Biblical archaeology - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

For the movement associated with William F. Albright and also known as biblical archaeology, see Biblical archaeology school
Biblical archaeology school
Biblical archaeology, also known as Palestinology is the school of archaeology which concerns itself with the biblical world.-18th Century:...

. For the interpretation of biblical archaeology in relation to biblical historicity, see The Bible and history
The Bible and history
The Bible from a historical perspective, includes numerous fields of study, ranging from archeology and astronomy to linguistics and methods of comparative literature. The Bible may provide insight into pursuits, including but not limited to; our understanding of ancient and modern culture,...

.

This article presents technical information on major excavations and artifacts relating to biblical archaeology, defined as that archaeology which concerns itself with the biblical world.

Periods in Biblical archaeology

The list of periods for Syro-Palestinian archaeology

Syro-Palestinian archaeology

Syro-Palestinian archaeology is a term used to refer to archaeological research conducted in the southern Levant. Palestinian archaeology is also commonly used in its stead, particularly when the area of inquiry centers on ancient Palestine...

below is drawn from the definitions provided by the Mercer Dictionary of the Bible, p. 55.

Bronze age
Bronze Age
The Bronze Age is a period characterized by the use of copper and its alloy bronze as the chief hard materials in the manufacture of some implements and weapons. Chronologically, it stands between the Stone Age and Iron Age...

: 3,200-1,200 BCE
- Early Bronze
  Bronze Age
  The Bronze Age is a period characterized by the use of copper and its alloy bronze as the chief hard materials in the manufacture of some implements and weapons. Chronologically, it stands between the Stone Age and Iron Age...
  
  (EB) Age = 3200-2200 BCE
- Middle Bronze (MB) Age = 2200–1550 BCE
  - MB I (formerly MB IIA) = 2200–2000
  - MB II (formerly MB IIA) = 2,000-1,750
  - MB III (formerly MB IIC) = 1750–1550
- Late Bronze (LB) Age = 1550–1200 BCE
  - LB I = 1550–1400
  - LB II = 1400–1200
Iron Age
Iron Age
The Iron Age is the archaeological period generally occurring after the Bronze Age, marked by the prevalent use of iron. The early period of the age is characterized by the widespread use of iron or steel. The adoption of such material coincided with other changes in society, including differing...

: 1200-586 BCE
- Iron I = 1200–1000
- Iron IIA = 1000-930
- Iron IIB = 930-721
- Iron IIC = 721-586
Babylonian period
Neo-Babylonian Empire
The Neo-Babylonian Empire or Second Babylonian Empire was a period of Mesopotamian history which began in 626 BC and ended in 539 BC. During the preceding three centuries, Babylonia had been ruled by their fellow Akkadian speakers and northern neighbours, Assyria. Throughout that time Babylonia...

: 586-539 BCE
Persian period: 539-332 BCE
Hellenistic period
Hellenistic period
The Hellenistic period or Hellenistic era describes the time which followed the conquests of Alexander the Great. It was so named by the historian J. G. Droysen. During this time, Greek cultural influence and power was at its zenith in Europe and Asia...

= 332-63 BCE
- Early Hellenistic = 332-198
- Late Hellenistic = 198-63
Roman period: 63 BCE-324 CE

Table I: Excavations and surveys

Year	Site	Biblical name	Excavated by	Comment
1841	Survey	N/a	Edward Robinson Edward Robinson (scholar) Edward Robinson was an American biblical scholar, known as the “Father of Biblical Geography.” He has been referred to as the “founder of modern Palestinology.” -Biography:...	Robinson's Biblical Researches in Palestine, the Sinai, Petrae and Adjacent Regions, based on his survey of the Near East conducted over several years, proposed Biblical names for modern sites.
1871-77	Survey	N/a	Charles Warren	The Survey of Western Palestine, published by the Palestine Exploration Fund Palestine Exploration Fund The Palestine Exploration Fund is a British society often simply known as the PEF. It was founded in 1865 and is still functioning today. Its initial object was to carry out surveys of the topography and ethnography of Ottoman Palestine with a remit that fell somewhere between an expeditionary... , reflected Warren's detailed field surveys in Palestine and especially the Temple Mount Temple Mount The Temple Mount, known in Hebrew as , and in Arabic as the Haram Ash-Sharif , is one of the most important religious sites in the Old City of Jerusalem. It has been used as a religious site for thousands of years... in Jerusalem. Major discoveries included the foundation stones of Herod's Temple, the first Iron Age Hebrew inscriptions (jar handles with LMLK seals), and water shafts under the City of David.
1890	Tell el-Hesi Tell el-Hesi Tell el-Hesi is a 25-acre archaeological site in Israel. It was the first major site excavated in Palestine, first by Flinders Petrie in 1890 and later by Frederick Jones Bliss in 1891 and 1892, both sponsored by the Palestine Exploration Fund...	Eglon	Sir Flinders Petrie	The site was believed at the time to be the biblical Lachish, but is now commonly identified with Eglon. Petrie noticed strata exposed by waterflow adjacent to the site, and popularized details of pottery groups excavated therefrom. This marked the introduction of scientific stratigraphy to Palestinian archaeology.
1891-92	Tell el-Hesi	Eglon	Frederick J. Bliss Frederick Jones Bliss Frederick Jones Bliss was an American archaeologist. After training under Flinders Petrie in Egypt, Bliss became involved with the Palestine Exploration Fund working in the field of Biblical archaeology at the site of Tell el-Hesi between 1894 and 1897, while cuncurrently leading an expedition...	N/a
1898–1900	Tell es-Safi	Gath?	Frederick J. Bliss Frederick Jones Bliss Frederick Jones Bliss was an American archaeologist. After training under Flinders Petrie in Egypt, Bliss became involved with the Palestine Exploration Fund working in the field of Biblical archaeology at the site of Tell el-Hesi between 1894 and 1897, while cuncurrently leading an expedition... and R.A.S. Macalister Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister was an Irish archaeologist.Macalister was born in Dublin, Ireland and studied at Cambridge University. Although his earliest interest was in the archaeology of Ireland, he soon developed a strong interest in biblical archaeology. Along with Frederick J...	N/a
1898–1900	Tell Zakariya	Azekah Azekah Azekah was a town in the Shephelah guarding the upper reaches of the Valley of Elah, about 26 km northwest of Hebron. It has been identified with biblical Azeka.-Biblical history:... ?	Frederick J. Bliss Frederick Jones Bliss Frederick Jones Bliss was an American archaeologist. After training under Flinders Petrie in Egypt, Bliss became involved with the Palestine Exploration Fund working in the field of Biblical archaeology at the site of Tell el-Hesi between 1894 and 1897, while cuncurrently leading an expedition... and R.A.S. Macalister Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister was an Irish archaeologist.Macalister was born in Dublin, Ireland and studied at Cambridge University. Although his earliest interest was in the archaeology of Ireland, he soon developed a strong interest in biblical archaeology. Along with Frederick J...	N/a
1898–1900	Tell ej-Judeideh	Moresheth-Gath or Libnah Libnah Libnah or Lobna was a town in the Kingdom of Judah. The town of Libnah revolted during the reign of King Jehoram of Judah, according to II Chronicles , because he "had abandoned [the] God of his fathers."... ?	Frederick J. Bliss Frederick Jones Bliss Frederick Jones Bliss was an American archaeologist. After training under Flinders Petrie in Egypt, Bliss became involved with the Palestine Exploration Fund working in the field of Biblical archaeology at the site of Tell el-Hesi between 1894 and 1897, while cuncurrently leading an expedition... and R.A.S. Macalister Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister was an Irish archaeologist.Macalister was born in Dublin, Ireland and studied at Cambridge University. Although his earliest interest was in the archaeology of Ireland, he soon developed a strong interest in biblical archaeology. Along with Frederick J...	N/a
1898–1900	Tell Sandahannah	Mareshah?	Frederick J. Bliss Frederick Jones Bliss Frederick Jones Bliss was an American archaeologist. After training under Flinders Petrie in Egypt, Bliss became involved with the Palestine Exploration Fund working in the field of Biblical archaeology at the site of Tell el-Hesi between 1894 and 1897, while cuncurrently leading an expedition... and R.A.S. Macalister Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister was an Irish archaeologist.Macalister was born in Dublin, Ireland and studied at Cambridge University. Although his earliest interest was in the archaeology of Ireland, he soon developed a strong interest in biblical archaeology. Along with Frederick J...	N/a
1902–3, 1907–9	Gezer	Gezer	R.A.S. Macalister Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister was an Irish archaeologist.Macalister was born in Dublin, Ireland and studied at Cambridge University. Although his earliest interest was in the archaeology of Ireland, he soon developed a strong interest in biblical archaeology. Along with Frederick J...	The Gezer calendar Gezer calendar The Gezer calendar is a tablet of soft limestone inscription, dating to the 10th century BCE. Scholars are divided as to whether the script and language are Phoenician or paleo-Hebrew, which were linguistically very similar in this period.... was discovered on the surface during this excavation.
1902–4	Taanach	Taanach Taanach Ta'anakh or Taanach is a small village in Israel in Ta'anakh region.Just to the east is a 40 metre high moun which was the site of the biblical city Taanach. 12 Akkadian cuneiform tablets were found here. The main remain visible today is a 11th Century Abbasid palace....	Ernest Sellin	N/a
1903–5	Megiddo	Megiddo	Gottlieb Schumacher Gottlieb Schumacher Gottlieb Schumacher was a German-American civil engineer, architect and archaeologist who was an important figure in the early archaeological explorations of Palestine....	N/a
1905–7	Galilee	Galilee Galilee Galilee , is a large region in northern Israel which overlaps with much of the administrative North District of the country. Traditionally divided into Upper Galilee , Lower Galilee , and Western Galilee , extending from Dan to the north, at the base of Mount Hermon, along Mount Lebanon to the...	Herman Kohl, Ernest Sellin, and Carl Watzinger Carl Watzinger Carl Watzinger was a German-born archaeologist that was part of a team that worked on uncovering the site of the ancient city of Jericho from 1907 to 1908. His partner was the German theologian Ernst Sellin....	A survey of ancient synagogue Synagogue A synagogue is a Jewish house of prayer. This use of the Greek term synagogue originates in the Septuagint where it sometimes translates the Hebrew word for assembly, kahal... s
1907–9	Shechem	Shechem Shechem Shechem was a Canaanite city mentioned in the Amarna letters, and is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible as an Israelite city of the tribe of Manasseh and the first capital of the Kingdom of Israel...	Ernest Sellin and Carl Watzinger Carl Watzinger Carl Watzinger was a German-born archaeologist that was part of a team that worked on uncovering the site of the ancient city of Jericho from 1907 to 1908. His partner was the German theologian Ernst Sellin....	N/a
1908, 1910–1	Samaria	Samaria Samaria Samaria, or the Shomron is a term used for a mountainous region roughly corresponding to the northern part of the West Bank.- Etymology :...	David G. Lyon David Gordon Lyon David Gordon Lyon was an American theologian.-Biography:Lyon was born in Benton, Alabama, the son of a doctor. He received his A.B. from Howard College in Birmingham, Alabama, in 1875. He studied at the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary under Crawford Howell Toy, and went to Germany, where he... , Clarence S. Fisher Clarence Stanley Fisher Clarence Stanley Fisher was an American archaeologist.Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, C. S. Fisher was a graduate of the school of architecture, University of Pennsylvania, but devoted his subsequent career to Near Eastern archaeology... , and George A. Reisner	N/a
1911–3	Beth Shemesh	Beth Shemesh	Duncan Mackenzie Duncan Mackenzie Duncan Mackenzie was a Scottish archaeologist, whose work focused on one of the more spectacular 20th century archaeological finds, Crete's palace of Knossos, the supposed centre of Minoan civilisation....	N/a
1921–3, 1925–8, 1930–3 Clarence S. Fisher Clarence Stanley Fisher Clarence Stanley Fisher was an American archaeologist.Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, C. S. Fisher was a graduate of the school of architecture, University of Pennsylvania, but devoted his subsequent career to Near Eastern archaeology... , Alan Rowe Alan Rowe Alan Rowe was a New Zealand-born English actor, perhaps best known for his appearances on the British science fiction programme Doctor Who.-Career:... , and Gerald M. Fitzgerald	Beth Shean	Beth Shean	Clarence S. Fisher Clarence Stanley Fisher Clarence Stanley Fisher was an American archaeologist.Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, C. S. Fisher was a graduate of the school of architecture, University of Pennsylvania, but devoted his subsequent career to Near Eastern archaeology... , Alan Rowe Alan Rowe Alan Rowe was a New Zealand-born English actor, perhaps best known for his appearances on the British science fiction programme Doctor Who.-Career:... , and Gerald M. Fitzgerald	N/a
1922–3	Tell el-Ful	Gibeah Gibeah Gibeah is a biblical site identified by archaeologists as a hill in Jerusalem, on the outskirts of the Pisgat Ze'ev neighborhood, known as Tell el-Ful.-Etymology:... ?	William F. Albright	N/a
1925–39	Megiddo	Megiddo	Clarence S. Fisher Clarence Stanley Fisher Clarence Stanley Fisher was an American archaeologist.Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, C. S. Fisher was a graduate of the school of architecture, University of Pennsylvania, but devoted his subsequent career to Near Eastern archaeology... , P.L.O. Guy, and Gordon Loud	N/a
1926, 1928, 1930, 1932	Tell Beit Mirsim	Eglon Eglon, Canaan Eglon was a Canaanite city, whose king Debir joined a confederacy against Gibeon when that city made peace with Israel. The five kings involved were slain and Eglon was later conquered and its inhabitants condemned to destruction. It was thereafter included in the territory of the Tribe of Judah.... or Debir Debir A Biblical word, debir may refer to:noun* The debir , the inner-most part of the Holy of Holies in Solomon's Temple.Personal name... –Kirjath Sepher?	William F. Albright	N/a
1926–7, 1929, 1932, 1935 excavated	Mizpah Mizpah Mizpah or Miz'peh may refer to:* one of several places in ancient Israel: Mizpah in Benjamin, a city near Jerusalem Mizpah in Gilead , the place where Laban overtook Jacob on his return to Canaan...	Mizpah Mizpah Mizpah or Miz'peh may refer to:* one of several places in ancient Israel: Mizpah in Benjamin, a city near Jerusalem Mizpah in Gilead , the place where Laban overtook Jacob on his return to Canaan...	William F. Bade	N/a
1928–33	Beth Shemesh	Beth Shemesh	Elihu Grant Elihu Grant Elihu Grant was an American scholar and writer on Palestine.Grant was ordained Methodist minister in 1900, and between 1901 and 1904 he was superintendent of the American Friends Schools in Ramallah and Jerusalem...	N/a
1930–6 excavated	Jericho Jericho Jericho ; is a city located near the Jordan River in the West Bank of the Palestinian territories. It is the capital of the Jericho Governorate and has a population of more than 20,000. Situated well below sea level on an east-west route north of the Dead Sea, Jericho is the lowest permanently...	Jericho Jericho Jericho ; is a city located near the Jordan River in the West Bank of the Palestinian territories. It is the capital of the Jericho Governorate and has a population of more than 20,000. Situated well below sea level on an east-west route north of the Dead Sea, Jericho is the lowest permanently...	John Garstang John Garstang John Garstang was a British archaeologist of the ancient Near East, especially Anatolia and the southern Levant....	N/a
1931–3, 1935 excavated	Samaria Samaria Samaria, or the Shomron is a term used for a mountainous region roughly corresponding to the northern part of the West Bank.- Etymology :...	Samaria Samaria Samaria, or the Shomron is a term used for a mountainous region roughly corresponding to the northern part of the West Bank.- Etymology :...	John W. Crowfoot	N/a
1932–38	Lachish Lachish Lachish was an ancient Near East town located at the site of modern Tell ed-Duweir in the Shephelah, a region between Mount Hebron and the maritime plain of Philistia . The town was first mentioned in the Amarna letters as Lakisha-Lakiša...	Lachish Lachish Lachish was an ancient Near East town located at the site of modern Tell ed-Duweir in the Shephelah, a region between Mount Hebron and the maritime plain of Philistia . The town was first mentioned in the Amarna letters as Lakisha-Lakiša...	James L. Starkey	The excavation was tragically terminated when Starkey was killed by armed Arabs near Hebron Hebron Hebron , is located in the southern West Bank, south of Jerusalem. Nestled in the Judean Mountains, it lies 930 meters above sea level. It is the largest city in the West Bank and home to around 165,000 Palestinians, and over 500 Jewish settlers concentrated in and around the old quarter... while on his way to the opening ceremonies of the Palestine Archaeological Museum Rockefeller Museum The Rockefeller Museum, formerly the Palestine Archaeological Museum, is an archaeological museum located in East Jerusalem that houses a large collection of artifacts unearthed in the excavations conducted in Ottoman Palestine beginning in the late 19th century.The museum is under the management... in Jerusalem
1936–40	Beit She'arim Beit She'arim National Park Beit She'arim , also known as Beth She'arim or Besara , literally The Strangers House, is the archeological site of a Jewish town and a large number of ancient rock-cut Jewish tombs...	Beit She'arim Beit She'arim National Park Beit She'arim , also known as Beth She'arim or Besara , literally The Strangers House, is the archeological site of a Jewish town and a large number of ancient rock-cut Jewish tombs...	Benjamin Mazar Benjamin Mazar Benjamin Mazar was a pioneering Israeli historian, recognized as the "dean" of biblical archaeologists. He shared the national passion for the archaeology of Israel that also attracts considerable international interest due to the region's biblical links...	N/a
1948–50, 1952–5 excavated	Jaffa Jaffa Jaffa is an ancient port city believed to be one of the oldest in the world. Jaffa was incorporated with Tel Aviv creating the city of Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel. Jaffa is famous for its association with the biblical story of the prophet Jonah.-Etymology:...	N/a	Jacob Kaplan	N/a
1954, 1959–62 excavated	Ramat Rahel Ramat Rachel Ramat Rachel is a kibbutz located south of Jerusalem in Israel, as an enclave within Jerusalem's municipal boundaries. Overlooking Bethlehem and Rachel's Tomb and situated within the Green Line, it falls under the jurisdiction of Mateh Yehuda Regional Council...	N/a	Yohanan Aharoni Yohanan Aharoni Yohanan Aharoni , was an Israeli archaeologist and historical geographer, chairman of the Department of Near East Studies and chairman of the Institute of Archeology at Tel-Aviv University.-Life:...	N/a
1955–8, 1968	Hazor	Hazor	Yigael Yadin Yigael Yadin Yigael Yadin on 21 March 1917, died 28 June 1984) was an Israeli archeologist, politician, and the second Chief of Staff of the Israel Defense Forces.-Early life and military career:...	N/a
1956–7, 1959–60, 1962 excavated	Gibeon	Gibeon	James B. Pritchard James B. Pritchard James Bennett Pritchard was an American archeologist whose work explicated the interrelationships of the religions of ancient Israel, Canaan, Egypt, Assyria, and Babylon...	N/a
1961–7 excavated )	Jerusalem (City of David)	N/a	Kathleen Kenyon Kathleen Kenyon Dame Kathleen Mary Kenyon , was a leading archaeologist of Neolithic culture in the Fertile Crescent. She is best known for her excavations in Jericho in 1952-1958.-Early life:...	N/a
1962–7	Arad Tel Arad Tel Arad or 'old' Arad is located west of the Dead Sea, about 10 km west of modern Arad in an area surrounded by mountain ridges which is known as the Arad Plain. The site is divided into a lower city and an upper hill which holds the only ever discovered 'House of Yahweh' in the land of...	Arad Tel Arad Tel Arad or 'old' Arad is located west of the Dead Sea, about 10 km west of modern Arad in an area surrounded by mountain ridges which is known as the Arad Plain. The site is divided into a lower city and an upper hill which holds the only ever discovered 'House of Yahweh' in the land of...	Yohanan Aharoni Yohanan Aharoni Yohanan Aharoni , was an Israeli archaeologist and historical geographer, chairman of the Department of Near East Studies and chairman of the Institute of Archeology at Tel-Aviv University.-Life:... and Ruth Amiran Ruth Amiran Ruth Amiran was an Israeli archaeologist. Her book, Ancient Pottery of the Holy Land: From Its Beginnings in the Neolithic Period to the End of the Iron Age became a bible-like work in the academic field of archaeology quite soon after it was published in 1970, and remains a basic reference for...	N/a
1962–3, 1965–72	Ashdod	Ashdod	Moshe Dothan	N/a
1963–5 excavated	Masada Masada Masada is the name for a site of ancient palaces and fortifications in the South District of Israel, on top of an isolated rock plateau, or horst, on the eastern edge of the Judean Desert, overlooking the Dead Sea. Masada is best known for the violence that occurred there in the first century CE...	N/a	Yigael Yadin Yigael Yadin Yigael Yadin on 21 March 1917, died 28 June 1984) was an Israeli archeologist, politician, and the second Chief of Staff of the Israel Defense Forces.-Early life and military career:...	N/a
1964–74	Gezer Gezer Gezer was a Canaanite city-state and biblical town in ancient Israel. Tel Gezer , an archaeological site midway between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv, is now an Israeli national park....	Gezer Gezer Gezer was a Canaanite city-state and biblical town in ancient Israel. Tel Gezer , an archaeological site midway between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv, is now an Israeli national park....	G. Ernest Wright, William G. Dever William G. Dever William G. Dever is an American archaeologist, specialising in the history of Israel and the Near East in Biblical times. He was Professor of Near Eastern Archaeology and Anthropology at the University of Arizona in Tucson from 1975 to 2002... , and Joe Seger	N/a
1968–78	Jerusalem (southwest corner of the Temple Mount Temple Mount The Temple Mount, known in Hebrew as , and in Arabic as the Haram Ash-Sharif , is one of the most important religious sites in the Old City of Jerusalem. It has been used as a religious site for thousands of years... )	Temple Mount Temple Mount The Temple Mount, known in Hebrew as , and in Arabic as the Haram Ash-Sharif , is one of the most important religious sites in the Old City of Jerusalem. It has been used as a religious site for thousands of years...	Benjamin Mazar Benjamin Mazar Benjamin Mazar was a pioneering Israeli historian, recognized as the "dean" of biblical archaeologists. He shared the national passion for the archaeology of Israel that also attracts considerable international interest due to the region's biblical links...	N/a
1969–76	Beersheba Beersheba Beersheba is the largest city in the Negev desert of southern Israel. Often referred to as the "Capital of the Negev", it is the seventh-largest city in Israel with a population of 194,300....	Beersheba Beersheba Beersheba is the largest city in the Negev desert of southern Israel. Often referred to as the "Capital of the Negev", it is the seventh-largest city in Israel with a population of 194,300....	Yohanan Aharoni Yohanan Aharoni Yohanan Aharoni , was an Israeli archaeologist and historical geographer, chairman of the Department of Near East Studies and chairman of the Institute of Archeology at Tel-Aviv University.-Life:... and Ze'ev Herzog Ze'ev Herzog Ze’ev Herzog is an Israeli archeologist, professor of archaeology at The Department of Archaeology and Ancient Near Eastern Cultures at Tel Aviv University specializing in social archaeology, ancient architecture and field archaeology...	N/a
1969–82	Jerusalem (Jewish Quarter)	Jerusalem	Nahman Avigad Nahman Avigad Dr. Nahman Avigad , born in Zawalow, Galicia , was an Israeli archaeologist.-Biography:...	N/a
1973–94	Lachish Lachish Lachish was an ancient Near East town located at the site of modern Tell ed-Duweir in the Shephelah, a region between Mount Hebron and the maritime plain of Philistia . The town was first mentioned in the Amarna letters as Lakisha-Lakiša...	Lachish Lachish Lachish was an ancient Near East town located at the site of modern Tell ed-Duweir in the Shephelah, a region between Mount Hebron and the maritime plain of Philistia . The town was first mentioned in the Amarna letters as Lakisha-Lakiša...	David Ussishkin David Ussishkin David Ussishkin is an Israeli archaeologist. Now retired as Professor of Archaeology at Tel Aviv University, Ussishkin has directed and co-directed important excavations at a variety of sites, including Lachish, Jezreel and Megiddo....	N/a
1975–82	Aroer	Aroer	Avraham Biran Avraham Biran Avraham Biran was an Israeli archaeologist, best known for heading excavations at Tel Dan in northern Israel. He headed the Institute of Archaeology at Hebrew Union College in Jerusalem for many years.-Biography:...	Aroer is an Israelite town in the Negev Desert, not to be confused with the Moabite Aroer Aroer Aroer is a Biblical town on the north bank of the River Arnon to the east of the Dead Sea, in present-day Jordan.The town was an ancient Moabite settlement, and is mentioned in the Bible."Aroer, which is on the edge of the valley of Arnon" Aroer is a Biblical town on the north bank of the River... located in Jordan
1977–9, 1981–9	Timnah Timnah Timnath or Timnah was a Philistine city in Canaan that is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible in . It has been identified with Tel Batash , a tel located in the Sorek Valley, near moshav Tal Shahar, Israel....	Timnah Timnah Timnath or Timnah was a Philistine city in Canaan that is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible in . It has been identified with Tel Batash , a tel located in the Sorek Valley, near moshav Tal Shahar, Israel....	Amihai Mazar Amihai Mazar Amihai "Ami" Mazar is an Israeli archaeologist. Born in Haifa, Israel , he is currently Professor at the Institute of Archaeology of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, holding the Eleazer Sukenik Chair in the Archaeology of Israel.Mazar has directed archaeological excavations at a number of... and George L. Kelm George L. Kelm George L. Kelm is Professor Emeritus of Archaeology and Biblical Backgrounds at Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, Fort Worth, Texas, and while serving at New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary, he and Amihai Mazar uncovered Timnah....	N/a
1978–85	Jerusalem (City of David)	Jerusalem	Yigal Shiloh	N/a
1979–80	Ketef Hinnom Ketef Hinnom Ketef Hinnom is an archaeological site southwest of the Old City of Jerusalem, adjacent to St. Andrew's Church of Scotland. The site consists of a series of rock-hewn burial chambers based on natural caverns...	N/a	Gabriel Barkay Gabriel Barkay Gabriel Barkay is an Israeli archaeologist. Born in 1944 in Hungary, he immigrated to Israel in 1950. He received his PhD in Archaeology from Tel Aviv University in 1985. His dissertation was about LMLK seal impressions on jar handles. He participated in the Lachish excavations with David Ussishkin...	N/a
1979, 1981–2, 1984–7, 1990–1, 1993–2000	Khirbet Nisya	Ai (biblical place)?	David Livingston	N/a
1981–2, 1984–8, 1990, 1992–6	Ekron Ekron The city of Ekron , was one of the five cities of the famed Philistine pentapolis, located in southwestern Canaan. Ekron lies 35 kilometers west of Jerusalem, and 18 kilometers north of ancient Gath, on the eastern edge of Israel's coastal plain.-History:...	Ekron Ekron The city of Ekron , was one of the five cities of the famed Philistine pentapolis, located in southwestern Canaan. Ekron lies 35 kilometers west of Jerusalem, and 18 kilometers north of ancient Gath, on the eastern edge of Israel's coastal plain.-History:...	Trude Dothan Trude Dothan Professor Trude Dothan is one of Israel's leading archaeologists, specializing in the Late Bronze and Iron Ages in the region, in particular in Philistine culture.-Early life:... and Seymour Gitin	N/a
1989–96	Beit-Shean	Beit-Shean	Amihai Mazar Amihai Mazar Amihai "Ami" Mazar is an Israeli archaeologist. Born in Haifa, Israel , he is currently Professor at the Institute of Archaeology of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, holding the Eleazer Sukenik Chair in the Archaeology of Israel.Mazar has directed archaeological excavations at a number of...	N/a
1994–2008	Megiddo	Megiddo	Israel Finkelstein Israel Finkelstein Israel Finkelstein is an Israeli archaeologist and academic. He is currently the Jacob M. Alkow Professor of the Archaeology of Israel in the Bronze Age and Iron Ages at Tel Aviv University and is also the co-director of excavations at Megiddo in northern Israel... and David Ussishkin David Ussishkin David Ussishkin is an Israeli archaeologist. Now retired as Professor of Archaeology at Tel Aviv University, Ussishkin has directed and co-directed important excavations at a variety of sites, including Lachish, Jezreel and Megiddo....	N/a
1996–2002, 2004–2008	Tell es-Safi Tell es-Safi Gath, Gat, or Geth , often referred to as Gath of the Philistines, was one of the five Philistine city-states, established in northwestern Philistia. According to the Bible, the king of the city was Achish, in the times of Saul, David, and Solomon. It is not certain whether this refers to two or... (identified as Biblical Gath of the Philistines)	Gath	Aren Maeir Aren Maeir Aren Maeir is a professor at Bar Ilan University and director of the Tell es-Safi/Gath Archaeological Project . Born in 1958 in Rochester, New York, USA, he moved to Israel in 1969 and has lived there since...	N/a
1997–	Tel Rehov		Amihai Mazar Amihai Mazar Amihai "Ami" Mazar is an Israeli archaeologist. Born in Haifa, Israel , he is currently Professor at the Institute of Archaeology of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, holding the Eleazer Sukenik Chair in the Archaeology of Israel.Mazar has directed archaeological excavations at a number of...	N/a
1999–2001, 2005	Tel Zayit	Zeitah	Ron Tappy	N/a
2005	Ramat Rahel Ramat Rachel Ramat Rachel is a kibbutz located south of Jerusalem in Israel, as an enclave within Jerusalem's municipal boundaries. Overlooking Bethlehem and Rachel's Tomb and situated within the Green Line, it falls under the jurisdiction of Mateh Yehuda Regional Council...	N/a	Oded Lipschits	N/a
2005	Nahal Tut Nahal Tut Nahal Tut is an archaeological site excavated along the streambed of the same name in northern Israel's Menashe Heights from February to July of 2005 by Amir Gorzalczany and Gerald Finkielsztejn in preparation for the northward extension of Highway 6...	N/a	Amir Gorzalczany and Gerald Finkielsztejn excavated	N/a
2007	Khirbet Qeiyafa Khirbet Qeiyafa Khirbet Qeiyafa is the site of an ancient city overlooking the Elah Valley. The ruins of the fortress were uncovered in 2007, near the Israeli city of Beit Shemesh, 20 miles from Jerusalem. It covers nearly six acres and is encircled by a 700-meter long city wall constructed of stones weighing...	N/a	Yosef Garfinkel Yosef Garfinkel Yosef Garfinkel is a professor of Prehistoric Archaeology and of Archaeology of the Biblical Period at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.-Biography:... and Saar Ganor Saar Ganor Saar Ganor is an Israeli archaeologist. He is the director, along with Yosef Garfinkel, of excavations at Khirbet Qeiyafa, thought to be Biblical Sha'arayim. He is inspector for the Israel Antiquities Authority and a lecturer at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.Ganor noticed the unusual scale...	N/a

Table II: Artifacts

Item	Date of artifact	Provenance	Description
Foundations stones of Herodian Temple	N/a	Identified during topographic surveys carried out by Charles Warren in the 1860s under the sponsorship of the Palestine Exploration Fund.	N/a
LMLK seals	8th century BC?	Found under controlled conditions at sites throughout Iron Age Palestine.	Seal-impressions bearing the letters LMLK on jar handles, associated with the reign of the biblical king Hezekiah Hezekiah Hezekiah was the son of Ahaz and the 14th king of Judah. Edwin Thiele has concluded that his reign was between c. 715 and 686 BC. He is also one of the most prominent kings of Judah mentioned in the Hebrew Bible.... of Judah.
Water shafts under the City of David	9th century BC?	Discovered during Charles Warren's survey of Jerusalem in the 1860s.	N/a
Nag Hammadi library Nag Hammadi library The Nag Hammadi library is a collection of early Christian Gnostic texts discovered near the Upper Egyptian town of Nag Hammadi in 1945. That year, twelve leather-bound papyrus codices buried in a sealed jar were found by a local peasant named Mohammed Ali Samman...	N/a	Discovered by peasants near the town of Nag Hammadi Nag Hammâdi Nag Hammadi , is a city in Upper Egypt. Nag Hammadi was known as Chenoboskion in classical antiquity, meaning "geese grazing grounds". It is located on the west bank of the Nile in the Qena Governorate, about 80 kilometres north-west of Luxor.... in Egypt.	A collection of early Christian Early Christianity Early Christianity is generally considered as Christianity before 325. The New Testament's Book of Acts and Epistle to the Galatians records that the first Christian community was centered in Jerusalem and its leaders included James, Peter and John.... Gnostic Gnosticism Gnosticism is a scholarly term for a set of religious beliefs and spiritual practices common to early Christianity, Hellenistic Judaism, Greco-Roman mystery religions, Zoroastrianism , and Neoplatonism.A common characteristic of some of these groups was the teaching that the realisation of Gnosis... texts Gnostic texts Gnosticism used a number of religious texts that are preserved, in part or whole, in ancient manuscripts or are lost but mentioned critically in Patristic writings.-Full or fragmentary:These texts exist in surviving manuscripts.Acts of John*The Hymn of Jesus... also known as the "Gnostic Gospels Gnostic Gospels The Gnostic Gospels are a collection of about fifty-two texts supposedly based upon the ancient wisdom teachings of several prophets and spiritual leaders including Jesus, written from the 2nd to the 4th century AD. These gospels are not part of the standard Biblical canon of any major Christian... ".
Dead Sea Scrolls Dead Sea scrolls The Dead Sea Scrolls are a collection of 972 texts from the Hebrew Bible and extra-biblical documents found between 1947 and 1956 on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea, from which they derive their name...	c.350 BC - 68 AD	Discovered in caves near the Dead Sea between 1947–1956.	The Scrolls comprise some 800 documents in tens of thousands of fragments. Written in Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek, they contain biblical and apocryphal works, prayers and legal texts and sectarian documents.
Ketef Hinnom Ketef Hinnom Ketef Hinnom is an archaeological site southwest of the Old City of Jerusalem, adjacent to St. Andrew's Church of Scotland. The site consists of a series of rock-hewn burial chambers based on natural caverns... scrolls	Immediately prior to 586 BC	Found under controlled conditions by Gabriel Barkay Gabriel Barkay Gabriel Barkay is an Israeli archaeologist. Born in 1944 in Hungary, he immigrated to Israel in 1950. He received his PhD in Archaeology from Tel Aviv University in 1985. His dissertation was about LMLK seal impressions on jar handles. He participated in the Lachish excavations with David Ussishkin... during the excavation of an ancient burial chamber.	Two small silver scrolls containing texts similar to, although not identical with, the Priestly Blessing Priestly Blessing The Priestly Blessing, , also known in Hebrew as Nesiat Kapayim, , or Dukhanen , is a Jewish prayer recited by Kohanim during certain Jewish services... from the Book of Numbers Book of Numbers The Book of Numbers is the fourth book of the Hebrew Bible, and the fourth of five books of the Jewish Torah/Pentateuch.... and parallel verses of Exodus (20:6) and Deuteronomy Deuteronomy The Book of Deuteronomy is the fifth book of the Hebrew Bible, and of the Jewish Torah/Pentateuch... (5:10 and 7:9). These are the oldest biblical fragments yet found.
Gibeon pool (at el-Jib)	N/a	N/a	N/a
Hezekiah tunnel Hezekiah tunnel Hezekiah's Tunnel, or the Siloam Tunnel is a tunnel that was dug underneath the City of David in Jerusalem before 701 BC during the reign of Hezekiah, in Israel. The tunnel is mentioned in in the Bible... under Jerusalem	N/a	N/a	N/a
Walls of Jericho Jericho Jericho ; is a city located near the Jordan River in the West Bank of the Palestinian territories. It is the capital of the Jericho Governorate and has a population of more than 20,000. Situated well below sea level on an east-west route north of the Dead Sea, Jericho is the lowest permanently...	1550 BC (destruction of)	N/a	Excavated by John Garstang John Garstang John Garstang was a British archaeologist of the ancient Near East, especially Anatolia and the southern Levant.... in the 1930s and dated to around 1400 BC; re-excavated by Kathleen Kenyon Kathleen Kenyon Dame Kathleen Mary Kenyon , was a leading archaeologist of Neolithic culture in the Fertile Crescent. She is best known for her excavations in Jericho in 1952-1958.-Early life:... in the 1950s and redated to around 1550 BC. Bryant Wood's 1990 proposed reversion of Kenyon's dates to Garstang has not been supported by subsequent studies.
Siege ramp of Sennacherib Sennacherib Sennacherib \|Sîn]] has replaced brothers for me"; Aramaic: ) was the son of Sargon II, whom he succeeded on the throne of Assyria .-Rise to power:... at Lachish	N/a	N/a	N/a
Pool of Siloam Pool of Siloam Pool of Siloam is a rock-cut pool on the southern slope of the City of David, the original site of Jerusalem, located outside the walls of the Old City to the southeast. The pool was fed by the waters of the Gihon Spring, carried there by two aqueducts.-History:The Pool of Siloam is mentioned...	N/a	N/a	N/a
Western/Wailing wall	1st century BC	N/a	The wall was originally a retaining wall for the Herodian temple complex.
Shechem temple	Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age	N/a	Cf. the "House of (the god) Baalberith" in Judges Book of Judges The Book of Judges is the seventh book of the Hebrew bible and the Christian Old Testament. Its title describes its contents: it contains the history of Biblical judges, divinely inspired prophets whose direct knowledge of Yahweh allows them to act as decision-makers for the Israelites, as... 9.
19 tumuli Tumulus A tumulus is a mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves. Tumuli are also known as barrows, burial mounds, Hügelgrab or kurgans, and can be found throughout much of the world. A tumulus composed largely or entirely of stones is usually referred to as a cairn... located west of Jerusalem	Iron Age	N/a	The 19 tumuli dating to the Judean monarchy possibly represent sites of memorial ceremonies for the kings as mentioned in 2 Chronicles 16:14, 21:19, 32:33, and the book of Jeremiah Book of Jeremiah The Book of Jeremiah is the second of the Latter Prophets in the Hebrew Bible, following the book of Isaiah and preceding Ezekiel and the Book of the Twelve.... 34:5
Boundary markers for Gezer Gezer Gezer was a Canaanite city-state and biblical town in ancient Israel. Tel Gezer , an archaeological site midway between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv, is now an Israeli national park.... walls and city gate.	N/a	N/a	1st century BC Hebrew inscriptions found engraved on rocks several hundred meters from the tel Tell A tell or tel, is a type of archaeological mound created by human occupation and abandonment of a geographical site over many centuries. A classic tell looks like a low, truncated cone with a flat top and sloping sides.-Archaeology:A tell is a hill created by different civilizations living and... read "boundary of Gezer."
Nehemiah Nehemiah Nehemiah ]]," Standard Hebrew Nəḥemya, Tiberian Hebrew Nəḥemyāh) is the central figure of the Book of Nehemiah, which describes his work rebuilding Jerusalem and purifying the Jewish community. He was the son of Hachaliah, Nehemiah ]]," Standard Hebrew Nəḥemya, Tiberian Hebrew Nəḥemyāh) is the... 's wall.	N/a	N/a	N/a
Arad ostraca	N/a	N/a	A collection of ostraca (inscribed pottery fragments) from Arad.
Signet bullae (rings engraved with the owner's name, or impressions left by these rings)	9th-4th centuries BC	Found in both controlled and non-controlled conditions	The bullae feature many names known from biblical texts.
Balaam Balaam Balaam is a diviner in the Torah, his story occurring towards the end of the Book of Numbers. The etymology of his name is uncertain, and discussed below. Every ancient reference to Balaam considers him a non-Israelite, a prophet, and the son of Beor, though Beor is not so clearly identified... texts	N/a	Found during controlled excavations at Deir Alla Deir Alla Deir Alla , is the site of an ancient Near Eastern town thought to be Pitru/Pethor.-History:... , Jordan.	The texts (painted in ink on a plastered wall and painstakingly reconstructed) describe the visions of seer named Balaam (cf. Numbers Book of Numbers The Book of Numbers is the fourth book of the Hebrew Bible, and the fourth of five books of the Jewish Torah/Pentateuch.... 22–24)
Black Obelisk Black Obelisk The "Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III" is a black limestone Neo-Assyrian bas-relief sculpture from Nimrud , in northern Iraq, commemorating the deeds of King Shalmaneser III . It is the most complete Assyrian obelisk yet discovered, and is historically significant because it displays the earliest... of Shalmaneser III Shalmaneser III Shalmaneser III was king of Assyria , and son of the previous ruler, Ashurnasirpal II....	N/a	N/a	The obelisk depicts Jehu Jehu Jehu was a king of Israel. He was the son of Jehoshaphat, and grandson of Nimshi.William F. Albright has dated his reign to 842-815 BC, while E. R. Thiele offers the dates 841-814 BC... , son of Omri Omri Omri was a king of Israel, successful military campaigner and first in the line of Omride kings that included Ahab, Ahaziah and Joram.He was "commander of the army" of king Elah when Zimri murdered Elah and made himself king. Instead, the troops at Gibbethon chose Omri as king, and he led them to... , king of Israel, and also mentions Hazael Hazael Hazael was a court official and later an Aramean king who is mentioned in the Bible. Under his reign, Aram-Damascus became an empire that ruled over large parts of Syria and Palestine.... of Aram/Damascus/Syria (cf. 2 Kings Books of Kings The Book of Kings presents a narrative history of ancient Israel and Judah from the death of David to the release of his successor Jehoiachin from imprisonment in Babylon, a period of some 400 years... 8–10)
Caiaphas Caiaphas Joseph, son of Caiaphas, Hebrew יוסף בַּר קַיָּפָא or Yosef Bar Kayafa, commonly known simply as Caiaphas in the New Testament, was the Roman-appointed Jewish high priest who is said to have organized the plot to kill Jesus... (Qafa) family ossuaries	N/a	N/a	N/a
Ebla tablets Ebla tablets The Ebla tablets are a collection of as many as 1800 complete clay tablets, 4700 fragments and many thousand minor chips found in the palace archives of the ancient city of Ebla, Syria. The tablets were discovered by Italian archaeologist Paolo Matthiae and his team in 1974–75 during their...	4th millennium BC	N/a	The tablets are the royal archives of the ancient kingdom of Ebla Ebla Ebla Idlib Governorate, Syria) was an ancient city about southwest of Aleppo. It was an important city-state in two periods, first in the late third millennium BC, then again between 1800 and 1650 BC.... in what is now Syria Syria Syria , officially the Syrian Arab Republic , is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest.... .
Ekron Ekron The city of Ekron , was one of the five cities of the famed Philistine pentapolis, located in southwestern Canaan. Ekron lies 35 kilometers west of Jerusalem, and 18 kilometers north of ancient Gath, on the eastern edge of Israel's coastal plain.-History:... inscription	N/a	N/a	N/a
"Goliath" ostracon	N/a	Discovered under controlled conditions during excavations by A. Maeir at Tell es-Safi Tell es-Safi Gath, Gat, or Geth , often referred to as Gath of the Philistines, was one of the five Philistine city-states, established in northwestern Philistia. According to the Bible, the king of the city was Achish, in the times of Saul, David, and Solomon. It is not certain whether this refers to two or... (biblical Gath)	The ostracon (pottery fragment) is incised with nine letters representing two names (אלות and ולת) etymologically related to Goliath (גלית).
Herod Herod the Great Herod , also known as Herod the Great , was a Roman client king of Judea. His epithet of "the Great" is widely disputed as he is described as "a madman who murdered his own family and a great many rabbis." He is also known for his colossal building projects in Jerusalem and elsewhere, including his... 's tomb at Herodium Herodium Herodium or Herodion is a volcano-like hill with a truncated cone located south of Jerusalem, near the city of Bethlehem in the West Bank. Herod the Great built a fortress and palace on the top of Herodium, and may have been buried there...	N/a	N/a	N/a
Tel Dan Stele Tel Dan Stele The Tel Dan Stele is a stele discovered in 1993/94 during excavations at Tel Dan in northern Israel. Its author was a king of Damascus, Hazael or one of his sons, and it contains an Aramaic inscription commemorating victories over local ancient peoples including "Israel" and the "House of...	N/a	Discovered as a surface find during a controlled excavation at Dan, a city marking the northern boundary of the ancient kingdom of Israel.	The stele contains an inscription by an Aramean king describing his victory over two other kings, one of them the king of Israel, the other a king described as being of the "House of David", although this is disputed. This represents the earliest known instance of this phrase from an archaeological context.
Izbet Sartah ostracon	1200–1000 BC	Found in the silo of an unfortified village (possibly biblical Eben-Ezer Eben-Ezer Eben-Ezer , is the name of a location that is mentioned by the Books of Samuel as the scene of battles between the Israelites and Philistines. It is specified as having been less than a day's journey by foot from Shiloh, near Aphek, in the neighbourhood of Mizpah, near the western entrance of the... , 2 miles east of Philistine Aphek at Antipatris Antipatris Antipatris, one of two places known as Tel Afek , was a city built by Herod the Great, and named in honour of his father, Antipater II of Judea... ) occupied from 1200–1000 BC	5 incised lines of 80–83 letters (readings of epigraphers vary), the last line being an abecedary Abecedarium An abecedarium is an inscription consisting of the letters of an alphabet, almost always listed in order. Typically, abecedaria are practice exercises.... .
Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets Jehoiachin's rations tablets date from the 6th century BC and describe the rations set aside for a royal captive identified with Jehoiachin, king of Judah.Tablets from the royal archives of Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon were unearthed in the ruins of Babylon that contain food rations paid to...	6th century BC	Excavated from Babylon during 1899–1917 by Robert Koldewey Robert Koldewey Robert Johann Koldewey was a German architect, famous for his discovery of the ancient city of Babylon in modern day Iraq. He was born in Blankenburg am Harz in Germany, the duchy of Brunswick, and died in Berlin at the age of 70... , stored in a barrel-vaulted underground building consisting of rows of rooms near the Ishtar Gate	The tablets describe the rations set aside for a royal captive identified with Jehoiachin, king of Judah (Cf. 2 Kings 24:12,15–6; 25:27–30; 2 Chronicles 36:9–10; Jeremiah 22:24–6; 29:2; 52:31–4; Ezekiel 17:12). The texts are: Babylon 28122: "...t[o] Ia-'-u-kin, king..." Babylon 28178: "10 (sila of oil) to ...Ia-'-kin, king of Ia[...] 2½ sila to [...so]ns of the king of Ia-a-hu-du" Babylon 28186: "10 (sila) to Ia-ku-u-ki-nu, the son of the king of Ia-ku-du, 2½ sila for the 5 sons of the king of Ia-ku-du"
Lachish ostraca	Late 7th century BC	N/a	The ostraca (inscribed pottery fragments) describe conditions in Judah shortly before the first Babylonian invasion. Letter #3 mentions a warning from the prophet; letter #4 names Lachish Lachish Lachish was an ancient Near East town located at the site of modern Tell ed-Duweir in the Shephelah, a region between Mount Hebron and the maritime plain of Philistia . The town was first mentioned in the Amarna letters as Lakisha-Lakiša... and Azekah Azekah Azekah was a town in the Shephelah guarding the upper reaches of the Valley of Elah, about 26 km northwest of Hebron. It has been identified with biblical Azeka.-Biblical history:... as among the last places being conquered (cf. Jeremiah Book of Jeremiah The Book of Jeremiah is the second of the Latter Prophets in the Hebrew Bible, following the book of Isaiah and preceding Ezekiel and the Book of the Twelve.... 34:7); letter #6 describes a conspiracy reminiscent of Jeremiah Book of Jeremiah The Book of Jeremiah is the second of the Latter Prophets in the Hebrew Bible, following the book of Isaiah and preceding Ezekiel and the Book of the Twelve.... 38:19 and 39:9 using phraseology nearly identical to Jeremiah 38:4.
Nabonidus cylinder Cylinder of Nabonidus The Nabonidus Cylinder from Sippar is a long text in which king Nabonidus of Babylonia describes how he repaired three temples: the sanctuary of the moon god Sin in Harran, the sanctuary of the warrior goddess Anunitu in Sippar, and the temple of Šamaš in Sippar...	N/a	Found in the Temple of Shamash in Sippara	The cylinder names Belshazzar Belshazzar Belshazzar, or Balthazar , was a 6th century BC prince of Babylon, the son of Nabonidus and the last king of Babylon according to the Book of Daniel . Like his father, it is believed by many scholars that he was an Assyrian. In Daniel Belshazzar, or Balthazar , was a 6th century BC prince of... as the son of Nabonidus Nabonidus Nabonidus was the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, reigning from 556-539 BCE.-Historiography on Nabonidus:... , the last king of Babylon Babylon Babylon was an Akkadian city-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which are found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq, about 85 kilometers south of Baghdad...
Nebo-Sarsekim Tablet Nebo-Sarsekim Tablet Nebo-Sarsekim Tablet is a clay cuneiform inscription referring to an official at the court of Nebuchadrezzar II, king of Babylon. It may also refer to an official named in the Biblical Book of Jeremiah....	N/a	Sippar Sippar Sippar was an ancient Near Eastern city on the east bank of the Euphrates river, located at the site of modern Tell Abu Habbah in Iraq's Babil Governorate, some 60 km north of Babylon and 30 km southeast of Baghdad....	The tablet mentions a Babylonian official (Nebo-Sarsekim) who may be an identical with Sarsekim, an official mentioned in Jeremiah Book of Jeremiah The Book of Jeremiah is the second of the Latter Prophets in the Hebrew Bible, following the book of Isaiah and preceding Ezekiel and the Book of the Twelve.... 39:3.
Pim weight Pim weight Pim weight, a polished stone about 15 mm diameter, equal to about two-thirds of a Hebrew shekel. Many specimens have been found since their initial discovery early in the 20th century, and each one weighs about 7.6 grams compared to 11.5 grams of a shekel... s	First specimen found by R.A.S. Macalister Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister was an Irish archaeologist.Macalister was born in Dublin, Ireland and studied at Cambridge University. Although his earliest interest was in the archaeology of Ireland, he soon developed a strong interest in biblical archaeology. Along with Frederick J... at Gezer Gezer Gezer was a Canaanite city-state and biblical town in ancient Israel. Tel Gezer , an archaeological site midway between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv, is now an Israeli national park.... ; many others found since.	N/a	Inscribed with a previously unknown word that facilitated a better translation of 1Samuel Books of Samuel The Books of Samuel in the Jewish bible are part of the Former Prophets, , a theological history of the Israelites affirming and explaining the Torah under the guidance of the prophets.Samuel begins by telling how the prophet Samuel is chosen by... 13:21
Lachish Lachish Lachish was an ancient Near East town located at the site of modern Tell ed-Duweir in the Shephelah, a region between Mount Hebron and the maritime plain of Philistia . The town was first mentioned in the Amarna letters as Lakisha-Lakiša... reliefs	N/a	Found during excavations of Sennacherib Sennacherib Sennacherib \|Sîn]] has replaced brothers for me"; Aramaic: ) was the son of Sargon II, whom he succeeded on the throne of Assyria .-Rise to power:... 's palace at Nineveh Nineveh Nineveh was an ancient Assyrian city on the eastern bank of the Tigris River, and capital of the Neo Assyrian Empire. Its ruins are across the river from the modern-day major city of Mosul, in the Ninawa Governorate of Iraq....	The reliefs depict the Assyrian conquest of Lachish.
Pontius Pilate Pontius Pilate Pontius Pilatus , known in the English-speaking world as Pontius Pilate , was the fifth Prefect of the Roman province of Judaea, from AD 26–36. He is best known as the judge at Jesus' trial and the man who authorized the crucifixion of Jesus... inscription	1st century AD	Found in secondary use in a stairway of the Roman Ancient Rome Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world.... theater in Caesarea	The threeline inscription (eroded portion in brackets is speculative but undisputed) reads: TIBERIEUM [PON]TIUS PILATUS [PRAEF]ECTUS IUDA[EA]E "The prefect of Judaea, Pontius Pilate, erected the Tiberium (in honor of Tiberius Caesar)"
Sargon II Sargon II Sargon II was an Assyrian king. Sargon II became co-regent with Shalmaneser V in 722 BC, and became the sole ruler of the kingdom of Assyria in 722 BC after the death of Shalmaneser V. It is not clear whether he was the son of Tiglath-Pileser III or a usurper unrelated to the royal family... 's Conquest of Samaria Samaria Samaria, or the Shomron is a term used for a mountainous region roughly corresponding to the northern part of the West Bank.- Etymology :... inscription (ANET 284)	N/a	Found at Khorsabad (modern Iran) in 1843 by P.E. Botta Paul-Émile Botta Paul-Émile Botta was a French scientist who served as Consul in Mosul from 1842.-Life:...	The inscription reads: "I besieged and conquered Samaria, led away as booty 27,290 inhabitants of it. ... The town I rebuilt better than it was before and settled therein people from countries which I myself had conquered." (Cf. 2 Kings 17:23–24).
Tiglath-Pileser III Tiglath-Pileser III Tiglath-Pileser III was a prominent king of Assyria in the eighth century BC and is widely regarded as the founder of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Tiglath-Pileser III seized the Assyrian throne during a civil war and killed the royal family... 's inscriptions	N/a	Found at Nimrud Nimrud Nimrud is an ancient Assyrian city located south of Nineveh on the river Tigris in modern Ninawa Governorate Iraq. In ancient times the city was called Kalḫu. The Arabs called the city Nimrud after the Biblical Nimrod, a legendary hunting hero .The city covered an area of around . Ruins of the city... by A.H. Layard Austen Henry Layard Sir Austen Henry Layard GCB, PC was a British traveller, archaeologist, cuneiformist, art historian, draughtsman, collector, author, politician and diplomat, best known as the excavator of Nimrud.-Family:...	ANET 282: "I received the tribute of ... Jehoahaz of Judah Jehoahaz of Judah Jehoahaz or Joachaz in the Douay-Rheims and some other English translations was king of Judah and son of king Josiah whom he succeeded and Hamautal, daughter of Jeremiah of Libnah. He was born in 633/632 BC and his birth name was Shallum... " (incident not mentioned in the Bible); ANET 283: "As for Menahem Menahem Menahem, was a king of the northern Israelite Kingdom of Israel. He was the son of Gadi, and the founder of the dynasty known as the House of Gadi or House of Menahem.... I overwhelmed him ... I placed Hoshea Hoshea See also Hosea, who has the same name in Biblical Hebrew.Hoshea was the last king of the Israelite Kingdom of Israel and son of Elah . William F. Albright dated reign to 732 – 721 BC, while E. R. Thiele offered the dates 732 – 723 BC.Assyrian records basically confirm the Biblical... as king over them." (Cf. 2 Kings Books of Kings The Book of Kings presents a narrative history of ancient Israel and Judah from the death of David to the release of his successor Jehoiachin from imprisonment in Babylon, a period of some 400 years... 15:19 and 17:3)
Zayit Stone Zayit Stone The Zayit Stone is a 38-pound limestone boulder excavated from Tel Zayit in southwest Israel...	10th century BC or earlier.	Discovered during controlled excavations at Tel Zayit by Ron Tappy	Limestone boulder incised with an abecedary Abecedarium An abecedarium is an inscription consisting of the letters of an alphabet, almost always listed in order. Typically, abecedaria are practice exercises.... and remnants of other inscriptions in a South Canaanite development of the basic Phoenician script common to the Palestinian Levant. The wall in which the boulder was found was sealed by a destruction layer dated to the 10th century BC, but the inscription pre-dates the destruction layer and may belong to the early-mid 11th century BC.
Elephantine papyri Elephantine papyri The Elephantine Papyri are a collection of ancient Jewish manuscripts dating from the 5th century BC. They come from a Jewish community at Elephantine, then called Yeb, the island in the Nile at the border of Nubia, which was probably founded as a military installation in about 650 BC during...	N/a	Upper Egypt. The papyri are not from controlled excavations but their authenticity is undoubted.	The papyri are from a Jewish community living in Egypt during the Persian Empire. They record, among other matters, the relationship of this community with the Temple in Jerusalem.
Kurkh Monolith Kurkh Monolith The Kurkh Monolith is an Assyrian document that contains a description of the Battle of Qarqar at the end. Today it stands in the British Museum but it was originally found at the Kurdish village of Kurkh , near the town of Bismil in the province of Diyarbakır, Turkey...	N/a	Discovered by J.E. Taylor at Diyarbekir, Turkey, in 1861.	This monolith of Shalmaneser III Shalmaneser III Shalmaneser III was king of Assyria , and son of the previous ruler, Ashurnasirpal II.... mentions "2,000 chariots, 10,000 foot soldiers of Ahab Ahab Ahab or Ach'av or Achab in Douay-Rheims was king of Israel and the son and successor of Omri according to the Hebrew Bible. His wife was Jezebel.... the Israelite"
Merneptah Stele Merneptah Stele The Merneptah Stele — also known as the Israel Stele or Victory Stele of Merneptah — is an inscription by the Ancient Egyptian king Merneptah , which appears on the reverse side of a granite stele erected by the king Amenhotep III...	c.1200 BC (commonly dated to 1207 BC)	Egypt	The stele (monumental stone inscription) of the Egyptian Pharaoh Merneptah Merneptah Merneptah was the fourth ruler of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Ancient Egypt. He ruled Egypt for almost ten years between late July or early August 1213 and May 2, 1203 BC, according to contemporary historical records... contains the earliest reference to a people called Israel Israel The State of Israel is a parliamentary republic located in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea... .
Mesha stele Mesha Stele The Mesha Stele is a black basalt stone bearing an inscription by the 9th century BC ruler Mesha of Moab in Jordan....	N/a	Discovered at Dhiban, Jordan Jordan Jordan , officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan , Al-Mamlaka al-Urduniyya al-Hashemiyya) is a kingdom on the East Bank of the River Jordan. The country borders Saudi Arabia to the east and south-east, Iraq to the north-east, Syria to the north and the West Bank and Israel to the west, sharing... (ancient Moab Moab Moab is the historical name for a mountainous strip of land in Jordan. The land lies alongside much of the eastern shore of the Dead Sea. The existence of the Kingdom of Moab is attested to by numerous archeological findings, most notably the Mesha Stele, which describes the Moabite victory over... ), in 1868.	The stele, erected by the Moabite king Meshe, mentions the Israelite king Omri Omri Omri was a king of Israel, successful military campaigner and first in the line of Omride kings that included Ahab, Ahaziah and Joram.He was "commander of the army" of king Elah when Zimri murdered Elah and made himself king. Instead, the troops at Gibbethon chose Omri as king, and he led them to... and records vessels of YHWH received as tribute.
Siloam inscription Siloam inscription The Siloam inscription or Silwan inscription is a passage of inscribed text found in the Hezekiah tunnel which brings water from the Gihon Spring to the Pool of Siloam, located in the East Jerusalem neighborhood of Silwan. The inscription records the construction of the tunnel in the 8th century... in the Hezekiah tunnel Hezekiah tunnel Hezekiah's Tunnel, or the Siloam Tunnel is a tunnel that was dug underneath the City of David in Jerusalem before 701 BC during the reign of Hezekiah, in Israel. The tunnel is mentioned in in the Bible... , Jerusalem.	N/a	The tunnel was documented by Robinson in 1838,but the inscription (near the centre of tunnel, where the two work-gangs met) was not discovered until 1880. It was removed from Jerusalem the same year, and is presently in the Archaeological Museum at Istanbul.	The inscription records the completion of the tunnel, intended to bring water into the city.

Periods in Biblical archaeology

Table I: Excavations and surveys

Table II: Artifacts

See also

Further reading