Battle of Seminara
Encyclopedia
The Battle of Seminara, part of the First Italian War
, was fought in Calabria
on June 28, 1495 between a French garrison in recently conquered southern Italy and the allied forces of Spain and Naples which were attempting to reconquer these territories. Against the redoubtable combination of gendarmes
and Swiss mercenary pikemen
in the French force, the allies had only Neapolitan troops of indifferent quality and a small corps of lightly armed Spanish soldiers, accustomed to fighting the Moors
of Spain. The result was a rout, and much of the fighting centered around delaying actions to permit the fleeing allied force to escape. However, although the battle was a decisive French victory from a tactical perspective, it did not prevent the allies from driving the French from southern Italy.
The battle is notable primarily because it is often cited as the prime reason for the reorganization of the Spanish army, which brought about widespread adoption of firearms in pike and shot
formations, one of the milestones of the "Military Revolution
."
had invaded Italy
in 1494 in an attempt to press his Angevin
claim to the throne of the Kingdom of Naples
upon the death of Ferdinand I of Naples
. Ferdinand's successor was his son Alfonso II of Naples
, who soon abdicated—in fear of the looming French invasion—in favor of his son, Ferdinand II of Naples
.
The French quickly overran the disunited Italian peninsula and arrived in the Kingdom of Naples on February 21, 1495, Ferdinand II having fled to Sicily at the approach of the French army. There, in temporary exile, Ferdinand joined his cousin, Ferdinand II of Aragon
, King of Sicily
and Spain
, who offered assistance in recovering Naples.
In response to Charles' invasion, League of Venice was formed by many of the Italian powers opposed to the French presence in Italy. The League subsequently established a strong military force in the north of Italy, which threatened to cut the line of communication between the French army, then deep in the south of Italy, and its base in France. On May 30, 1495, Charles split his army, taking half of the troops (approximately 9,000 men, horse and foot) in the northward march to fight their way back into France, and leaving the rest to hold the recently conquered Neapolitan territories. Eventually, after hard fighting, Charles' army shouldered its way past a larger League force at the Battle of Fornovo
(July 1495) and returned to France.
To oppose these forces Ferdinand had his own army, and aid from his Spanish cousin. The Spanish general Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba
was dispatched from Spain with a small army, largely as a vanguard (more troops were being raised in Spain and would follow on later), and to show support for Ferdinand II of Naples’ reconquest effort. De Córdoba had been selected by Queen Isabella to lead the Spanish contingent because he was a favorite of the court as well as a soldier of considerable renown, despite his relative youth. De Córdoba arrived in the port at Messina on May 24, 1495, only to find that Ferdinand II of Naples had already crossed into Calabria
with an army, borne upon the fleet of Admiral Requesens, and had reoccupied Reggio
.
De Córdoba himself crossed over to Calabria two days later. He had under his command 600 lances of Spanish cavalry, many of these light jinetes
, and 1,500 infantry, many of them Rodeleros
swordsmen, to which were added 3,500 soldiers from the Spanish fleet. The size of the Neapolitan army is unclear, but soon was supplemented by 6,000 volunteers from Calabria, who joined the Neapolitan ranks when Ferdinand II landed. De Córdoba’s Spanish contingent was further depleted because he needed to put Spanish garrisons in several fortified places which Ferdinand II of Naples turned over to Spain in partial compensation for the military aid Spain was providing.
The allied army marched from Reggio to Sant'Agata del Bianco
, and from there to Seminara
, a fortified place approximately 28 miles (40 kilometers) from Reggio. Both towns opened their gates to Ferdinand II. En route a detachment of French troops was encountered and destroyed by the allied force. The League of Venice assisted the allies by sending a Venetian
fleet under Admiral Antonio Grimani
to raid along the eastern coast of French-occupied Naples. In one instance, at Monopoli
, Grimani destroyed the French garrison stationed there.
Although he was seriously ill with malaria which he had recently contracted, the French commander in Calabria, the Scotsman d’Aubigny, lost no time in responding to the allied challenge, quickly consolidating his forces to confront the Neapolitan/Spanish invasion by calling in isolated garrisons throughout Calabria and requesting that Précy reinforce him with the Swiss mercenaries. D’Aubigny soon succeeded in concentrating his forces, and immediately marched on Seminara.
Upon hearing the news that d’Aubigny was approaching, but unaware that Précy and the Swiss mercenaries had joined him, Ferdinand II of Naples decided to meet the French in battle immediately, a decision shared by the Spanish and Neapolitan nobility. De Córdoba urged caution, or at least a full reconnaissance of the French force before risking battle, but was overruled.
Ferdinand led the allied army out of Seminara on June 28 and crossed over a line of hills approximately 3 miles east of town. There, on the plains below, just beyond a stream at the foot of these hills, was the French army, marching directly toward the Neapolitans. Ferdinand took a position behind the stream, deploying his infantry on the left and his cavalry on the right. D’Aubigny, ill but still mounted for command, deployed his cavalry—400 heavily armoured gendarme
lancers and 800 lighter horsemen—facing the allied cavalry on the French left, the young nobleman Précy having given up command of the Swiss mercenaries in order to assist the ailing d'Aubigny in command of the horse. To their right were the 800 Swiss pikemen, and behind them the lesser French foot. Unlike most battles in which the Swiss deployed very deep, at Seminara they arrayed themselves in only three ranks, their 18-foot pikes bristling in the front of their formation. Thus deployed into line of battle, the French force attacked without hesitation, plunging into the stream.
Initially the engagement went well for the allies, the jinetes harrying the wading gendarmes by throwing javelins and breaking off, as was their method in Spain against the Moors. However, at this point the Calabrian militia panicked—possibly misconstruing the withdrawal of the jinetes as a rout, possibly fleeing the oncoming Swiss pike force—and fell back, exposing the left flank of the allied army. Although Ferdinand attempted to rally them, the retreating Calabrians were set upon by gendarmes who had now crossed the stream and ridden down.
The situation soon turned desperate for the allies, the Swiss rolling over the remaining Spanish Rodeleros and the French gendarmes besting the allied cavalry. Ferdinand, easily recognized in his splendid garb, came under heavy attack, was unhorsed and threatened by enemy troops, only to be given the horse of a nobleman, alternately named as Giovanni di Capua or Juan de Altavista, who then gave his life delaying the enemy so that Ferdinand might escape. De Córdoba led the Spanish cavalry and the remains of the infantry in a desperate delaying action against the French, which, together with the illness of the French leader, allowed the fleeing Neapolitans to escape. The Spanish themselves were then able to reach the safety of Seminara, the French troops apparently being content to remain in occupancy of the field, the traditional method of claiming victory.
De Córdoba's disastrous encounter at Seminara with the melee
-proficient French/Swiss force led directly to his invention of the mixed pike and shot
army. After this humiliating defeat, De Córdoba himself won every battle he fought, earning the title El Gran Capitán ("the Great Captain") and the assessment of several modern historians as the greatest captain of the Italian Wars.
First Italian War
The First Italian War , sometimes referred to as the Italian War of 1494 or Charles VIII's Italian War, was the opening phase of the Italian Wars...
, was fought in Calabria
Calabria
Calabria , in antiquity known as Bruttium, is a region in southern Italy, south of Naples, located at the "toe" of the Italian Peninsula. The capital city of Calabria is Catanzaro....
on June 28, 1495 between a French garrison in recently conquered southern Italy and the allied forces of Spain and Naples which were attempting to reconquer these territories. Against the redoubtable combination of gendarmes
Gendarme (historical)
A gendarme was a heavy cavalryman of noble birth, primarily serving in the French army from the Late Medieval to the Early Modern periods of European History...
and Swiss mercenary pikemen
Pike (weapon)
A pike is a pole weapon, a very long thrusting spear used extensively by infantry both for attacks on enemy foot soldiers and as a counter-measure against cavalry assaults. Unlike many similar weapons, the pike is not intended to be thrown. Pikes were used regularly in European warfare from the...
in the French force, the allies had only Neapolitan troops of indifferent quality and a small corps of lightly armed Spanish soldiers, accustomed to fighting the Moors
Moors
The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of the Maghreb region who are predominately of Berber and Arab descent. They came to conquer and rule the Iberian Peninsula for nearly 800 years. At that time they were Muslim, although earlier the people had followed...
of Spain. The result was a rout, and much of the fighting centered around delaying actions to permit the fleeing allied force to escape. However, although the battle was a decisive French victory from a tactical perspective, it did not prevent the allies from driving the French from southern Italy.
The battle is notable primarily because it is often cited as the prime reason for the reorganization of the Spanish army, which brought about widespread adoption of firearms in pike and shot
Pike and shot
Pike and shot is a historical method of infantry combat, and also refers to an era of European warfare generally considered to cover the period from the Italian Wars to the evolution of the bayonet in the late seventeenth century...
formations, one of the milestones of the "Military Revolution
Military Revolution
The Military Revolution refers to a radical change in military strategy and tactics with resulting major changes in government. The concept was introduced by Michael Roberts in the 1950s as he focused on Sweden 1560–1660 searching for major changes in the European way of war caused by introduction...
."
Antecedents
French king Charles VIIICharles VIII of France
Charles VIII, called the Affable, , was King of France from 1483 to his death in 1498. Charles was a member of the House of Valois...
had invaded Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
in 1494 in an attempt to press his Angevin
House of Valois-Anjou
The Valois House of Anjou, or the Younger House of Anjou, was a noble French family, deriving from the royal family, the House of Valois. They were monarchs of Naples, as well as various other territories....
claim to the throne of the Kingdom of Naples
Kingdom of Naples
The Kingdom of Naples, comprising the southern part of the Italian peninsula, was the remainder of the old Kingdom of Sicily after secession of the island of Sicily as a result of the Sicilian Vespers rebellion of 1282. Known to contemporaries as the Kingdom of Sicily, it is dubbed Kingdom of...
upon the death of Ferdinand I of Naples
Ferdinand I of Naples
Ferdinand I , also called Don Ferrante, was the King of Naples from 1458 to 1494. He was the natural son of Alfonso V of Aragon by Giraldona Carlino.-Biography:...
. Ferdinand's successor was his son Alfonso II of Naples
Alfonso II of Naples
Alfonso II of Naples , also called Alfonso II d'Aragon, was King of Naples from 25 January 1494 to 22 February 1495 with the title King of Naples and Jerusalem...
, who soon abdicated—in fear of the looming French invasion—in favor of his son, Ferdinand II of Naples
Ferdinand II of Naples
Ferdinand II or Ferrante II of Naples , sometimes known as Ferrandino, was King of Naples from 1495 to 1496...
.
The French quickly overran the disunited Italian peninsula and arrived in the Kingdom of Naples on February 21, 1495, Ferdinand II having fled to Sicily at the approach of the French army. There, in temporary exile, Ferdinand joined his cousin, Ferdinand II of Aragon
Ferdinand II of Aragon
Ferdinand the Catholic was King of Aragon , Sicily , Naples , Valencia, Sardinia, and Navarre, Count of Barcelona, jure uxoris King of Castile and then regent of that country also from 1508 to his death, in the name of...
, King of Sicily
Sicily
Sicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
and Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
, who offered assistance in recovering Naples.
In response to Charles' invasion, League of Venice was formed by many of the Italian powers opposed to the French presence in Italy. The League subsequently established a strong military force in the north of Italy, which threatened to cut the line of communication between the French army, then deep in the south of Italy, and its base in France. On May 30, 1495, Charles split his army, taking half of the troops (approximately 9,000 men, horse and foot) in the northward march to fight their way back into France, and leaving the rest to hold the recently conquered Neapolitan territories. Eventually, after hard fighting, Charles' army shouldered its way past a larger League force at the Battle of Fornovo
Battle of Fornovo
The Battle of Fornovo took place 30 km southwest of the city of Parma on 6 July 1495. The League of Venice was able to temporarily expel the French from the Italian Peninsula. It was the first major battle of the Italian Wars.-Antecedents:...
(July 1495) and returned to France.
Campaign
Meanwhile, Ferdinand II of Naples was determined to rid the Kingdom of Naples of the garrison left behind by the French king. Although scattered throughout the area, the French garrison was composed of three basic elements:- The main force in Naples, led by the brave but indolent and inexperienced aristocrat Gilbert d'MontpensierGilbert, Count of MontpensierGilbert de Bourbon, Count of Montpensier son of Louis de Bourbon and Gabrielle La Tour, Count of Montpensier and Dauphin d'Auvergne...
, - A force to the south in Calabria under the command of the able captain of the King’s Scottish Archers, Bernard Stewart, Lord of AubignyBernard Stewart, Lord of AubignyBernard Stewart, 4rd Lord of Aubigny was a French soldier, Commander of the Garde Écossaise, and diplomat belonging to the Scottish family of Stewart of Darnley.-Early life:...
, whom Charles had appointed “Grand Constable of Naples”, and - The Swiss mercenaries (along with some other forces) stationed in BasilicataBasilicataBasilicata , also known as Lucania, is a region in the south of Italy, bordering on Campania to the west, Apulia to the north and east, and Calabria to the south, having one short southwestern coastline on the Tyrrhenian Sea between Campania in the northwest and Calabria in the southwest, and a...
under the command of the French nobleman Précy.
To oppose these forces Ferdinand had his own army, and aid from his Spanish cousin. The Spanish general Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba
Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba
Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba known as The Great Captain, Duke of Terranova and Santangelo, Andria, Montalto and Sessa, also known as Gonzalo de Córdoba, Italian: Gonsalvo or Consalvo Ernandes di Cordova was a Spanish general fighting in the times of the Conquest of Granada and the Italian Wars...
was dispatched from Spain with a small army, largely as a vanguard (more troops were being raised in Spain and would follow on later), and to show support for Ferdinand II of Naples’ reconquest effort. De Córdoba had been selected by Queen Isabella to lead the Spanish contingent because he was a favorite of the court as well as a soldier of considerable renown, despite his relative youth. De Córdoba arrived in the port at Messina on May 24, 1495, only to find that Ferdinand II of Naples had already crossed into Calabria
Calabria
Calabria , in antiquity known as Bruttium, is a region in southern Italy, south of Naples, located at the "toe" of the Italian Peninsula. The capital city of Calabria is Catanzaro....
with an army, borne upon the fleet of Admiral Requesens, and had reoccupied Reggio
Reggio Calabria
Reggio di Calabria , commonly known as Reggio Calabria or Reggio, is the biggest city and the most populated comune of Calabria, southern Italy, and is the capital of the Province of Reggio Calabria and seat of the Council of Calabrian government.Reggio is located on the "toe" of the Italian...
.
De Córdoba himself crossed over to Calabria two days later. He had under his command 600 lances of Spanish cavalry, many of these light jinetes
Jinetes
Jinete is a Spanish word meaning "horseman", but in some cases this is applied to the horse, the rider or both. Originally, it meant a type of light cavalryman, proficient at skirmishing and rapid maneuver.-Origins:...
, and 1,500 infantry, many of them Rodeleros
Rodeleros
Rodeleros , also called espadachines colloquially known as "Sword and Buckler Men" were Spanish troops in the early 16th century, equipped with steel shields or bucklers known as rodela and swords .Originally conceived as an Italian attempt to revive the legionary swordsman,...
swordsmen, to which were added 3,500 soldiers from the Spanish fleet. The size of the Neapolitan army is unclear, but soon was supplemented by 6,000 volunteers from Calabria, who joined the Neapolitan ranks when Ferdinand II landed. De Córdoba’s Spanish contingent was further depleted because he needed to put Spanish garrisons in several fortified places which Ferdinand II of Naples turned over to Spain in partial compensation for the military aid Spain was providing.
The allied army marched from Reggio to Sant'Agata del Bianco
Sant'Agata del Bianco
Sant'Agata del Bianco is a comune in the Province of Reggio Calabria in the Italian region Calabria, located about 100 km southwest of Catanzaro and about 35 km east of Reggio Calabria....
, and from there to Seminara
Seminara
Seminara is a comune in the Province of Reggio Calabria in the Italian region Calabria, located about 90 km southwest of Catanzaro and about 30 km northeast of Reggio Calabria....
, a fortified place approximately 28 miles (40 kilometers) from Reggio. Both towns opened their gates to Ferdinand II. En route a detachment of French troops was encountered and destroyed by the allied force. The League of Venice assisted the allies by sending a Venetian
Republic of Venice
The Republic of Venice or Venetian Republic was a state originating from the city of Venice in Northeastern Italy. It existed for over a millennium, from the late 7th century until 1797. It was formally known as the Most Serene Republic of Venice and is often referred to as La Serenissima, in...
fleet under Admiral Antonio Grimani
Antonio Grimani
Antonio Grimani was the Doge of Venice from 1521 to 1523.-Biography:He was born in Venice into a relatively poor family and in his early years he worked as a tradesman, soon becoming one of the most important ones in the city...
to raid along the eastern coast of French-occupied Naples. In one instance, at Monopoli
Monopoli
Monopoli is a town and comune in Italy, in the province of Bari, region of Apulia. The town is roughly in area and lies about 40 km southeast from Bari. It has about 50,000 inhabitants....
, Grimani destroyed the French garrison stationed there.
Although he was seriously ill with malaria which he had recently contracted, the French commander in Calabria, the Scotsman d’Aubigny, lost no time in responding to the allied challenge, quickly consolidating his forces to confront the Neapolitan/Spanish invasion by calling in isolated garrisons throughout Calabria and requesting that Précy reinforce him with the Swiss mercenaries. D’Aubigny soon succeeded in concentrating his forces, and immediately marched on Seminara.
Battle
Ferdinand led the allied army out of Seminara on June 28 and crossed over a line of hills approximately 3 miles east of town. There, on the plains below, just beyond a stream at the foot of these hills, was the French army, marching directly toward the Neapolitans. Ferdinand took a position behind the stream, deploying his infantry on the left and his cavalry on the right. D’Aubigny, ill but still mounted for command, deployed his cavalry—400 heavily armoured gendarme
Gendarme (historical)
A gendarme was a heavy cavalryman of noble birth, primarily serving in the French army from the Late Medieval to the Early Modern periods of European History...
lancers and 800 lighter horsemen—facing the allied cavalry on the French left, the young nobleman Précy having given up command of the Swiss mercenaries in order to assist the ailing d'Aubigny in command of the horse. To their right were the 800 Swiss pikemen, and behind them the lesser French foot. Unlike most battles in which the Swiss deployed very deep, at Seminara they arrayed themselves in only three ranks, their 18-foot pikes bristling in the front of their formation. Thus deployed into line of battle, the French force attacked without hesitation, plunging into the stream.
Initially the engagement went well for the allies, the jinetes harrying the wading gendarmes by throwing javelins and breaking off, as was their method in Spain against the Moors. However, at this point the Calabrian militia panicked—possibly misconstruing the withdrawal of the jinetes as a rout, possibly fleeing the oncoming Swiss pike force—and fell back, exposing the left flank of the allied army. Although Ferdinand attempted to rally them, the retreating Calabrians were set upon by gendarmes who had now crossed the stream and ridden down.
The situation soon turned desperate for the allies, the Swiss rolling over the remaining Spanish Rodeleros and the French gendarmes besting the allied cavalry. Ferdinand, easily recognized in his splendid garb, came under heavy attack, was unhorsed and threatened by enemy troops, only to be given the horse of a nobleman, alternately named as Giovanni di Capua or Juan de Altavista, who then gave his life delaying the enemy so that Ferdinand might escape. De Córdoba led the Spanish cavalry and the remains of the infantry in a desperate delaying action against the French, which, together with the illness of the French leader, allowed the fleeing Neapolitans to escape. The Spanish themselves were then able to reach the safety of Seminara, the French troops apparently being content to remain in occupancy of the field, the traditional method of claiming victory.
Consequences
Despite this great triumph of French and Swiss arms on the field of battle, the overall situation of the isolated French garrison in southern Italy had not substantially changed. Using a small amphibious force and the loyalty of the local populace, Ferdinand II of Naples was soon thereafter able to retake Naples itself by ruse. De Córdoba, using what amounted to guerrilla tactics, and carefully avoiding any direct encounter with the dreaded Swiss battalions or massed gendarmes, slowly retook the rest of Calabria. Eventually, many of the mercenaries serving the French mutinied due to lack of pay and marched home, and the remaining French forces were eventually bottled up at Atella by the reunited forces of Ferdinand and De Córdoba, and forced to surrender.De Córdoba's disastrous encounter at Seminara with the melee
Mêlée
Melee , generally refers to disorganized close combat involving a group of fighters. A melee ensues when groups become locked together in combat with no regard to group tactics or fighting as an organized unit; each participant fights as an individual....
-proficient French/Swiss force led directly to his invention of the mixed pike and shot
Pike and shot
Pike and shot is a historical method of infantry combat, and also refers to an era of European warfare generally considered to cover the period from the Italian Wars to the evolution of the bayonet in the late seventeenth century...
army. After this humiliating defeat, De Córdoba himself won every battle he fought, earning the title El Gran Capitán ("the Great Captain") and the assessment of several modern historians as the greatest captain of the Italian Wars.