Boodie
Encyclopedia
The Boodie also known as the Burrowing Bettong, is a small marsupial
. It is a fascinating example of the effects of introduced animals
on Australia
n fauna and ecosystem
s. Once the most common macropodiform
mammal
on the whole continent, the Boodie now only lives on off-lying island
s and in a newly introduced population
on the mainland at Shark Bay
. This animal, first collected during an 1817 French expedition of the west coast, was named after Charles Lesueur
, an artist and naturalist who accompanied a previous French expedition. B. lesueur is known by many common names, including the Tungoo, Lesueur’s Rat-kangaroo, and the Short-nosed Rat-kangaroo.
, which includes the rat-kangaroos, potoroo
s, and other bettong
s. Four species make up the genus Bettongia. Also, three subspecies
of the Boodie exist: Bettongia lesueur graii, the extinct
mainland subspecies; Bettongia lesueur nova, an undescribed species on Barrow and Brodie Island; and Bettongia lesueur lesueur.
, fossil
s of paleopotoroines and potoroines (potoroid ancestors) appear. During the Oligocene, ice buildup on Antarctica resulted in less rainfall on Australia. Rainforest
s declined, replaced by more arid
-tolerant leathery leaf woodlands and reed swamps. This climate shift may have favored a radiation
of terrestrial
marsupial
s, including potoroid ancestors. Fossils of the Potoroidae family appear from the mid-Miocene
to Recent sediments. Subfossil
records of the burrowing bettong have been found in West Victoria
, western New South Wales
, and South Australia
.
-like marsupial with short, rounded ears and a lightly haired, thick tail
. This animal has a pointed rostrum and beady black eyes, hind limbs longer than the forelimbs and large hind feet. This bettong is yellow-gray above and light gray below. Its short, dense fur feels soft and woolly. The animal bears a faint hip stripe and a distinctive white tail tip. This tail is weakly prehensile and used to carry nest material. About the size of a wild rabbit
, this little marsupial weighs an average of 1.5 kg. Head and body length is an average of 40 cm. Little to no sexual dimorphism
seems to exist. However, morphology varies among subspecies and between islands.
In general, a potoroid skull can be separated from a macropodid skull by the presence of well-developed upper canines
and large plagiaulacoid (bladelike) premolar
s. Also unlike macropodids, the squamosal
bone widely contacts the frontal
. B. lesueur skulls are short and broad with large palatal vacuities, inflated auditory bullae, and short, broad nasals
. The mandible
is relatively short and deep compared to other relatives. The dental formula
for all the modern potoroines is I 3/1 C 1/0 PM 1/1 M 4/4. Molars
are bunodont and quadrate, and the premolars have 9-11 fine, vertical ridges. Young bettongs have two molars which are replaced by one adult premolar; this event is a good indication of maturity. The post-cranial skeleton of all potoroids has 7 cervical
, 13 thoracic
, 6 lumbar
, 2 sacral
, and 22 caudal vertebrae
, with 13 pairs of rib
s.
mating
system. Males do not seem to have dominance hierarchies
; rather, they defend females against other males. Some females seem to establish associations with other females; whether these contribute to increased reproductive success is unknown. Gestation
lasts 21 days, with only one young per litter
. Like other marsupial newborns, the newborn is altricial
. About four months elapse until weaning. After young leave the pouch, they take 6-7 months to sexually mature. Females mate the day after giving birth, and the fertilized
egg arrests development until the young is weaned. This is an example of facultative embryonic diapause
. In captivity, females are able to bear three young per year.
and tropical
habitats
, from open eucalyptus
and acacia
woodlands to arid
spinifex grasslands
. In its current range on the islands, it seems to prefer open Triodia (spinifex) and dune
habitats, but will burrow anywhere except places with rocky substrate. The burrowing bettong eats a variety of food, such as seeds, fruits, flowers, tuber
s, roots, succulent leaves
, grasses, fungi
, termite
s, and marine refuse. It will also raid vegetable gardens. Current populations fluctuate, building up during the years with average or good rainfall and crashing during drought
years. These marsupials are known to live at least three years in the wild.
After colonization of Australia, predators
were mainly the introduced Red Fox
and cats
. Some natural predators on the islands include the Wedge-tailed Eagle
and sea eagles
; on Barrow Island, monitor lizard
s appear to be a significant predator. Before its extinction on the mainland, the Boodie served a very important function in the Australian grassland ecosystem. As it foraged, it mixed organic matter into the soil, spreading fungi and seeds. This mixing also increased water absorption into the soil and reduced the combustible
material under trees, decreasing the likelihood of fire. These actions helped maintain the balance of trees, shrubs, and grasses. The loss of small, ground foraging animals after European settlement
contributed to widespread soil deterioration. Also, B. lesueur may have helped to thin woody weeds on rangeland by browsing
shrubs growing after fires.
s, the only macropodiform to do so. Burrows vary from simple tunnels to complex networks with multiple entrances and deep, interconnecting tunnels. These elaborate burrows, or warrens, have been seen having from 4 to 94 entrances. Warrens are communal, housing an average of 20-40 bettongs. Bettongs appear to switch warrens from time to time, though each has one or two preferred warrens. During the day in the warrens, they form groups of one male and one or many females; males never share warrens with other males. Some of the female-female groups seem to be mother-daughter associations. However, individuals seem to forage
alone, showing none of the day-range group associations.
The Boodie is nocturnal
, sheltering during the day in burrows and foraging widely at night for food. Locomotion
is mainly with the hind legs. The forelimbs are used for support when the Boodie is stationary. This bettong exhibits a slow gait and fast gait. The fast gait (or bipedal hop) is characteristic of the macropodiforms and uses only the hind limbs, with the forelimbs held close to the body and tail acting as a counter-balance. The slow gait (or quadrupedal crawl) is used during foraging and other unstressed times. Nighttime movement is usually fairly limited, averaging less than 200 m. However, researchers have measured this marsupial traveling 2.2 km searching for food. One individual tracked on Barrow Island traveled 5 km. B. lesueur uses scent to locate food, which it digs up with the claws on its strong forelimbs. The Boodie will even climb into low shrubs to find food. Demonstrating little interspecific interactions, bettongs are apparently undisturbed by run-ins with other non-predators.
Bettong digestive systems are characterized by a very large sacciform forestomach, a tubiform forestomach with limited sacculation, and a small hind stomach. The hind gut has a well-developed, simple cecum. Like many macropodiforms, bettongs have foregut fermentation. Daily water intake is only about 3% of its body weight. B. lesueur seems to have renal adaptations to conserve water, which is important in its arid and semi-arid habitats.
grazing reduced vegetation cover, shrinking the rat-kangaroo's habitat. Also, introduced species such as foxes, cats, and rabbits took a severe toll on the Boodie, especially on islands. Rabbits competed with them for food and shelter, and the foxes and cats became their major predators. The theory that rabbits compete with boodies for food has been disputed in a study done in 2002 although further investigation is needed. Finally, the Aboriginals
maintained certain fire regimes
, and when these ceased, the habitat probably changed. By the 1960s, all the Boodies on the mainland were extinct.
Once present in all mainland states except Queensland, the Boodie survived on three remnant populations on small offshore islands. These islands include Bernier
and Dorre
Islands in Shark Bay and Barrow Island
off the northwest coast of Western Australia. The marsupial was listed on the 2006 IUCN Red List
as Vulnerable due to acute restriction of its area of occupancy to less than 100 km². In 2008 however, due to successful conservation efforts both by government agencies and the private sector, Boodies have been listed on the 2008 IUCN Red List
as Near Threatened
, as its range and population have increased, and are still increasing. Newly established populations included Herrison Prong on mainland Shark Bay by the DEC, as well as Faure Island
, Scotia Sanctuary
, and also Yookamurra Sanctuary
, which were etsablished by the Australian Wildlife Conservancy
.
Marsupial
Marsupials are an infraclass of mammals, characterized by giving birth to relatively undeveloped young. Close to 70% of the 334 extant species occur in Australia, New Guinea, and nearby islands, with the remaining 100 found in the Americas, primarily in South America, but with thirteen in Central...
. It is a fascinating example of the effects of introduced animals
Introduced species
An introduced species — or neozoon, alien, exotic, non-indigenous, or non-native species, or simply an introduction, is a species living outside its indigenous or native distributional range, and has arrived in an ecosystem or plant community by human activity, either deliberate or accidental...
on Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
n fauna and ecosystem
Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a biological environment consisting of all the organisms living in a particular area, as well as all the nonliving , physical components of the environment with which the organisms interact, such as air, soil, water and sunlight....
s. Once the most common macropodiform
Macropodiformes
Macropodiformes is one of the three suborders of the large marsupial order Diprotodontia. Kangaroos, wallabies and allies, bettongs, potaroos and rat kangaroos are all members of this suborder.- Classification :...
mammal
Mammal
Mammals are members of a class of air-breathing vertebrate animals characterised by the possession of endothermy, hair, three middle ear bones, and mammary glands functional in mothers with young...
on the whole continent, the Boodie now only lives on off-lying island
Island
An island or isle is any piece of sub-continental land that is surrounded by water. Very small islands such as emergent land features on atolls can be called islets, cays or keys. An island in a river or lake may be called an eyot , or holm...
s and in a newly introduced population
Population
A population is all the organisms that both belong to the same group or species and live in the same geographical area. The area that is used to define a sexual population is such that inter-breeding is possible between any pair within the area and more probable than cross-breeding with individuals...
on the mainland at Shark Bay
Shark Bay
Shark Bay is a World Heritage listed bay in Western Australia. The term may also refer to:* the locality of Shark Bay, now known as Denham* Shark Bay Marine Park* Shark Bay , a shark exhibit at Sea World, Gold Coast, Australia* Shire of Shark Bay...
. This animal, first collected during an 1817 French expedition of the west coast, was named after Charles Lesueur
Charles Alexandre Lesueur
Charles Alexandre Lesueur was a French naturalist, artist and explorer.Pictured here is the oil portrait by Charles Willson Peale of Charles-Alexandre Lesueur...
, an artist and naturalist who accompanied a previous French expedition. B. lesueur is known by many common names, including the Tungoo, Lesueur’s Rat-kangaroo, and the Short-nosed Rat-kangaroo.
Taxonomy
The Boodie belongs to the family PotoroidaePotoroidae
The marsupial family Potoroidae includes the bettongs, potoroos, and two of the rat-kangaroos. All are rabbit-sized, brown, jumping marsupials and resemble a large rodent or a very small wallaby.- Characteristics :...
, which includes the rat-kangaroos, potoroo
Potoroo
The Potoroo is a kangaroo/rat like animal about the size of a rabbit. All three extant species are threatened, especially The long-footed Potoroo and Gilbert's potoroo...
s, and other bettong
Bettong
The bettongs are species of the genus Bettongia, sometimes referred to as rat-kangaroos. Five species are recognised:* Eastern Bettong, Bettongia gaimardi* Boodie, Bettongia lesueur...
s. Four species make up the genus Bettongia. Also, three subspecies
Subspecies
Subspecies in biological classification, is either a taxonomic rank subordinate to species, ora taxonomic unit in that rank . A subspecies cannot be recognized in isolation: a species will either be recognized as having no subspecies at all or two or more, never just one...
of the Boodie exist: Bettongia lesueur graii, the extinct
Extinction
In biology and ecology, extinction is the end of an organism or of a group of organisms , normally a species. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species, although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point...
mainland subspecies; Bettongia lesueur nova, an undescribed species on Barrow and Brodie Island; and Bettongia lesueur lesueur.
Paleontology
In the late OligoceneOligocene
The Oligocene is a geologic epoch of the Paleogene Period and extends from about 34 million to 23 million years before the present . As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the period are well identified but the exact dates of the start and end of the period are slightly...
, fossil
Fossil
Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals , plants, and other organisms from the remote past...
s of paleopotoroines and potoroines (potoroid ancestors) appear. During the Oligocene, ice buildup on Antarctica resulted in less rainfall on Australia. Rainforest
Rainforest
Rainforests are forests characterized by high rainfall, with definitions based on a minimum normal annual rainfall of 1750-2000 mm...
s declined, replaced by more arid
Arid
A region is said to be arid when it is characterized by a severe lack of available water, to the extent of hindering or even preventing the growth and development of plant and animal life...
-tolerant leathery leaf woodlands and reed swamps. This climate shift may have favored a radiation
Adaptive radiation
In evolutionary biology, adaptive radiation is the evolution of ecological and phenotypic diversity within a rapidly multiplying lineage. Starting with a recent single ancestor, this process results in the speciation and phenotypic adaptation of an array of species exhibiting different...
of terrestrial
Terrestrial animal
Terrestrial animals are animals that live predominantly or entirely on land , as compared with aquatic animals, which live predominantly or entirely in the water , or amphibians, which rely on a combination of aquatic and terrestrial habitats...
marsupial
Marsupial
Marsupials are an infraclass of mammals, characterized by giving birth to relatively undeveloped young. Close to 70% of the 334 extant species occur in Australia, New Guinea, and nearby islands, with the remaining 100 found in the Americas, primarily in South America, but with thirteen in Central...
s, including potoroid ancestors. Fossils of the Potoroidae family appear from the mid-Miocene
Miocene
The Miocene is a geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about . The Miocene was named by Sir Charles Lyell. Its name comes from the Greek words and and means "less recent" because it has 18% fewer modern sea invertebrates than the Pliocene. The Miocene follows the Oligocene...
to Recent sediments. Subfossil
Subfossil
Subfossil refers to remains whose fossilization process is not complete, either for lack of time or because the conditions in which they were buried were not optimal for fossilization....
records of the burrowing bettong have been found in West Victoria
Victoria (Australia)
Victoria is the second most populous state in Australia. Geographically the smallest mainland state, Victoria is bordered by New South Wales, South Australia, and Tasmania on Boundary Islet to the north, west and south respectively....
, western New South Wales
New South Wales
New South Wales is a state of :Australia, located in the east of the country. It is bordered by Queensland, Victoria and South Australia to the north, south and west respectively. To the east, the state is bordered by the Tasman Sea, which forms part of the Pacific Ocean. New South Wales...
, and South Australia
South Australia
South Australia is a state of Australia in the southern central part of the country. It covers some of the most arid parts of the continent; with a total land area of , it is the fourth largest of Australia's six states and two territories.South Australia shares borders with all of the mainland...
.
Morphology
The Boodie is a small, ratRat
Rats are various medium-sized, long-tailed rodents of the superfamily Muroidea. "True rats" are members of the genus Rattus, the most important of which to humans are the black rat, Rattus rattus, and the brown rat, Rattus norvegicus...
-like marsupial with short, rounded ears and a lightly haired, thick tail
Tail
The tail is the section at the rear end of an animal's body; in general, the term refers to a distinct, flexible appendage to the torso. It is the part of the body that corresponds roughly to the sacrum and coccyx in mammals, reptiles, and birds...
. This animal has a pointed rostrum and beady black eyes, hind limbs longer than the forelimbs and large hind feet. This bettong is yellow-gray above and light gray below. Its short, dense fur feels soft and woolly. The animal bears a faint hip stripe and a distinctive white tail tip. This tail is weakly prehensile and used to carry nest material. About the size of a wild rabbit
Rabbit
Rabbits are small mammals in the family Leporidae of the order Lagomorpha, found in several parts of the world...
, this little marsupial weighs an average of 1.5 kg. Head and body length is an average of 40 cm. Little to no sexual dimorphism
Sexual dimorphism
Sexual dimorphism is a phenotypic difference between males and females of the same species. Examples of such differences include differences in morphology, ornamentation, and behavior.-Examples:-Ornamentation / coloration:...
seems to exist. However, morphology varies among subspecies and between islands.
In general, a potoroid skull can be separated from a macropodid skull by the presence of well-developed upper canines
Canine tooth
In mammalian oral anatomy, the canine teeth, also called cuspids, dogteeth, fangs, or eye teeth, are relatively long, pointed teeth...
and large plagiaulacoid (bladelike) premolar
Premolar
The premolar teeth or bicuspids are transitional teeth located between the canine and molar teeth. In humans, there are two premolars per quadrant, making eight premolars total in the mouth. They have at least two cusps. Premolars can be considered as a 'transitional tooth' during chewing, or...
s. Also unlike macropodids, the squamosal
Squamosal
The squamosal is a bone of the head of higher vertebrates. It is the principal component of the cheek region in the skull, lying below the temporal series and otic notch and bounded anteriorly by postorbital. Posteriorly, the squamosal articulates with the posterior elements of the palatal complex,...
bone widely contacts the frontal
Frontal bone
The frontal bone is a bone in the human skull that resembles a cockleshell in form, and consists of two portions:* a vertical portion, the squama frontalis, corresponding with the region of the forehead....
. B. lesueur skulls are short and broad with large palatal vacuities, inflated auditory bullae, and short, broad nasals
Nasal bone
The nasal bones are two small oblong bones, varying in size and form in different individuals; they are placed side by side at the middle and upper part of the face, and form, by their junction, "the bridge" of the nose.Each has two surfaces and four borders....
. The mandible
Mandible
The mandible pronunciation or inferior maxillary bone forms the lower jaw and holds the lower teeth in place...
is relatively short and deep compared to other relatives. The dental formula
Dentition
Dentition pertains to the development of teeth and their arrangement in the mouth. In particular, the characteristic arrangement, kind, and number of teeth in a given species at a given age...
for all the modern potoroines is I 3/1 C 1/0 PM 1/1 M 4/4. Molars
Molar (tooth)
Molars are the rearmost and most complicated kind of tooth in most mammals. In many mammals they grind food; hence the Latin name mola, "millstone"....
are bunodont and quadrate, and the premolars have 9-11 fine, vertical ridges. Young bettongs have two molars which are replaced by one adult premolar; this event is a good indication of maturity. The post-cranial skeleton of all potoroids has 7 cervical
Cervical vertebrae
In vertebrates, cervical vertebrae are those vertebrae immediately inferior to the skull.Thoracic vertebrae in all mammalian species are defined as those vertebrae that also carry a pair of ribs, and lie caudal to the cervical vertebrae. Further caudally follow the lumbar vertebrae, which also...
, 13 thoracic
Thoracic vertebrae
In human anatomy, twelve thoracic vertebrae compose the middle segment of the vertebral column, between the cervical vertebrae and the lumbar vertebrae. They are intermediate in size between those of the cervical and lumbar regions; they increase in size as one proceeds down the spine, the upper...
, 6 lumbar
Lumbar vertebrae
The lumbar vertebrae are the largest segments of the movable part of the vertebral column, and are characterized by the absence of the foramen transversarium within the transverse process, and by the absence of facets on the sides of the body...
, 2 sacral
Sacrum
In vertebrate anatomy the sacrum is a large, triangular bone at the base of the spine and at the upper and back part of the pelvic cavity, where it is inserted like a wedge between the two hip bones. Its upper part connects with the last lumbar vertebra, and bottom part with the coccyx...
, and 22 caudal vertebrae
Coccyx
The coccyx , commonly referred to as the tailbone, is the final segment of the vertebral column. Comprising three to five separate or fused vertebrae below the sacrum, it is attached to the sacrum by a fibrocartilaginous joint, the sacrococcygeal symphysis, which permits limited movement between...
, with 13 pairs of rib
Rib
In vertebrate anatomy, ribs are the long curved bones which form the rib cage. In most vertebrates, ribs surround the chest, enabling the lungs to expand and thus facilitate breathing by expanding the chest cavity. They serve to protect the lungs, heart, and other internal organs of the thorax...
s.
Reproduction
If conditions are good, the Boodie seems to mate throughout the year, probably utilizing a polygynousPolygyny
Polygyny is a form of marriage in which a man has two or more wives at the same time. In countries where the practice is illegal, the man is referred to as a bigamist or a polygamist...
mating
Mating
In biology, mating is the pairing of opposite-sex or hermaphroditic organisms for copulation. In social animals, it also includes the raising of their offspring. Copulation is the union of the sex organs of two sexually reproducing animals for insemination and subsequent internal fertilization...
system. Males do not seem to have dominance hierarchies
Dominance hierarchy
A dominance hierarchy is the organization of individuals in a group that occurs when competition for resources leads to aggression...
; rather, they defend females against other males. Some females seem to establish associations with other females; whether these contribute to increased reproductive success is unknown. Gestation
Gestation
Gestation is the carrying of an embryo or fetus inside a female viviparous animal. Mammals during pregnancy can have one or more gestations at the same time ....
lasts 21 days, with only one young per litter
Litter (animal)
A litter is the offspring at one birth of animals from the same mother and usually from one set of parents. The word is most often used for the offspring of mammals, but can be used for any animal that gives birth to multiple young. In comparison, a group of eggs and the offspring that hatch from...
. Like other marsupial newborns, the newborn is altricial
Altricial
Altricial, meaning "requiring nourishment", refers to a pattern of growth and development in organisms which are incapable of moving around on their own soon after hatching or being born...
. About four months elapse until weaning. After young leave the pouch, they take 6-7 months to sexually mature. Females mate the day after giving birth, and the fertilized
Fertilisation
Fertilisation is the fusion of gametes to produce a new organism. In animals, the process involves the fusion of an ovum with a sperm, which eventually leads to the development of an embryo...
egg arrests development until the young is weaned. This is an example of facultative embryonic diapause
Embryonic diapause
Delayed Implantation or Embryonic Diapause is a reproductive strategy used by approximately 100 different mammals in seven or eight different orders. In embryonic diapause, the embryo does not immediately implant in the uterus, but is maintained in a state of dormancy. Little to no development...
. In captivity, females are able to bear three young per year.
Ecology
The Boodie once lived in a range of dry subtropicalSubtropics
The subtropics are the geographical and climatical zone of the Earth immediately north and south of the tropical zone, which is bounded by the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, at latitudes 23.5°N and 23.5°S...
and tropical
Tropics
The tropics is a region of the Earth surrounding the Equator. It is limited in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the northern hemisphere at approximately N and the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern hemisphere at S; these latitudes correspond to the axial tilt of the Earth...
habitats
Habitat (ecology)
A habitat is an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular species of animal, plant or other type of organism...
, from open eucalyptus
Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus is a diverse genus of flowering trees in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae. Members of the genus dominate the tree flora of Australia...
and acacia
Acacia
Acacia is a genus of shrubs and trees belonging to the subfamily Mimosoideae of the family Fabaceae, first described in Africa by the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in 1773. Many non-Australian species tend to be thorny, whereas the majority of Australian acacias are not...
woodlands to arid
Arid
A region is said to be arid when it is characterized by a severe lack of available water, to the extent of hindering or even preventing the growth and development of plant and animal life...
spinifex grasslands
Triodia (plant genus)
Triodia is a large genus of hummock-forming grass endemic to Australia; they are commonly known as spinifex, although they are not a part of the coastal genus Spinifex. There are currently 64 recognised species...
. In its current range on the islands, it seems to prefer open Triodia (spinifex) and dune
Dune
In physical geography, a dune is a hill of sand built by wind. Dunes occur in different forms and sizes, formed by interaction with the wind. Most kinds of dunes are longer on the windward side where the sand is pushed up the dune and have a shorter "slip face" in the lee of the wind...
habitats, but will burrow anywhere except places with rocky substrate. The burrowing bettong eats a variety of food, such as seeds, fruits, flowers, tuber
Tuber
Tubers are various types of modified plant structures that are enlarged to store nutrients. They are used by plants to survive the winter or dry months and provide energy and nutrients for regrowth during the next growing season and they are a means of asexual reproduction...
s, roots, succulent leaves
Succulent plant
Succulent plants, also known as succulents or fat plants, are water-retaining plants adapted to arid climates or soil conditions. Succulent plants store water in their leaves, stems, and also in roots...
, grasses, fungi
Fungus
A fungus is a member of a large group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds , as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from plants, animals, and bacteria...
, termite
Termite
Termites are a group of eusocial insects that, until recently, were classified at the taxonomic rank of order Isoptera , but are now accepted as the epifamily Termitoidae, of the cockroach order Blattodea...
s, and marine refuse. It will also raid vegetable gardens. Current populations fluctuate, building up during the years with average or good rainfall and crashing during drought
Drought
A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply. Generally, this occurs when a region receives consistently below average precipitation. It can have a substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region...
years. These marsupials are known to live at least three years in the wild.
After colonization of Australia, predators
Predation
In ecology, predation describes a biological interaction where a predator feeds on its prey . Predators may or may not kill their prey prior to feeding on them, but the act of predation always results in the death of its prey and the eventual absorption of the prey's tissue through consumption...
were mainly the introduced Red Fox
Red Fox
The red fox is the largest of the true foxes, as well as being the most geographically spread member of the Carnivora, being distributed across the entire northern hemisphere from the Arctic Circle to North Africa, Central America, and the steppes of Asia...
and cats
Feral cat
A feral cat is a descendant of a domesticated cat that has returned to the wild. It is distinguished from a stray cat, which is a pet cat that has been lost or abandoned, while feral cats are born in the wild; the offspring of a stray cat can be considered feral if born in the wild.In many parts of...
. Some natural predators on the islands include the Wedge-tailed Eagle
Wedge-tailed Eagle
The Wedge-tailed Eagle , sometimes known as the Eaglehawk in its native range, is the largest bird of prey in Australia, but it is also found in southern New Guinea. It has long, fairly broad wings, fully feathered legs, and an unmistakable wedge-shaped tail...
and sea eagles
Sea eagle (bird)
A sea eagle is any of the birds of prey in the genus Haliaeetus in the bird of prey family Accipitridae....
; on Barrow Island, monitor lizard
Monitor lizard
Monitor lizards are usually large reptiles, although some can be as small as in length. They have long necks, powerful tails and claws, and well-developed limbs. Most species are terrestrial, but arboreal and semiaquatic monitors are also known...
s appear to be a significant predator. Before its extinction on the mainland, the Boodie served a very important function in the Australian grassland ecosystem. As it foraged, it mixed organic matter into the soil, spreading fungi and seeds. This mixing also increased water absorption into the soil and reduced the combustible
Combustion
Combustion or burning is the sequence of exothermic chemical reactions between a fuel and an oxidant accompanied by the production of heat and conversion of chemical species. The release of heat can result in the production of light in the form of either glowing or a flame...
material under trees, decreasing the likelihood of fire. These actions helped maintain the balance of trees, shrubs, and grasses. The loss of small, ground foraging animals after European settlement
History of Australia (1788-1850)
The history of Australia from 1788–1850 covers the early colonies period of Australia's history, from the arrival of the First Fleet of British ships at Sydney to establish the penal colony of New South Wales in 1788 to the European exploration of the continent and establishment of other colonies...
contributed to widespread soil deterioration. Also, B. lesueur may have helped to thin woody weeds on rangeland by browsing
Herbivore
Herbivores are organisms that are anatomically and physiologically adapted to eat plant-based foods. Herbivory is a form of consumption in which an organism principally eats autotrophs such as plants, algae and photosynthesizing bacteria. More generally, organisms that feed on autotrophs in...
shrubs growing after fires.
Behavior and physiological attributes
B. lesueur is very vocal, communicating through grunts, hisses, and squeals. It shelters in underground burrowBurrow
A burrow is a hole or tunnel dug into the ground by an animal to create a space suitable for habitation, temporary refuge, or as a byproduct of locomotion. Burrows provide a form of shelter against predation and exposure to the elements, so the burrowing way of life is quite popular among the...
s, the only macropodiform to do so. Burrows vary from simple tunnels to complex networks with multiple entrances and deep, interconnecting tunnels. These elaborate burrows, or warrens, have been seen having from 4 to 94 entrances. Warrens are communal, housing an average of 20-40 bettongs. Bettongs appear to switch warrens from time to time, though each has one or two preferred warrens. During the day in the warrens, they form groups of one male and one or many females; males never share warrens with other males. Some of the female-female groups seem to be mother-daughter associations. However, individuals seem to forage
Foraging
- Definitions and significance of foraging behavior :Foraging is the act of searching for and exploiting food resources. It affects an animal's fitness because it plays an important role in an animal's ability to survive and reproduce...
alone, showing none of the day-range group associations.
The Boodie is nocturnal
Nocturnal animal
Nocturnality is an animal behavior characterized by activity during the night and sleeping during the day. The common adjective is "nocturnal"....
, sheltering during the day in burrows and foraging widely at night for food. Locomotion
Terrestrial locomotion in animals
Terrestrial locomotion has evolved as animals adapted from aquatic to terrestrial environments. Locomotion on land raises different problems than that on water, with reduced friction being replaced by the effects of gravity....
is mainly with the hind legs. The forelimbs are used for support when the Boodie is stationary. This bettong exhibits a slow gait and fast gait. The fast gait (or bipedal hop) is characteristic of the macropodiforms and uses only the hind limbs, with the forelimbs held close to the body and tail acting as a counter-balance. The slow gait (or quadrupedal crawl) is used during foraging and other unstressed times. Nighttime movement is usually fairly limited, averaging less than 200 m. However, researchers have measured this marsupial traveling 2.2 km searching for food. One individual tracked on Barrow Island traveled 5 km. B. lesueur uses scent to locate food, which it digs up with the claws on its strong forelimbs. The Boodie will even climb into low shrubs to find food. Demonstrating little interspecific interactions, bettongs are apparently undisturbed by run-ins with other non-predators.
Bettong digestive systems are characterized by a very large sacciform forestomach, a tubiform forestomach with limited sacculation, and a small hind stomach. The hind gut has a well-developed, simple cecum. Like many macropodiforms, bettongs have foregut fermentation. Daily water intake is only about 3% of its body weight. B. lesueur seems to have renal adaptations to conserve water, which is important in its arid and semi-arid habitats.
Conservation
Researchers have proposed many possible causes for the Boodie's decline on mainland Australia, which began once Australia was colonized. Nineteenth century colonists killed Boodies, considering them a destructive garden pest. As ranches spread over the grasslands, livestockLivestock
Livestock refers to one or more domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce commodities such as food, fiber and labor. The term "livestock" as used in this article does not include poultry or farmed fish; however the inclusion of these, especially poultry, within the meaning...
grazing reduced vegetation cover, shrinking the rat-kangaroo's habitat. Also, introduced species such as foxes, cats, and rabbits took a severe toll on the Boodie, especially on islands. Rabbits competed with them for food and shelter, and the foxes and cats became their major predators. The theory that rabbits compete with boodies for food has been disputed in a study done in 2002 although further investigation is needed. Finally, the Aboriginals
Indigenous Australians
Indigenous Australians are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby islands. The Aboriginal Indigenous Australians migrated from the Indian continent around 75,000 to 100,000 years ago....
maintained certain fire regimes
Fire ecology
Fire ecology is concerned with the processes linking the natural incidence of fire in an ecosystem and the ecological effects of this fire. Many ecosystems, such as the North American prairie and chaparral ecosystems, and the South African savanna, have evolved with fire as a natural and necessary...
, and when these ceased, the habitat probably changed. By the 1960s, all the Boodies on the mainland were extinct.
Once present in all mainland states except Queensland, the Boodie survived on three remnant populations on small offshore islands. These islands include Bernier
Bernier Island
Bernier Island is one of three islands that comprise the Bernier and Dorre Island Nature Reserve in the Shark Bay World Heritage area in Western Australia.It was a hospital location in the early 1900s....
and Dorre
Dorre Island
Dorre Island is one of three islands that make up the Bernier and Dorre Island Nature Reserve in the Shark Bay World Heritage area in Western Australia...
Islands in Shark Bay and Barrow Island
Barrow Island (Western Australia)
Barrow Island is a island located northwest off the coast of Western Australia. The island is the second largest in Western Australia after Dirk Hartog Island.-Discovery and early history:...
off the northwest coast of Western Australia. The marsupial was listed on the 2006 IUCN Red List
IUCN Red List
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species , founded in 1963, is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of biological species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature is the world's main authority on the conservation status of species...
as Vulnerable due to acute restriction of its area of occupancy to less than 100 km². In 2008 however, due to successful conservation efforts both by government agencies and the private sector, Boodies have been listed on the 2008 IUCN Red List
IUCN Red List
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species , founded in 1963, is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of biological species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature is the world's main authority on the conservation status of species...
as Near Threatened
Near Threatened
Near Threatened is a conservation status assigned to species or lower taxa that may be considered threatened with extinction in the near future, although it does not currently qualify for the threatened status...
, as its range and population have increased, and are still increasing. Newly established populations included Herrison Prong on mainland Shark Bay by the DEC, as well as Faure Island
Faure Island
Faure Island is a 58 km2 island pastoral lease and nature reserve, east of the Francois Peron National Park on the Peron Peninsula, in Shark Bay, Western Australia. It lies in line with the Monkey Mia resort to the west, and the Wooramel River on the eastern shore of Shark Bay...
, Scotia Sanctuary
Scotia Sanctuary
Scotia Sanctuary is a nature reserve in the south-western plains of New South Wales, Australia, adjacent to the border with South Australia. It is located in the Murray Mallee subregion of the Murray-Darling Depression Bioregion, south of the city of Broken Hill...
, and also Yookamurra Sanctuary
Yookamurra Sanctuary
Yookamurra Sanctuary is a 50 km2 nature reserve in the Murraylands region of South Australia, between the eastern slopes of the Mount Lofty Ranges and the Murray River, 24 km north-east of the town of Sedan...
, which were etsablished by the Australian Wildlife Conservancy
Australian Wildlife Conservancy
The Australian Wildlife Conservancy is an Australian independent, non-profit organisation, working to conserve threatened wildlife and ecosystems in Australia, principally through the acquisition of extensive areas of land on which to establish conservation reserves . These sanctuaries are...
.