Antiqua-Fraktur dispute
Encyclopedia
The Antiqua–Fraktur dispute was a typographical
dispute in 19th- and early 20th-century Germany
.
In most Europe
an countries, blackletter
typeface
s such as the Fraktur
were displaced with the creation of the Antiqua typefaces in the 15th and 16th centuries. However, in Germany, both typefaces coexisted until the first half of the 20th century.
During that time, both typefaces gained ideological
connotations in Germany, which led to long and heated disputes on what was the "correct" typeface to use. The eventual outcome was that the Antiqua-type fonts won, when the National Socialist government chose to phase out the more ornate-looking Fraktur.
texts, Antiqua-type typefaces were normally used, whereas Fraktur was favoured for works written in German. This extended even to English-German dictionaries, for example, where the English words were all written in Antiqua and the German words in Fraktur. Originally this was simply a convention.
by Napoleon in 1806, which led to a period in the history of Germany
in which nationalists began to attempt to define what cultural values were common to all Germans. There was a massive effort to canonize
the German national literature – for example the Grimm Brothers' collection of fairy tales – and to create a unified German grammar
.
In the context of these debates, the two typefaces became increasingly polarized: Antiqua typefaces were seen to be "un-German", and they were seen to represent this by virtue of their connotations as "shallow", "light", and "not serious". In contrast, Fraktur, with its much darker and denser script, was viewed as representing the alleged German virtues such as depth and sobriety.
During the Romantic Era
, in which the Middle Ages
were glorified, the Fraktur typefaces additionally gained the (historically incorrect) interpretation that they represented the German Gothicism
. For instance, Goethe's mother advised her son, who had taken to the clear Antiqua typefaces, to remain – "for God's sake" – German, even in his letters.
Otto von Bismarck
was a keen supporter of German typefaces. He refused gifts of German books in Antiqua typefaces and returned them to sender with the statement Deutsche Bücher in lateinischen Buchstaben lese ich nicht! (I do not read German books in Latin letters!).
A 1910 publication by Adolf Reinecke, Die deutsche Buchstabenschrift, claims the following advantages for using Fraktur as the German script:
On May 4, 1911, a peak in the dispute was reached during a vote in the Reichstag
. The Verein für Altschrift ('old script society'), which, however, supported the Antiqua had submitted a proposition to make Antiqua the official typeface (Fraktur had been the official typeface since the foundation of the German Empire
) and no longer teach German Kurrent
in the schools. After a long and, in places, very emotional debate, the proposition was narrowly rejected by 85-82.
The Fraktur typefaces were particularly heavily used during the time of Nazism
, when they were initially represented as true German script. However, in 1941 Fraktur was banned in a Schrifterlass (edict on script) signed by Martin Bormann
as so-called Schwabacher Judenlettern (“Schwabacher
Jewish letters”).
The edict mentions publications destined for foreign countries, so one possible reason for the reversal of policy was that Antiqua would be more legible to those living in the occupied areas. Indeed, readers outside German-speaking countries were largely unfamiliar with Fraktur typefaces which were no longer well known outside the countries of German language. However, the Nazis
had been printing books, newspapers and miscellaneous texts destined for abroad in Antiqua for a long time. Therefore, they would have been able to print everything for the occupied areas in Antiqua without the need to change the use of typefaces in the German-speaking areas.
It is more likely that the reason for the reversal was Adolf Hitler
's dislike for the Fraktur typeface, as demonstrated by a declaration made in the Reichstag
in 1934:
Bormann's edict of 3 January 1941 at first forbade only the use of blackletter
typefaces. A second memorandum banned the use of the Kurrent
(blackletter cursive
), including Sütterlin
, which had only been introduced in the 1920s. From the academic year 1941–42 onwards, only the so-called Normalschrift ("normal script"), which had hitherto been taught alongside Sütterlin under the name of "Latin script", was allowed to be used and taught. However, Kurrent remained in use until 1945 on SS insignia (names of SS-Divisions etc.) and in some other cases.
the Sütterlin script was once again taught in the schools of some German states as an additional script, but it could not hold for long against the Latin cursive
scripts. Since few people remain who can read Kurrent, most old letters, diaries, etc. remain inaccessible for all but the oldest German speakers. For many German-speaking people today this means that they already have a hard time deciphering the letters, diaries, or certificates of their own parents or grandparents.
The Fraktur script remains present in everyday life in road signs, pub signs, beer brands and other forms of advertisement, where it is used to convey a certain rusticality and oldness. But widespread ignorance of it shows in many mistakes, such as the frequent erroneous use of the round s instead of the long s
at the beginning of a syllable, the failure to employ the mandatory ligatures of Fraktur, or the use of letter-forms more similar to Antiqua for certain especially hard-to-read Fraktur letters such as k. Books wholly written in Fraktur are nowadays read mostly for particular interests. Since many people have trouble reading blackletter, they may have difficulty accessing older editions of literary works in German.
A few organizations such as the Bund für deutsche Schrift und Sprache continue to advocate the use of Fraktur typefaces, highlighting their cultural and historical heritage and their advantages when used for printing Germanic languages
. But these organizations are small, somewhat sectarian, and not particularly well known in Germany.
In the United States, Mexico, and Central America, Old Order Amish, Old Order Mennonite, and Old Colony Mennonite schools still teach the Kurrent handwriting and Fraktur script. German books printed by Amish and Mennonite printers use the Fraktur script. This means about 500,000 people in the Western Hemisphere still embrace the "Gothic Script."
This article incorporates text translated from the corresponding German Wikipedia article as of December 2005
Typography
Typography is the art and technique of arranging type in order to make language visible. The arrangement of type involves the selection of typefaces, point size, line length, leading , adjusting the spaces between groups of letters and adjusting the space between pairs of letters...
dispute in 19th- and early 20th-century Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
.
In most Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
an countries, blackletter
Blackletter
Blackletter, also known as Gothic script, Gothic minuscule, or Textura, was a script used throughout Western Europe from approximately 1150 to well into the 17th century. It continued to be used for the German language until the 20th century. Fraktur is a notable script of this type, and sometimes...
typeface
Typeface
In typography, a typeface is the artistic representation or interpretation of characters; it is the way the type looks. Each type is designed and there are thousands of different typefaces in existence, with new ones being developed constantly....
s such as the Fraktur
Fraktur (typeface)
Fraktur is a calligraphic hand and any of several blackletter typefaces derived from this hand. The word derives from the past participle fractus of Latin frangere...
were displaced with the creation of the Antiqua typefaces in the 15th and 16th centuries. However, in Germany, both typefaces coexisted until the first half of the 20th century.
During that time, both typefaces gained ideological
Ideology
An ideology is a set of ideas that constitutes one's goals, expectations, and actions. An ideology can be thought of as a comprehensive vision, as a way of looking at things , as in common sense and several philosophical tendencies , or a set of ideas proposed by the dominant class of a society to...
connotations in Germany, which led to long and heated disputes on what was the "correct" typeface to use. The eventual outcome was that the Antiqua-type fonts won, when the National Socialist government chose to phase out the more ornate-looking Fraktur.
Origin
Historically, the dispute originates in the differing use of these two typefaces in most intellectual texts – for LatinLatin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
texts, Antiqua-type typefaces were normally used, whereas Fraktur was favoured for works written in German. This extended even to English-German dictionaries, for example, where the English words were all written in Antiqua and the German words in Fraktur. Originally this was simply a convention.
The 19th century
Conflict over the two typefaces first came to a head after the occupation of Germany and dissolution of the Holy Roman EmpireHoly Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a realm that existed from 962 to 1806 in Central Europe.It was ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor. Its character changed during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, when the power of the emperor gradually weakened in favour of the princes...
by Napoleon in 1806, which led to a period in the history of Germany
History of Germany
The concept of Germany as a distinct region in central Europe can be traced to Roman commander Julius Caesar, who referred to the unconquered area east of the Rhine as Germania, thus distinguishing it from Gaul , which he had conquered. The victory of the Germanic tribes in the Battle of the...
in which nationalists began to attempt to define what cultural values were common to all Germans. There was a massive effort to canonize
Canonical
Canonical is an adjective derived from canon. Canon comes from the greek word κανών kanon, "rule" or "measuring stick" , and is used in various meanings....
the German national literature – for example the Grimm Brothers' collection of fairy tales – and to create a unified German grammar
Grammar
In linguistics, grammar is the set of structural rules that govern the composition of clauses, phrases, and words in any given natural language. The term refers also to the study of such rules, and this field includes morphology, syntax, and phonology, often complemented by phonetics, semantics,...
.
In the context of these debates, the two typefaces became increasingly polarized: Antiqua typefaces were seen to be "un-German", and they were seen to represent this by virtue of their connotations as "shallow", "light", and "not serious". In contrast, Fraktur, with its much darker and denser script, was viewed as representing the alleged German virtues such as depth and sobriety.
During the Romantic Era
Romanticism
Romanticism was an artistic, literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Europe, and gained strength in reaction to the Industrial Revolution...
, in which the Middle Ages
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
were glorified, the Fraktur typefaces additionally gained the (historically incorrect) interpretation that they represented the German Gothicism
Gothic art
Gothic art was a Medieval art movement that developed in France out of Romanesque art in the mid-12th century, led by the concurrent development of Gothic architecture. It spread to all of Western Europe, but took over art more completely north of the Alps, never quite effacing more classical...
. For instance, Goethe's mother advised her son, who had taken to the clear Antiqua typefaces, to remain – "for God's sake" – German, even in his letters.
Otto von Bismarck
Otto von Bismarck
Otto Eduard Leopold, Prince of Bismarck, Duke of Lauenburg , simply known as Otto von Bismarck, was a Prussian-German statesman whose actions unified Germany, made it a major player in world affairs, and created a balance of power that kept Europe at peace after 1871.As Minister President of...
was a keen supporter of German typefaces. He refused gifts of German books in Antiqua typefaces and returned them to sender with the statement Deutsche Bücher in lateinischen Buchstaben lese ich nicht! (I do not read German books in Latin letters!).
The 20th century
The dispute between Antiqua and Fraktur continued into the 20th century. The arguments in favour of Fraktur were based not only on historical and cultural perceptions but also on the claim that Fraktur was more suited for printing German and other Germanic languages, being more readable than Antiqua for this purpose.A 1910 publication by Adolf Reinecke, Die deutsche Buchstabenschrift, claims the following advantages for using Fraktur as the German script:
- German script is a real reading script: it is more readable, i.e. the word images are clearer, than Latin script.
- German script is more compact in printing, which is an advantage for fast recognition of word images while reading.
- German script is more suitable for expressing German language, as it is more adapted to the characteristics of the German language than the Latin script.
- German script does not cause nearsightedness and is more healthy for the eyes than Latin script.
- German script is still prone to development; Latin script is set in stone.
- German script can be read and understood all over the world, where it is actually often used as ornamental script
- German script makes it easier for foreigners to understand German language.
- Latin script will gradually lose its position as international script through the progress of the Anglo-Saxon world (here the author states that Anglo-Saxons in the UK, the US and Australia are still "Germanic" enough to annihilate the Latin-scriptler's dream of a Latin "world-script").
- The use of Latin script for German language will promote its infestation with foreign words.
- German script does not impede at all the proliferation of German language and German culture in other countries.
On May 4, 1911, a peak in the dispute was reached during a vote in the Reichstag
Reichstag (German Empire)
The Reichstag was the parliament of the North German Confederation , and of the German Reich ....
. The Verein für Altschrift ('old script society'), which, however, supported the Antiqua had submitted a proposition to make Antiqua the official typeface (Fraktur had been the official typeface since the foundation of the German Empire
German Empire
The German Empire refers to Germany during the "Second Reich" period from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871, to 1918, when it became a federal republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of the Emperor, Wilhelm II.The German...
) and no longer teach German Kurrent
Kurrent
Kurrent is an old form of German language handwriting based on late medieval cursive writing, also known as Kurrentschrift or Alte Deutsche Schrift...
in the schools. After a long and, in places, very emotional debate, the proposition was narrowly rejected by 85-82.
The Fraktur typefaces were particularly heavily used during the time of Nazism
Nazism
Nazism, the common short form name of National Socialism was the ideology and practice of the Nazi Party and of Nazi Germany...
, when they were initially represented as true German script. However, in 1941 Fraktur was banned in a Schrifterlass (edict on script) signed by Martin Bormann
Martin Bormann
Martin Ludwig Bormann was a prominent Nazi official. He became head of the Party Chancellery and private secretary to Adolf Hitler...
as so-called Schwabacher Judenlettern (“Schwabacher
Schwabacher
The German word Schwabacher refers to a specific blackletter typeface. The term derives from the town of Schwabach.-Characteristics:The small-letter g and the capital-letter H have particularly distinctive forms.-History:...
Jewish letters”).
The edict mentions publications destined for foreign countries, so one possible reason for the reversal of policy was that Antiqua would be more legible to those living in the occupied areas. Indeed, readers outside German-speaking countries were largely unfamiliar with Fraktur typefaces which were no longer well known outside the countries of German language. However, the Nazis
Nazism
Nazism, the common short form name of National Socialism was the ideology and practice of the Nazi Party and of Nazi Germany...
had been printing books, newspapers and miscellaneous texts destined for abroad in Antiqua for a long time. Therefore, they would have been able to print everything for the occupied areas in Antiqua without the need to change the use of typefaces in the German-speaking areas.
It is more likely that the reason for the reversal was Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party , commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945, and head of state from 1934 to 1945...
's dislike for the Fraktur typeface, as demonstrated by a declaration made in the Reichstag
Reichstag (Weimar Republic)
The Reichstag was the parliament of Weimar Republic .German constitution commentators consider only the Reichstag and now the Bundestag the German parliament. Another organ deals with legislation too: in 1867-1918 the Bundesrat, in 1919–1933 the Reichsrat and from 1949 on the Bundesrat...
in 1934:
Your alleged gothic internalisation does not fit well in this age of steel and iron, glass and concrete, of womanly beauty and manly strength, of head raised high and intention defiant... In a hundred years, our language will be the European language. The nations of the east, the north and the west will, to communicate with us, learn our language. The prerequisite for this: The script called Gothic is replaced by the script we have called Latin so far...
Bormann's edict of 3 January 1941 at first forbade only the use of blackletter
Blackletter
Blackletter, also known as Gothic script, Gothic minuscule, or Textura, was a script used throughout Western Europe from approximately 1150 to well into the 17th century. It continued to be used for the German language until the 20th century. Fraktur is a notable script of this type, and sometimes...
typefaces. A second memorandum banned the use of the Kurrent
Kurrent
Kurrent is an old form of German language handwriting based on late medieval cursive writing, also known as Kurrentschrift or Alte Deutsche Schrift...
(blackletter cursive
Cursive
Cursive, also known as joined-up writing, joint writing, or running writing, is any style of handwriting in which the symbols of the language are written in a simplified and/or flowing manner, generally for the purpose of making writing easier or faster...
), including Sütterlin
Sütterlin
Sütterlinschrift , or Sütterlin for short, is the last widely used form of the old German blackletter handwriting . In Germany, the old German cursive script developed in the 16th century, replacing the Gothic handwriting at the same time that bookletters developed into the Fraktur typeface...
, which had only been introduced in the 1920s. From the academic year 1941–42 onwards, only the so-called Normalschrift ("normal script"), which had hitherto been taught alongside Sütterlin under the name of "Latin script", was allowed to be used and taught. However, Kurrent remained in use until 1945 on SS insignia (names of SS-Divisions etc.) and in some other cases.
After the Second World War
After the Second World WarWorld War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
the Sütterlin script was once again taught in the schools of some German states as an additional script, but it could not hold for long against the Latin cursive
Cursive
Cursive, also known as joined-up writing, joint writing, or running writing, is any style of handwriting in which the symbols of the language are written in a simplified and/or flowing manner, generally for the purpose of making writing easier or faster...
scripts. Since few people remain who can read Kurrent, most old letters, diaries, etc. remain inaccessible for all but the oldest German speakers. For many German-speaking people today this means that they already have a hard time deciphering the letters, diaries, or certificates of their own parents or grandparents.
The Fraktur script remains present in everyday life in road signs, pub signs, beer brands and other forms of advertisement, where it is used to convey a certain rusticality and oldness. But widespread ignorance of it shows in many mistakes, such as the frequent erroneous use of the round s instead of the long s
Long s
The long, medial or descending s is a form of the minuscule letter s formerly used where s occurred in the middle or at the beginning of a word, for example "ſinfulneſs" . The modern letterform was called the terminal, round, or short s.-History:The long s is derived from the old Roman cursive...
at the beginning of a syllable, the failure to employ the mandatory ligatures of Fraktur, or the use of letter-forms more similar to Antiqua for certain especially hard-to-read Fraktur letters such as k. Books wholly written in Fraktur are nowadays read mostly for particular interests. Since many people have trouble reading blackletter, they may have difficulty accessing older editions of literary works in German.
A few organizations such as the Bund für deutsche Schrift und Sprache continue to advocate the use of Fraktur typefaces, highlighting their cultural and historical heritage and their advantages when used for printing Germanic languages
Germanic languages
The Germanic languages constitute a sub-branch of the Indo-European language family. The common ancestor of all of the languages in this branch is called Proto-Germanic , which was spoken in approximately the mid-1st millennium BC in Iron Age northern Europe...
. But these organizations are small, somewhat sectarian, and not particularly well known in Germany.
In the United States, Mexico, and Central America, Old Order Amish, Old Order Mennonite, and Old Colony Mennonite schools still teach the Kurrent handwriting and Fraktur script. German books printed by Amish and Mennonite printers use the Fraktur script. This means about 500,000 people in the Western Hemisphere still embrace the "Gothic Script."
Further reading
- Silvia Hartmann: Fraktur oder Antiqua: der Schriftstreit von 1881 bis 1941. Lang, Frankfurt am Main u.a. 1998, ISBN 3-631-33050-2
- Christina Killius: Die Antiqua-Fraktur Debatte um 1800 und ihre historische Herleitung. Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden, 1999, ISBN 3-447-03614-1
- Albert Kapr: Fraktur, Form und Geschichte der gebrochenen Schriften. Verlag Hermann Schmidt, Mainz 1993, ISBN 3-87439-260-0
External links
- Die Nationalsozialisten und die Fraktur (German)
- Bund für deutsche Schrift und Sprache (German)
This article incorporates text translated from the corresponding German Wikipedia article as of December 2005