Bernardino of Siena
Encyclopedia
Saint Bernardino of Siena, O.F.M., (sometimes Bernardine) (Massa Marittima
8 September 1380 – Aquila, Italy 20 May 1444) was an Italian priest, Franciscan
missionary, and is a Catholic saint
.
(Tuscany
), a Sienese town of which his father was then governor. Left orphaned at six, he was raised by a pious aunt. On the completion of his education he spent some years in the service of the sick in the hospitals. While he was studying civil and canon law in Siena
, he worked in the hospital of Santa Maria della Scala throughout the bubonic plague
outbreak of 1400 and even urged other young men to stay and help. He thus caught the plague, of which he nearly died. In 1403 he joined the Observant branch of the Order of Friars Minor, with a strict observance of Francis' Rule. He was ordained a priest in 1404 and was commissioned as a preacher in 1405.
s and factionalism were reconciled by his counsel and that miracle
s took place. Donations to the Holy Name of Jesus
(which he preached particularly) increased dramatically. Furthermore, "bonfires of vanities
" were held at his sermon sites, where people were encouraged to burn objects of temptation. In 1425, he preached every day for seven weeks in Siena.
In 1427 he was summoned to Rome to stand trial on charges of heresy
, with theologians including Paulus Venetus present to give their opinions. Bernardino was found innocent of heresy, and he impressed Pope Martin V
sufficiently that Martin requested he preach in Rome. He was acquitted and thereupon preached every day for 80 days. A typical sermon would last for an hour, but some lasted for more than four. Bernardino's zeal was such that he would prepare up to four drafts of a sermon before starting to speak. That same year, he was offered the bishopric of Siena, but declined in order to maintain his monastic and evangelical activities. In 1431, he toured Tuscany, Lombardy
, Romagna
, and Ancona
before returning to Siena to prevent a war against Florence. Also in 1431, he declined the bishopric of Ferrara, and in 1435 he declined the bishopric of Urbino.
Saint John Capistran was his friend, and Saint James of the Marches
was his disciple during these years. Both Pope Martin V and Pope Eugene IV
were urged by their cardinals to condemn Bernardino, but both almost instantly acquitted him. A trial at the Council of Basel ended with an acquittal too. The Holy Roman Emperor
Sigismund
sought Bernardino's counsel and intercession and the future saint accompanied him to Rome in 1433 for his coronation.
Soon thereafter, he withdrew again to Capriola to compose a series of sermons. He resumed his missionary labours in 1436, but was forced to abandon them in the following year, when he became vicar-general of the Observant branch of the Franciscans in Italy. In 1438, Bernardino was elevated to vicar-general of the Franciscan Order in Italy. This cut back his opportunities to preach, but he continued to speak to the public when he could. Having in 1442 persuaded the pope to accept his resignation as vicar-general so that he might give himself more undividedly to preaching, Bernardino again resumed his missionary labours. Despite a Papal Bull
issued by Eugene IV in 1443 which charged Bernardino to preach the indulgence for the Crusade against the Turks, there is no record of his having done so. In 1444, notwithstanding his increasing infirmities, Bernardino, desirous that there should be no part of Italy which had not heard his voice, set out to the Kingdom of Naples
. He died that year at L'Aquila
, in the Abruzzi. According to tradition, his grave continued to leak blood until two factions of the city achieved reconciliation.
Reports of miracles attributed to Bernardino multiplied rapidly and Bernardino was canonized in 1450, only six years after his death, by Pope Nicholas V
. His feast day in the Roman Catholic Church
is on 20 May, the day of his death.
, may be traced back to the middle of the fourteenth century.) Nevertheless, Bernardine became to the Observants what St. Bernard had been to the Cistercians, their principal support and indefatigable propagator. Some idea of his zeal may be gathered from the fact that, instead of the one hundred and thirty Friars constituting the Observance in Italy at Bernardino's reception into the order, it counted over four thousand before his death.
In addition to the number he received into the order, Bernardino himself founded, or reformed, at least three hundred convents of Friars. Not content with extending his religious family at home, Bernardino sent missionaries to different parts of the Orient and it was largely through his efforts that so many ambassadors from different schismatic nations attended the Council of Florence
in which we find the saint addressing the assembled Fathers in Greek.
and was the subject of portraits in his lifetime, as well as a death-mask, which were copied to make prints, so that he is one of the earliest saints to have a fairly consistent appearance in art, though many Baroque
images, such as that by El Greco
, are idealized compared to the realistic ones made in the decades after his death.
After his death, the Franciscans promoted an iconographical program of diffusion of images of Bernardino, which was second only to that of the founder of the order. He is sometimes represented in painting with three mitres at his feet (representing the three bishoprics which he had rejected) and holding in his hand the IHS
monogram with rays emanating from it (representing his devotion to the "Holy Name of Jesus"), which was his main attribute
.
A portrait is known to have circulated in Siena just after Bernardino's death which, on the basis of physiognomic similarities with his death mask at L'Aquila is believed to have been a good likeness. It is thought probable that many subsequent depictions of the saint derive from this portrait.
The most famous depictions of Bernardino are found in the cycle of frescoes of his life executed towards the end of the fifteenth century by Pinturicchio
in the Bufalini Chapel
of Santa Maria in Aracoeli
, Rome. There is also an altar panel at the Alte Pinakothek
in Berlin, done by Pietro Perugino, known as The Virgin appearing to St. Bernard
. This showing the saint having a vision of the Virgin Mary
.
of advertising
, communication
s, compulsive gambling
, respiratory
problems, any problems involving the chest area. He is the patron saint of Carpi (Italy), the Philippine barangay Kay-Anlog
, barangay Tuna in Cardona, Rizal and the diocese
of San Bernardino, California
. Siena College
, a Franciscan Catholic liberal arts college in New York
state, was named after him and under his spiritual patronage.
that had spread throughout southern France and northern Italy
, and the monastic orders, in particular, reformed. Instead of remaining cloister
ed and speaking only the liturgy
, some, like Bernardino of Siena, attempted to preach directly to the public. The effect was both to stem the inroads of heresy
and to make the populace more aware of orthodox
dogma
. The first edition of his works, for the most part elaborate sermons, was printed at Lyon
in 1501.
Massa Marittima
Massa Marittima is a town and comune of the province of Grosseto, southern Tuscany, Italy, 49 km NNW of Grosseto.There are mineral springs, mines of iron, mercury, lignite and copper, with foundries, ironworks and olive-oil mills...
8 September 1380 – Aquila, Italy 20 May 1444) was an Italian priest, Franciscan
Franciscan
Most Franciscans are members of Roman Catholic religious orders founded by Saint Francis of Assisi. Besides Roman Catholic communities, there are also Old Catholic, Anglican, Lutheran, ecumenical and Non-denominational Franciscan communities....
missionary, and is a Catholic saint
Saint
A saint is a holy person. In various religions, saints are people who are believed to have exceptional holiness.In Christian usage, "saint" refers to any believer who is "in Christ", and in whom Christ dwells, whether in heaven or in earth...
.
Early life
Bernardino was born in 1380 to the noble Albizeschi family in Massa MarittimaMassa Marittima
Massa Marittima is a town and comune of the province of Grosseto, southern Tuscany, Italy, 49 km NNW of Grosseto.There are mineral springs, mines of iron, mercury, lignite and copper, with foundries, ironworks and olive-oil mills...
(Tuscany
Tuscany
Tuscany is a region in Italy. It has an area of about 23,000 square kilometres and a population of about 3.75 million inhabitants. The regional capital is Florence ....
), a Sienese town of which his father was then governor. Left orphaned at six, he was raised by a pious aunt. On the completion of his education he spent some years in the service of the sick in the hospitals. While he was studying civil and canon law in Siena
Siena
Siena is a city in Tuscany, Italy. It is the capital of the province of Siena.The historic centre of Siena has been declared by UNESCO a World Heritage Site. It is one of the nation's most visited tourist attractions, with over 163,000 international arrivals in 2008...
, he worked in the hospital of Santa Maria della Scala throughout the bubonic plague
Bubonic plague
Plague is a deadly infectious disease that is caused by the enterobacteria Yersinia pestis, named after the French-Swiss bacteriologist Alexandre Yersin. Primarily carried by rodents and spread to humans via fleas, the disease is notorious throughout history, due to the unrivaled scale of death...
outbreak of 1400 and even urged other young men to stay and help. He thus caught the plague, of which he nearly died. In 1403 he joined the Observant branch of the Order of Friars Minor, with a strict observance of Francis' Rule. He was ordained a priest in 1404 and was commissioned as a preacher in 1405.
Missionary work
For more than 30 years, St Bernardino preached all over Italy, and played a great part in the religious revival of the early fifteenth century. His success was claimed to be remarkable. Enormous crowds came to hear him speak. It was said that feudFeud
A feud , referred to in more extreme cases as a blood feud, vendetta, faida, or private war, is a long-running argument or fight between parties—often groups of people, especially families or clans. Feuds begin because one party perceives itself to have been attacked, insulted or wronged by another...
s and factionalism were reconciled by his counsel and that miracle
Miracle
A miracle often denotes an event attributed to divine intervention. Alternatively, it may be an event attributed to a miracle worker, saint, or religious leader. A miracle is sometimes thought of as a perceptible interruption of the laws of nature. Others suggest that a god may work with the laws...
s took place. Donations to the Holy Name of Jesus
Holy Name of Jesus
In Christianity, the Holy Name of Jesus refers to the theological and devotional use of the name of Jesus. The reverence and affection with which Christians have regarded the Holy Name of Jesus goes back to the earliest days of Christianity....
(which he preached particularly) increased dramatically. Furthermore, "bonfires of vanities
Bonfire of the Vanities
Bonfire of the Vanities refers to the burning of objects that are deemed to be occasions of sin. The most infamous one took place on 7 February 1497, when supporters of the Dominican priest Girolamo Savonarola collected and publicly burned thousands of objects like cosmetics, art, and books in...
" were held at his sermon sites, where people were encouraged to burn objects of temptation. In 1425, he preached every day for seven weeks in Siena.
In 1427 he was summoned to Rome to stand trial on charges of heresy
Heresy
Heresy is a controversial or novel change to a system of beliefs, especially a religion, that conflicts with established dogma. It is distinct from apostasy, which is the formal denunciation of one's religion, principles or cause, and blasphemy, which is irreverence toward religion...
, with theologians including Paulus Venetus present to give their opinions. Bernardino was found innocent of heresy, and he impressed Pope Martin V
Pope Martin V
Pope Martin V , born Odo Colonna, was Pope from 1417 to 1431. His election effectively ended the Western Schism .-Biography:...
sufficiently that Martin requested he preach in Rome. He was acquitted and thereupon preached every day for 80 days. A typical sermon would last for an hour, but some lasted for more than four. Bernardino's zeal was such that he would prepare up to four drafts of a sermon before starting to speak. That same year, he was offered the bishopric of Siena, but declined in order to maintain his monastic and evangelical activities. In 1431, he toured Tuscany, Lombardy
Lombardy
Lombardy is one of the 20 regions of Italy. The capital is Milan. One-sixth of Italy's population lives in Lombardy and about one fifth of Italy's GDP is produced in this region, making it the most populous and richest region in the country and one of the richest in the whole of Europe...
, Romagna
Romagna
Romagna is an Italian historical region that approximately corresponds to the south-eastern portion of present-day Emilia-Romagna. Traditionally, it is limited by the Apennines to the south-west, the Adriatic to the east, and the rivers Reno and Sillaro to the north and west...
, and Ancona
Ancona
Ancona is a city and a seaport in the Marche region, in central Italy, with a population of 101,909 . Ancona is the capital of the province of Ancona and of the region....
before returning to Siena to prevent a war against Florence. Also in 1431, he declined the bishopric of Ferrara, and in 1435 he declined the bishopric of Urbino.
Saint John Capistran was his friend, and Saint James of the Marches
James of the Marches
Saint James of the Marche, O.F.M., was an Italian Friar Minor, preacher and writer.-Biography:He was born Dominic Gangala in the early 1390s to a poor family in Monteprandone, Province of Ascoli Piceno, in the Marche region of Italy...
was his disciple during these years. Both Pope Martin V and Pope Eugene IV
Pope Eugene IV
Pope Eugene IV , born Gabriele Condulmer, was pope from March 3, 1431, to his death.-Biography:He was born in Venice to a rich merchant family, a Correr on his mother's side. Condulmer entered the Order of Saint Augustine at the monastery of St. George in his native city...
were urged by their cardinals to condemn Bernardino, but both almost instantly acquitted him. A trial at the Council of Basel ended with an acquittal too. The Holy Roman Emperor
Holy Roman Emperor
The Holy Roman Emperor is a term used by historians to denote a medieval ruler who, as German King, had also received the title of "Emperor of the Romans" from the Pope...
Sigismund
Sigismund
Sigismund is a German proper name, meaning "protection through victory", from Old High German sigu "victory" + munt "hand, protection". Tacitus Latinises it Segimundus...
sought Bernardino's counsel and intercession and the future saint accompanied him to Rome in 1433 for his coronation.
Soon thereafter, he withdrew again to Capriola to compose a series of sermons. He resumed his missionary labours in 1436, but was forced to abandon them in the following year, when he became vicar-general of the Observant branch of the Franciscans in Italy. In 1438, Bernardino was elevated to vicar-general of the Franciscan Order in Italy. This cut back his opportunities to preach, but he continued to speak to the public when he could. Having in 1442 persuaded the pope to accept his resignation as vicar-general so that he might give himself more undividedly to preaching, Bernardino again resumed his missionary labours. Despite a Papal Bull
Papal bull
A Papal bull is a particular type of letters patent or charter issued by a Pope of the Catholic Church. It is named after the bulla that was appended to the end in order to authenticate it....
issued by Eugene IV in 1443 which charged Bernardino to preach the indulgence for the Crusade against the Turks, there is no record of his having done so. In 1444, notwithstanding his increasing infirmities, Bernardino, desirous that there should be no part of Italy which had not heard his voice, set out to the Kingdom of Naples
Kingdom of Naples
The Kingdom of Naples, comprising the southern part of the Italian peninsula, was the remainder of the old Kingdom of Sicily after secession of the island of Sicily as a result of the Sicilian Vespers rebellion of 1282. Known to contemporaries as the Kingdom of Sicily, it is dubbed Kingdom of...
. He died that year at L'Aquila
L'Aquila
L'Aquila is a city and comune in central Italy, both the capital city of the Abruzzo region and of the Province of L'Aquila. , it has a population of 73,150 inhabitants, but has a daily presence in the territory of 100,000 people for study, tertiary activities, jobs and tourism...
, in the Abruzzi. According to tradition, his grave continued to leak blood until two factions of the city achieved reconciliation.
Reports of miracles attributed to Bernardino multiplied rapidly and Bernardino was canonized in 1450, only six years after his death, by Pope Nicholas V
Pope Nicholas V
Pope Nicholas V , born Tommaso Parentucelli, was Pope from March 6, 1447 to his death in 1455.-Biography:He was born at Sarzana, Liguria, where his father was a physician...
. His feast day in the Roman Catholic Church
Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the world's largest Christian church, with over a billion members. Led by the Pope, it defines its mission as spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ, administering the sacraments and exercising charity...
is on 20 May, the day of his death.
Work for the Order and the spreading of the Observants
Saint Bernardine laboured strenuously to spread the Observant branch of the Friars Minor from the outset of his religious life: but, contrary to what is sometimes stated, he was not its founder. (The origin of the Observants, or ZelantiZelanti
In Roman Catholicism, the expression zelanti has been applied to conservative members of the clergy and their lay supporters since the thirteenth century. Its specific connotations have shifted with each reapplication of the label...
, may be traced back to the middle of the fourteenth century.) Nevertheless, Bernardine became to the Observants what St. Bernard had been to the Cistercians, their principal support and indefatigable propagator. Some idea of his zeal may be gathered from the fact that, instead of the one hundred and thirty Friars constituting the Observance in Italy at Bernardino's reception into the order, it counted over four thousand before his death.
In addition to the number he received into the order, Bernardino himself founded, or reformed, at least three hundred convents of Friars. Not content with extending his religious family at home, Bernardino sent missionaries to different parts of the Orient and it was largely through his efforts that so many ambassadors from different schismatic nations attended the Council of Florence
Council of Florence
The Council of Florence was an Ecumenical Council of the Roman Catholic Church. It began in 1431 in Basel, Switzerland, and became known as the Council of Ferrara after its transfer to Ferrara was decreed by Pope Eugene IV, to convene in 1438...
in which we find the saint addressing the assembled Fathers in Greek.
Iconography
Bernardino lived into the early days of the printOld master print
An old master print is a work of art produced by a printing process within the Western tradition . A date of about 1830 is usually taken as marking the end of the period whose prints are covered by this term. The main techniques concerned are woodcut, engraving and etching, although there are...
and was the subject of portraits in his lifetime, as well as a death-mask, which were copied to make prints, so that he is one of the earliest saints to have a fairly consistent appearance in art, though many Baroque
Baroque
The Baroque is a period and the style that used exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting, literature, dance, and music...
images, such as that by El Greco
El Greco
El Greco was a painter, sculptor and architect of the Spanish Renaissance. "El Greco" was a nickname, a reference to his ethnic Greek origin, and the artist normally signed his paintings with his full birth name in Greek letters, Δομήνικος Θεοτοκόπουλος .El Greco was born on Crete, which was at...
, are idealized compared to the realistic ones made in the decades after his death.
After his death, the Franciscans promoted an iconographical program of diffusion of images of Bernardino, which was second only to that of the founder of the order. He is sometimes represented in painting with three mitres at his feet (representing the three bishoprics which he had rejected) and holding in his hand the IHS
Christogram
A Christogram is a monogram or combination of letters that forms an abbreviation for the name of Jesus Christ, traditionally used as a Christian symbol. Different types of Christograms are associated with the various traditions of Christianity, e.g...
monogram with rays emanating from it (representing his devotion to the "Holy Name of Jesus"), which was his main attribute
Attribute
Attribute may refer to:* In research, a characteristic of an object - see attribute * In philosophy, property , an abstraction of a characteristic of an entity or substance...
.
A portrait is known to have circulated in Siena just after Bernardino's death which, on the basis of physiognomic similarities with his death mask at L'Aquila is believed to have been a good likeness. It is thought probable that many subsequent depictions of the saint derive from this portrait.
The most famous depictions of Bernardino are found in the cycle of frescoes of his life executed towards the end of the fifteenth century by Pinturicchio
Pinturicchio
Bernardino di Betto, called Pintoricchio or Pinturicchio was an Italian painter of the Renaissance. He acquired his nickname, Pintoricchio , because of his small stature, and he used it to sign some of his works....
in the Bufalini Chapel
Bufalini Chapel
The Bufalini Chapel is a side chapel of the church of Santa Maria in Aracoeli, Rome, Italy. First chapel on the right after the entrance, it houses a cycle of frescoes executed c. 1484-1486 by Pinturicchio depicting the life of the Franciscan friar St...
of Santa Maria in Aracoeli
Santa Maria in Aracoeli
The Basilica of St. Mary of the Altar of Heaven is a titular basilica in Rome, located on the highest summit of the Campidoglio. It is still the designated Church of the city council of Rome, which uses the ancient title of Senatus Populusque Romanus...
, Rome. There is also an altar panel at the Alte Pinakothek
Alte Pinakothek
The Alte Pinakothek is an art museum situated in the Kunstareal in Munich, Germany. It is one of the oldest galleries in the world and houses one of the most famous collections of Old Master paintings...
in Berlin, done by Pietro Perugino, known as The Virgin appearing to St. Bernard
The Virgin appearing to St. Bernard
The Virgin appearing to St. Bernard is a painting by the Italian artist Pietro Perugino, the main painter of the Umbrian school that was based in Perugia. The panel was executed as an altarpiece for the church of Santa Maria Maddalena dei Pazzi in Florence...
. This showing the saint having a vision of the Virgin Mary
Mary (mother of Jesus)
Mary , commonly referred to as "Saint Mary", "Mother Mary", the "Virgin Mary", the "Blessed Virgin Mary", or "Mary, Mother of God", was a Jewish woman of Nazareth in Galilee...
.
Patron
Saint Bernardino is the patron saintPatron saint
A patron saint is a saint who is regarded as the intercessor and advocate in heaven of a nation, place, craft, activity, class, clan, family, or person...
of advertising
Advertising
Advertising is a form of communication used to persuade an audience to take some action with respect to products, ideas, or services. Most commonly, the desired result is to drive consumer behavior with respect to a commercial offering, although political and ideological advertising is also common...
, communication
Communication
Communication is the activity of conveying meaningful information. Communication requires a sender, a message, and an intended recipient, although the receiver need not be present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication; thus communication can occur across vast...
s, compulsive gambling
Compulsive gambling
Problem gambling is an urge to continuously gamble despite harmful negative consequences or a desire to stop. Problem gambling often is defined by whether harm is experienced by the gambler or others, rather than by the gambler's behavior. Severe problem gambling may be diagnosed as clinical...
, respiratory
Respiratory system
The respiratory system is the anatomical system of an organism that introduces respiratory gases to the interior and performs gas exchange. In humans and other mammals, the anatomical features of the respiratory system include airways, lungs, and the respiratory muscles...
problems, any problems involving the chest area. He is the patron saint of Carpi (Italy), the Philippine barangay Kay-Anlog
Kay-Anlog
Barangay Kay-Anlog is a rural barangay of Calamba City, Laguna, Philippines. It lies on the western portion of the city. This barangay was said as one of the least barangays of Calamba City having agricultural lands.- Geography :...
, barangay Tuna in Cardona, Rizal and the diocese
Roman Catholic Diocese of San Bernardino
The Roman Catholic Diocese of San Bernardino is a Roman Catholic diocese centered in San Bernardino, California. It was founded on July 14, 1978, and comprises San Bernardino and Riverside counties. The Diocese of San Bernardino formerly was part of the Diocese of San Diego...
of San Bernardino, California
San Bernardino, California
San Bernardino is a city located in the Riverside-San Bernardino metropolitan area , and serves as the county seat of San Bernardino County, California, United States...
. Siena College
Siena College
Siena College is an independent Roman Catholic liberal arts college in Loudonville, in the town of Colonie, New York, United States. Siena is a four-year, coeducational, independent college in the Franciscan tradition, founded by the Franciscan Friars in 1937. It has 3,000 full-time students and...
, a Franciscan Catholic liberal arts college in New York
New York
New York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
state, was named after him and under his spiritual patronage.
Legacy
In the 15th century, the Roman Catholic Church began to respond to the pressures both of the multiple heresiesHeresy
Heresy is a controversial or novel change to a system of beliefs, especially a religion, that conflicts with established dogma. It is distinct from apostasy, which is the formal denunciation of one's religion, principles or cause, and blasphemy, which is irreverence toward religion...
that had spread throughout southern France and northern Italy
Northern Italy
Northern Italy is a wide cultural, historical and geographical definition, without any administrative usage, used to indicate the northern part of the Italian state, also referred as Settentrione or Alta Italia...
, and the monastic orders, in particular, reformed. Instead of remaining cloister
Cloister
A cloister is a rectangular open space surrounded by covered walks or open galleries, with open arcades on the inner side, running along the walls of buildings and forming a quadrangle or garth...
ed and speaking only the liturgy
Liturgy
Liturgy is either the customary public worship done by a specific religious group, according to its particular traditions or a more precise term that distinguishes between those religious groups who believe their ritual requires the "people" to do the "work" of responding to the priest, and those...
, some, like Bernardino of Siena, attempted to preach directly to the public. The effect was both to stem the inroads of heresy
Heresy
Heresy is a controversial or novel change to a system of beliefs, especially a religion, that conflicts with established dogma. It is distinct from apostasy, which is the formal denunciation of one's religion, principles or cause, and blasphemy, which is irreverence toward religion...
and to make the populace more aware of orthodox
Orthodoxy
The word orthodox, from Greek orthos + doxa , is generally used to mean the adherence to accepted norms, more specifically to creeds, especially in religion...
dogma
Dogma
Dogma is the established belief or doctrine held by a religion, or a particular group or organization. It is authoritative and not to be disputed, doubted, or diverged from, by the practitioners or believers...
. The first edition of his works, for the most part elaborate sermons, was printed at Lyon
Lyon
Lyon , is a city in east-central France in the Rhône-Alpes region, situated between Paris and Marseille. Lyon is located at from Paris, from Marseille, from Geneva, from Turin, and from Barcelona. The residents of the city are called Lyonnais....
in 1501.
External links
- St. Bernardino page at Christian Iconography