, and sometimes the children were removed from their Burmese mothers and placed into convent schools run by Europeans, where their Burmese heritage was often undermined. The issue of mixed marriages, particularly between Bamar
Bamar
The Bamar are the dominant ethnic group of Burma , constituting approximately two-thirds of the population. The Bamar live primarily in the Irrawaddy basin, and speak the Burmese language, which is also the official language of Burma. Bamar customs and identity are closely intertwined with general...
women and British males, was to become a major issue in the independence movement as it further developed.
Anglo-Burmans represent a very diverse heritage, their Asian side primarily representing Burman blood, but also Karen
Karen people
The Karen or Kayin people , are a Sino-Tibetan language speaking ethnic group which resides primarily in southern and southeastern Burma . The Karen make up approximately 7 percent of the total Burmese population of approximately 50 million people...
, Shan and Mon
Mon people
The Mon are an ethnic group from Burma , living mostly in Mon State, Bago Division, the Irrawaddy Delta, and along the southern Thai–Burmese border. One of the earliest peoples to reside in Southeast Asia, the Mon were responsible for the spread of Theravada Buddhism in Burma and Thailand...
as well as other smaller Burmese ethnic groups (Chin
Chin people
The Chin , known as the Kuki in Assam, are one of the ethnic groups in Burma. The Chins are found mainly in western part of Burma and numbered circa 1.5 million. They also live in nearby Indian states of Nagaland, Mizoram and Manipur and Assam. Owing to Mizo influence and Baptist missionaries'...
, Kachin, Arakanese
Rakhine people
The Rakhine , is a nationality in Myanmar forming the majority along the coastal region of present day Rakhine State or Arakan State. They possibly constitute 5.53% or more of Myanmar's total population but no accurate census figures exist. Rakhine people also live in the southeastern parts of...
for example). The European element included, aside from the British, other European influence, chiefly Greek
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
, Dutch
Netherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
, Scandinavia
Scandinavia
Scandinavia is a cultural, historical and ethno-linguistic region in northern Europe that includes the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, characterized by their common ethno-cultural heritage and language. Modern Norway and Sweden proper are situated on the Scandinavian Peninsula,...
n, Irish
Ireland
Ireland is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth...
(who left their country when the Great Irish Famine), German
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
, Austria
Austria
Austria , officially the Republic of Austria , is a landlocked country of roughly 8.4 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the...
n, French
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, Portuguese
Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
, Italian
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
and Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
n. In addition, Iraq
Iraq
Iraq ; officially the Republic of Iraq is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert....
i (Assyrian/Chaldean Christian), Armenia
Armenia
Armenia , officially the Republic of Armenia , is a landlocked mountainous country in the Caucasus region of Eurasia...
n, Syria
Syria
Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest....
n, Phoenician, Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
ian and Anglo-Indian
Anglo-Indian
Anglo-Indians are people who have mixed Indian and British ancestry, or people of British descent born or living in India, now mainly historical in the latter sense. British residents in India used the term "Eurasians" for people of mixed European and Indian descent...
blood was also represented among Anglo-Burmans. By the 1920s, the Anglo-Burman community was a distinct ethnic group in Burma. In 1935, colonial Burma was plagued with riots due to the country having been swallowed into British India. In response, in 1937, as Burma separated officially from British India and formed a separate crown colony, Anglo-Burmans were officially recognised as an ethnic group under the Government of Burma Act. Having European blood, Anglo-Burmans were a privileged class, and became one of the dominant ethnic groups in Burmese life. They began assimilating to European customs, in particular British. Most Anglo-Burmans (unlike Anglo-Indians and the Burgher people
Burgher people
The Burghers are a Eurasian ethnic group, historically from Sri Lanka, consisting for the most part of male-line descendants of European colonists from the 16th to 20th centuries and local women, with some minorities of Swedish, Norwegian, French and Irish.Today the mother tongue of the Burghers...
in Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka is a country off the southern coast of the Indian subcontinent. Known until 1972 as Ceylon , Sri Lanka is an island surrounded by the Indian Ocean, the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait, and lies in the vicinity of India and the...
) were able to trace at least a grandparent, if not a parent, originating from outside of Burma's borders. As such, the connection with the West was strong, and many Anglo-Burmans did not settle down as a truly indigenous ethnic group. Of course, some Anglo-Burmans did, and most of the community felt Burma was their own country, with no wish to "repatriate" to their European homeland. In fact, after Independence, when the Anglo-Burman Union carried out research among the community to gauge the feeling of its people with regard to nationality, it was discovered that around 60% intended to remain in Burma and take Burmese Citizenship (see John Clement Koop- The Eurasian Population in Burma) with the remaining 40% split between staying in Burma or leaving for Australia or the UK. Along with the British settlers, Anglo-Indians also came into Burma during colonial times to work on the railways and customs departments and intermarriage between the two groups (Anglo-Indian and Anglo-Burmese) was frequent, especially in Rangoon (Yangon) as both communities were innately drawn to one another. Community clubs were a mainstay of life during British rule, with most attending what was commonly called the 'Anglo-Indian/Domiciled European Club'.
Between 1935 and 1948, Burma quickly became the jewel of the East, with a flourishing economy based on agricultural produce (primarily rice
Rice
Rice is the seed of the monocot plants Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima . As a cereal grain, it is the most important staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and the West Indies...
), oil, timber, gems and other natural resources. At this time, Rangoon was said to be the most cosmopolitan city east of the Suez Canal
Suez Canal
The Suez Canal , also known by the nickname "The Highway to India", is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea. Opened in November 1869 after 10 years of construction work, it allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without navigation...
and the city and its environs were estimated to hold at least 50% of the Anglo-Burmese community. During British rule, Rangoon and Maymyo became principal population centres for the Anglo-Burmese, although substantial communities also existed in the Ayeyarwady River
Ayeyarwady River
The Irrawaddy River or Ayeyarwady River is a river that flows from north to south through Burma . It is the country's largest river and most important commercial waterway. Originating from the confluence of the N'mai and Mali rivers, it flows relatively straight North-South before emptying through...
delta towns as well as in Mandalay
Mandalay
Mandalay is the second-largest city and the last royal capital of Burma. Located north of Yangon on the east bank of the Irrawaddy River, the city has a population of one million, and is the capital of Mandalay Region ....
, Moulmein, Amherst (now Kyaikkami), Taunggyi
Taunggyi
-Transportation:The main access to Taunggyi is by road. A railway line that passes through Taunggyi was recently built in 1995, but at the moment it offers no passenger service. Regular railway passenger service to the rest of the country is through the town of Shwenyaung, twelve miles to the...
, Kalaw
Kalaw
For the bird locally known as Kalaw see Rufous HornbillKalaw is a hill town in the Shan State of Burma. It is located in Kalaw Township in Taunggyi District. The town was popular with the British during colonial rule. Kalaw is the main place of the novel by Jan Philipp Sendker, "Das...
, Toungoo, Pyinmana
Pyinmana
Pyinmana ) is a logging town and sugarcane refinery center in the Mandalay Region of Myanmar. The administrative capital of Myanmar was officially moved to a militarized greenfield site two miles west of Pyinmana on November 6, 2005. Pyinmana is approximately north of Yangon...
, Meiktila
Meiktila
Meiktila is a city in central Myanmar, located on the banks of Lake Meiktila in Mandalay Division, at the junctions of the Bagan-Taunggyi, Yangon-Mandalay and Meiktila-Myingyan highways. Because of its strategic position, Meiktila is home to Myanmar Air Force's central command and Meiktila Air...
, Yenangyaung
Yenangyaung
Yenangyaung is a city in Magway Division, Myanmar, on the Irrawaddy River.-History:For centuries, the dominant industry in the area has been petroleum. It began as an indigenous oil industry, with hand-dug wells, and from 1755 onwards, early British soldier-diplomats began to note its existence...
and the mining towns of the Shan States. It is important to note that although prejudice did exist among some of the colonial settlers of European origin and equally among some Burmans, the Anglo-Burmese were not held in such contempt by the British and Burmans as were the Anglo-Indians by both the British and Indians in India, despite their similar origins and heritage. This was also reflected in the derogatory term bo kyet chee in Burmese to refer to Anglo-Indians in contrast to bo kabya which referred to Anglo-Burmans. Many Anglo-Indians in Burma never learnt to speak Burmese and managed to get by with Hindi or Urdu and this tended to alienate the local Burman people. As far as the host community was concerned, those willing to intermingle or blend in were as readily accepted as any kabya in the days of the Burmese kings, but those who looked down on the Burmese themselves were held in mutual contempt.
Japanese occupation and Allied liberation
In 1942, the JapaneseImperial Japanese Army
-Foundation:During the Meiji Restoration, the military forces loyal to the Emperor were samurai drawn primarily from the loyalist feudal domains of Satsuma and Chōshū...
invaded East and Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, South-East Asia, South East Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia. The region lies on the intersection of geological plates, with heavy seismic...
, including Burma in hopes of creating an Empire for itself throughout Asia. Because of their European connections and appearance and fearful of Japanese rule, most Anglo-Burmans began making frantic preparations to leave the country for safety in India alongside the British. A vast majority of Anglo-Burmans made their way out of Burma by their own means, some by sea and others by air. Many were employed by government departments or were married to government employees and were able to flee on official evacuation convoys. Others stayed at their posts and ran the telegraphs and phone operations, railways and other infrastructure systems until it was too late to escape. Sadly, of those less fortunate who were left behind, many opted to trek through the jungles to safety in India. This exodus has become historically known as "The Trek" and many Anglo-Burmans alongside Europeans, Indians
Burmese Indians
Burmese Indians are a group of people of Indian subcontinental ethnicity who live in Myanmar . While Indians have lived in Burma for many centuries, most of the ancestors of the current Burmese Indian community emigrated to Burma from the start of British rule in the mid 19th century to the...
and Chinese
Burmese Chinese
The Burmese Chinese or Chinese Burmese are a group of overseas Chinese born or raised in Burma . Although the Chinese officially make up three percent of the population, the actual figure is believed to be much higher...
died en route. Those who remained behind suffered horrendously. Many Anglo-Burmese during colonial times were concentrated in and around the town of Maymyo and as the Japanese took control of the country, they found many still located there and simply incarcerated them in concentration camps for fear of their loyalty to the British. However, Anglo-Burmese who resembled Bamar
Bamar
The Bamar are the dominant ethnic group of Burma , constituting approximately two-thirds of the population. The Bamar live primarily in the Irrawaddy basin, and speak the Burmese language, which is also the official language of Burma. Bamar customs and identity are closely intertwined with general...
were incognito and managed to pass, acting like the Burmans. Indeed, many Bamar sheltered their Eurasian friends and relatives from the Japanese and after the war, many Anglo-Burmans were not to forget this, refusing to take back their European names and dress, appreciative of the security and protection offered to them, and disgraced with the manner in which the British handled the evacuation of the country and the abandonment of the community. Others less fortunate during the war were interned in prison camps whilst others, particularly the Anglo-Burman women, were taken as servants and mistresses by the Japanese army, most often unwillingly. In 1944, Burma's colonial government met in exile at Simla
Shimla
Shimla , formerly known as Simla, is the capital city of Himachal Pradesh. In 1864, Shimla was declared the summer capital of the British Raj in India. A popular tourist destination, Shimla is often referred to as the "Queen of Hills," a term coined by the British...
, India. Among those who attended were the Governor of Burma, Sir Reginald Dorman Smith, along with Anglo-Burman leaders (including James Barrington who was to become the first Ambassador for post-independence Burma to the U.S.A. and Canada), to discuss the future of Burma after the war and the status of the Anglo-Burmese community. After Japan was defeated, most Anglo-Burmans who had fled to India returned to Burma.
Simla Conference 1944
Sir Reginald Dorman-Smith, Governor of Burma in exile, met with Anglo-Burmese leaders in SimlaShimla
Shimla , formerly known as Simla, is the capital city of Himachal Pradesh. In 1864, Shimla was declared the summer capital of the British Raj in India. A popular tourist destination, Shimla is often referred to as the "Queen of Hills," a term coined by the British...
in 1944, where the Government of Burma in exile was stationed during the war, to discuss the future of the Anglo-Burmese community after the war.
The Anglo-Burmese delegates were :
- Mr. G.Kirkham,
- Mr. H.J.Mitchell B.Fr.S.,
- Mr. J.Barrington I.C.S.,
- Mr. K.W. Foster B.C.S.,
- Mr. E.A. Franklin I.C.S,
- Mr. W.A. Gibson,
- Mrs. K. Russell,
- Mr. H. Elliott,
- Mr. C.H. Campagnac,
- Mr. J.A.Wiseham, and
- Mr. J. F. Blake.
One of the results of the conference was the giving of an assurance to the Anglo-Burmese community that they would be allowed to preserve their freedom of worship and allowed to teach their own religion, freedom to continue their own customs, and maintain their own language of English. In the Constituent Assembly of 1947, Anglo-Burmans were also to receive four assigned seats in the new parliament of independent Burma.
Post-independence
On 4 January 1948, the Union of Burma declared its independence from Great Britain, immediately leaving the CommonwealthCommonwealth of Nations
The Commonwealth of Nations, normally referred to as the Commonwealth and formerly known as the British Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of fifty-four independent member states...
and severing all ties with the British Empire. The British left protectional clauses in the Constitution and the legislative makeup of independent Burma to take account of the Anglo-Burman people including, most importantly, reserved seats in the parliament of the newly established Union of Burma and a disproportionate number of Anglo-Burmans running the bureaucracy of day to day government and military operations. Aung San, prior to his death, had addressed the Anglo-Burman Union to press the issue of acceptance and the fears the community had for their presence in independent Burma. His assurances went to help with the decision by most of the community to remain in Burma after British withdrawal.
However, Aung San and his entire cabinet were assassinated prior to Independence and this sent a ripple effect through the entire country and among all ethnic minority groups, who Aung San had personally addressed to reassure them of their place in the new country. In February, 1948, ethnic rebellions immediately erupted throughout Burma, with the Kayin
Kayin
Kayin can refer to:* Kayin State, an administrative division of Myanmar * Kayin or Karen people, a minority ethnic group in Myanmar* alternative spelling for Cain* Kayin Amoh, a character in the Battle Arena Toshinden fighting game series...
taking most of the central part of the country, including Mandalay
Mandalay
Mandalay is the second-largest city and the last royal capital of Burma. Located north of Yangon on the east bank of the Irrawaddy River, the city has a population of one million, and is the capital of Mandalay Region ....
and for a time, it was feared that Rangoon itself would fall to the rebels. Due to the insurrection and erupting civil war, there immediately followed, however, a stream of Anglo-Burmans leaving the country, who were fearful of what awaited them and the country since the end of British rule. At this time, about 30% of the population of Rangoon were reckoned as Anglo-Burmese. This proportion, however, was to decline steadily through to the late 1960s.
Following the British withdrawal in 1948, some Anglo-Burmans left Burma, primarily for the United Kingdom. It is an interesting irony of note that whereas both Anglo-Burmans and Anglo-Indians had tended to look down on the native Bamar, after they emigrated to Britain, many ended up calling themselves Burmese in white society, primarily due to British attitudes which refused to acknowledge those of mixed origins as their own. Many more remained behind in Burma and carried on with their lives. However through the 1950s, the situation steadily declined in the country, with armed insurrections and rebellions throughout the country, principally among the Kayin
Kayin
Kayin can refer to:* Kayin State, an administrative division of Myanmar * Kayin or Karen people, a minority ethnic group in Myanmar* alternative spelling for Cain* Kayin Amoh, a character in the Battle Arena Toshinden fighting game series...
people. Due to the perceived suffering the Bamar had encountered under British rule, affirmative action
Affirmative action
Affirmative action refers to policies that take factors including "race, color, religion, gender, sexual orientation or national origin" into consideration in order to benefit an underrepresented group, usually as a means to counter the effects of a history of discrimination.-Origins:The term...
of sorts was introduced by the government of U Nu
U Nu
For other people with the Burmese name Nu, see Nu .U Nu was a leading Burmese nationalist and political figure of the 20th century...
in the 1950s, primarily due to the disproportionate control the Anglo-Burmans had within government departments and the running of the country. Many Anglo-Burmans began to lose their jobs, to be replaced with pure Burmans as the bureaucracy of the country became increasingly Burmanized. Additional measures relating to the Burmese language were introduced so that in order to take the Matriculation exam to enter Rangoon University, prospective students were required to be fluent in written Burmese (which many Anglo-Burmans had not been taught), even though all books and most teaching were still carried out in English.
Military rule
In 1962 General Ne WinNe Win
Ne Win was Burmese a politician and military commander. He was Prime Minister of Burma from 1958 to 1960 and 1962 to 1974 and also head of state from 1962 to 1981...
overthrew U Nu
U Nu
For other people with the Burmese name Nu, see Nu .U Nu was a leading Burmese nationalist and political figure of the 20th century...
's government and established strict military rule. It soon became apparent that this new military government had other plans as a socialist, xenophobic and isolationist regime was born. At this time, many more Anglo-Burmans left due to discriminatory measures taken against minority groups, particularly those the military deemed as vestiges of colonial rule, specifically the Anglo-Burmese and the Karen
Karen people
The Karen or Kayin people , are a Sino-Tibetan language speaking ethnic group which resides primarily in southern and southeastern Burma . The Karen make up approximately 7 percent of the total Burmese population of approximately 50 million people...
. Anglo-Burmans already in the Armed Forces were dismissed and those who wanted to join were now barred. There were also mass dismissals of Anglo-Burmans from the Civil Service in departments where they had previously dominated such as the Railways, the Union of Burma Airways, Customs Department, Division of Forestry and Mining and the Ministry of Posts and Telegraphs. All schools were nationalised, the principal target being missionary schools, and English was no longer taught from kindergarten level as it had been before. Standards began to fall in the educational system in the country and the previously highly esteemed University of Rangoon was closed for some time, after which the Rangoon University Student Union (RUSU), hotbed of the nationalist movement during the 1930s and 1940s, was blown up by the military. Once the University reopened its doors, English as the principal medium of instruction was abolished and foreign institutions no longer accepted degrees obtained from the University. The Anglo-Burman Social Club in Rangoon was subsequently requisitioned by the military and turned into an officer’s mess and the Anglo-Burman Union was banned. During this time, many Anglo-Burmans left for Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
and New Zealand
New Zealand
New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...
, with small numbers emigrating to Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
and the U.S.A.
Present-day
Today, some of the people actually identifying themselves as Anglo-Burmans are believed to remain in Burma. Most who remained after 1962 adopted Burmese names, and converted to BuddhismBuddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
to protect their families, jobs and assets. Because of the similar heritage and roles played, and because Burma was historically part of the Empire as part of India, Anglo-Burmans were once counted as Anglo-Indians; today, Anglo-Indians still accept Anglo-Burmese as their "kith and kin" and world reunions of Anglo-Indians usually also include many who would also be classed more correctly as Anglo-Burmese, to reflect their Burmese, rather than Indian, blood.
Notable diaspora
The most famous Anglo-Burmans today are to be found outside of Burma's borders such as the Bollywood actress Helen Richardson, the late British television actor Richard BeckinsaleRichard Beckinsale
Richard Arthur Beckinsale was an English actor, best known for his roles as Lennie Godber in the popular BBC sitcom Porridge and Alan Moore in the British sitcom Rising Damp....
, his daughters the actresses Kate Beckinsale
Kate Beckinsale
Kathryn Bailey "Kate" Beckinsale is an English actress. After some minor television roles, she made her film debut in Much Ado About Nothing while still a student at Oxford University...
and Samantha Beckinsale
Samantha Beckinsale
Samantha Jane Beckinsale is an English actress best known for her role as firefighter, Kate Stevens, in London's Burning and her role as Lesley in the sitcom Shelley from 1989–1992...
, the music critic Peter Barakan , the British TV personality Melanie Sykes
Melanie Sykes
Melanie Ann Sykes is an English television presenter and model.-Career:Melanie Sykes was born to an English father, and an Anglo-Indian mother. She first came to public attention as the bikini-clad girl in the Boddingtons beer advertisements with the broad "Northern" accent in the mid-1990s...
, the jazz musician Jamie Cullum
Jamie Cullum
Jamie Cullum is an English pop and jazz-pop singer-songwriter. Though he is primarily a vocalist/pianist he also accompanies himself on other instruments including guitar and drums. Since April 2010, he has been presenting a weekly jazz show on BBC Radio 2, broadcast on Tuesdays from 19:00.- Early...
and his brother Ben Cullum and the singer Annabella Lwin
Annabella Lwin
Annabella Lwin is an Anglo-Burmese singer, songwriter and record producer best known as the lead singer of Bow Wow Wow.-Biography:Lwin was born to a Burmese father and an English mother in Rangoon, Burma .Medina, Maximillian Mark; ChopBlock.com Her birth name in Burmese translates to "High,...
. The alternative musician Get Cape. Wear Cape. Fly
Get Cape. Wear Cape. Fly
Get Cape. Wear Cape. Fly is the stage name of English artist Sam Duckworth and his band. He is sometimes referred to as Get Cape, Cape, GCWCF and Slam Dunkworth . According to Duckworth, his stage name comes from a ZX Spectrum magazine...
(né Sam Duckworth) is also Anglo-Burmese. The sons of Aung San Suu Kyi
Aung San Suu Kyi
Aung San Suu Kyi, AC is a Burmese opposition politician and the General Secretary of the National League for Democracy. In the 1990 general election, her National League for Democracy party won 59% of the national votes and 81% of the seats in Parliament. She had, however, already been detained...
and Michael Aris
Michael Aris
Michael Vaillancourt Aris was a leading Western authority on Bhutanese, Tibetan, and Himalayan culture, and wrote numerous books on Buddhism in those regions. He was the husband of Burmese opposition politician Aung San Suu Kyi....
, Alexander and Kim, are technically Anglo-Burmese, despite not stemming from the colonial era. There is also Zuleikha Robinson
Zuleikha Robinson
Zuleikha Robinson is an English actress, raised in Thailand and Malaysia by a Burmese-Indian mother and an English father. She is a graduate of the American Academy of Dramatic Arts in Los Angeles, and best known for playing Ilana in the ABC show Lost.In 2006, she played a Bengali character called...
, a British actress raised in Thailand and Malaysia by a Burmese-Indian mother and an English father.
Burmese writer Wendy Law-Yone
Wendy Law-Yone
Wendy Law-Yone, , is a critically acclaimed Burmese American author of novels and short stories. Though she did not settle in the United States until she was an adult, she is identified as an Asian American writer. Her novels, The Coffin Tree and Irrawaddy Tango , were critically well received,...
and her daughter Jocelyn Seagrave
Jocelyn Seagrave
Jocelyn Seagrave is an American film and television actress, best known for playing Julia Camaletti on Guilding Light and Jessica Mitchell on Fox's Pacific Palisades.-Early life:...
, who is a U.S. actress, are also Anglo-Burmese.
Educational system
Anglo-Burmans were enrolled in missionary-run schools where EnglishEnglish language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
was the medium of instruction with Burmese
Burmese language
The Burmese language is the official language of Burma. Although the constitution officially recognizes it as the Myanmar language, most English speakers continue to refer to the language as Burmese. Burmese is the native language of the Bamar and related sub-ethnic groups of the Bamar, as well as...
as a second language. For some Anglo-Burmans who married full blooded Burmese, their children, whilst still being counted as Anglo-Burmans, were usually more openly exposed to the indigenous culture and spoke and used the Burmese language more frequently than their more "Anglo" counterparts. Notable schools include:
- Kingswood High School, KalawKingswood High School, KalawKingswood High School, in Kalaw, Burma, was a Methodist Christian mission school. It was situated in the hill station of Kalaw, situated in Southern Shan State of Burma...
, Southern Shan State http://www.mehsa.org/mantons.htm - St. Michael's School, Maymyo
- Government English High School (GEHS), Maymyo
- St. Mary's Convent, Mandalay
- St John's School, Rangoon
- Diocesan High School, Rangoon
- Methodist English High School, Rangoon (http://www.mehsa.org)
- St. John the Baptist School, Toungoo
- St. Paul's English High School, Rangoon
- St. Philomena's Convent, Rangoon
- St Augustine's School, Rangoon
- St Peter's High School, Mandalay
- St. Albert's High School, Maymyo
- St. Agnes Convent, Kalaw
Community organisations in Colonial Burma
- Anglo-Burman Social Club
- Anglo-Burmese Association
- Anglo-Burman Union
- Anglo-Burman Council
- Gedhawk
Present-day Anglo-Burman organisations
- Australian Anglo-Burmese Society
- Anglo-Burman Church Organisation
- The Britain-Burma Society
- Methodist English High School Alumni Association, Rangoon
Resources
- Anglo-Burmese Society http://angloburmese.com/
- Sue ArnoldSue ArnoldSue Arnold is a British journalist, who writes or has written for both The Observer and The Guardian.Since losing her sight as a result of a medical condition her writing has often been related to radio criticism and reviewing of audio books. Her mother was Burmese and her father British and she...
. A Burmese Legacy. - Maureen Baird-Murray. A World Overturned.
- Stephen Brookes. Through the Jungle of Death.
- F. Tennyson Jesse. The Lacquer Lady.
- Emma LarkinEmma LarkinEmma Larkin is the pseudonym of an American journalist who was born and raised in Asia, studied the Burmese language at the School of Oriental and African Studies in London, and covers Asia in her journalism from her base in Bangkok...
. Finding George Orwell in Burma - Colin McPhedran. White Butterflies.
- Ethel ManninEthel ManninEthel Edith Mannin was a popular British novelist and travel writer. She was born in London into a family with an Irish background....
. The Living Lotus. - George OrwellGeorge OrwellEric Arthur Blair , better known by his pen name George Orwell, was an English author and journalist...
. Burmese Days. - Methodist English High School, Rangoon - Alumni website,
- Dutch Malaysian Eurasians http://www.dutchmalaysia.net
- Singapore Eurasian Association http://www.eurasians.org
- The Australian Anglo-Burmese Society (offering membership to Anglo-Burmans worldwide)http://www.multicultural.online.wa.gov.au/cgi-bin/owamc.cgi?aabs
- Anglo-Indian Web http://www.anglo-indians.com/index.asp
- An Address to the Anglo-Burman Union by Aung San, 1947 http://www.aungsan.com/Anglo_Burmans.htm
- The International Journal of Anglo-Indian Studies - research paper written on the Anglo-Burmese community - http://home.alphalink.com.au/~agilbert/jed13.html.
- Charles Haswell Campagnac. Ed. Sandra Campagnac-Carney The Autobiography of a Wanderer in England & Burma - Lulu.com
See also
- Burmese British
- Anglo-Indians
- British Mixed Race
- Burgher peopleBurgher peopleThe Burghers are a Eurasian ethnic group, historically from Sri Lanka, consisting for the most part of male-line descendants of European colonists from the 16th to 20th centuries and local women, with some minorities of Swedish, Norwegian, French and Irish.Today the mother tongue of the Burghers...
- Eurasian SingaporeanEurasian SingaporeanThe community of Eurasians in Singapore is descended from Europeans who intermarried with local Asians. Their ancestry can be traced to emigrants of countries that span the length and breadth of Europe, although Eurasian migrants to Singapore in the 19th century came largely from other colonies in...
- Eurasian (mixed ancestry)Eurasian (mixed ancestry)The word Eurasian refers to people of mixed Asian and European ancestry. It was originally coined in 19th-century British India to refer to Anglo-Indians of mixed British and Indian descent....
- Filipino mestizoFilipino mestizoFilipino mestizo is a term used in the Philippines to describe people of mixed Filipino and foreign ancestry. The word mestizo is of Spanish origin, and was originally used in the Americas to only describe people of mixed European and Native American ancestry.- History :Spanish periodThe Spanish...
- HapaHapaHapa is a Hawaiian language term used to describe a person of mixed Asian or Pacific Islander racial or ethnic heritage.-Etymology:In the Hawaiian language, hapa is defined as: portion, fragment, part, fraction, installment; to be partial, less. It is a loan from the English word half...
- Indo people (Dutch-Indonesian)
- Luk kreungLuk kreungA luk kreung , literally "child half", although understood as "half [a] child", is a colloquial reference in the Thai language to a person who is of mixed Thai and European origins....
- MestizoMestizoMestizo is a term traditionally used in Latin America, Philippines and Spain for people of mixed European and Native American heritage or descent...
External links
- Our Burmese Days Preview of a documentary film by Lindsey Merrison