Bridgwater Bay
Encyclopedia
Bridgwater Bay is on the Bristol Channel
, 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) north of Bridgwater
in Somerset
, England
at the mouth of the River Parrett
and the end of the River Parrett Trail
. It consists of large areas of mud flats, saltmarsh, sandflats and shingle ridges, some of which are vegetated. It has been designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest
since 1989, and is designated as a wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention
. The risks to wildlife are highlighted in the local Oil Spill Contingency Plan.
In addition to the rivers, Parrett, Brue
and Washford several of the man-made drainage ditches, including the River Huntspill
, from the Somerset Levels
, including the "Pawlett
Hams", also drain into the bay.
The Bay occupies the sweeping arc of coastline between the wave-cut platform of Jurassic
Blue Lias
at the northern tip of the Quantock Hills
and the cliffs of Carboniferous
Dolomite
s and Limestone
at Brean Down
which project into the Severn Estuary
and provide some degree of protection from the erosive tidal currents. Strong prevailing westerly winds have thrown up sand dunes at Berrow
and a shingle ridge and Steart. On the beach near Stogursey
are the remains of a submerged forest dated to 2500 B.C. - 6500 BC.
Brean Down
is a promontory marking the eastern end of the bay. Made of carboniferous limestone
, it is a continuation of the Mendip Hills
, and two further continuations are the small island
s of Steep Holm
and Flat Holm
. It is owned by the National Trust
, and is rich in wildlife
, history
and archaeology
, as well as being a Site of Special Scientific Interest
in its own right. There are steep cliff
s and, at its seaward point, a Brean Down Fort
built in 1865 and then re-armed in the Second World War
. There is evidence of an Iron age
hill fort
and prehistoric barrows and field systems, and a pagan shrine
at dating from pre-Roman times which was re-established as a Romano-Celtic
style temple
in the mid-4th century and probably succeeded by a small late-4th century Christian oratory. In 1897, following wireless transmissions from Lavernock Point in Wales
and Flat Holm
, Guglielmo Marconi
moved his equipment to Brean Down and set a new distance record for wireless transmission.
At low tide
large parts of the bay become mud flats, 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) wide, due to the tidal range
of 15 metres (49.2 ft), second only to Bay of Fundy
in Eastern Canada
. The intertidal mud flats are, as a result, potentially dangerous and it is not uncommon for the emergency services to mount rescue operations. Following the death of Lelaina Hall off Berrow in 2002, a local fund raising campaign succeeded in purchasing a Swedish
-built BBV6 rescue hovercraft
. The hovercraft is operated by BARB in Burnham-on-Sea
. Much of the coastline within the western part of the reserve is accessible via a waymarked public footpath, and the South West Coast Path
begins at Minehead
at the western end of the bay.
Hinkley Point
is a headland extending into Bridgwater Bay 5 miles (8 km) west of Burnham-on-Sea
, close to the mouth of the River Parrett. The landscape of Hinkley Point is dominated by two nuclear power stations
: Hinkley Point A
- Magnox
(now closed) and Hinkley Point B
- AGR
. A third, twin-unit European Pressurized Reactor
(EPR) reactor is planned, and will become Hinkley Point C
.
Man made sea defenses include a sea wall at Burnham-on-Sea
and a 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) section south from Brean Down. There is also an isolated fossil aeolian sand dune belt fronted by a salt marsh deliberately planted in 1928. There are some concerns that the proposed Severn Barrage
could leave some sites high and dry, and others permanently under water. The Steart Peninsula
has flooded many times during the last millennium. The most severe recent floods occurred in 1981. By 1997, a combination of coastal erosion, sea level rise and wave action had made some of the defences distinctly fragile and at risk from failure. As a result in 2002 The Environment Agency produced the Stolford to Combwich Coastal Defence Strategy Study to examine options for the future.
The foreshore at Watchet
, which lies at the mouth of the Washford River, and on the edge of Exmoor National Park
, is rocky, but has a small harbour. The cliffs between Watchet and Blue Anchor
show a distinct pale, greenish blue colour, resulting from the coloured alabaster
found there. The name "Watchet" or "Watchet Blue" was used in the 16th century to denote this colour.
East Quantoxhead
used to have a small harbour which brought in limestone for local limekilns
and exported alabaster
. It is thought that it was also used for smuggling.
At Kilve
are the remains of a red brick retort, built in 1924, when it was discovered that the shale
found in the cliffs was rich in oil. The beach is part of the Blue Anchor to Lilstock Coast SSSI
(Site of Special Scientific Interest
). Along this coast the cliffs are layered with compressed strata of oil-bearing shale and blue, yellow and brown lias embedded with fossils. In 1924 Dr Forbes-Leslie founded the Shaline Company to exploit them. This retort house is thought to be the first structure erected here for the conversion of shale to oil but the company was unable to raise sufficient capital and this is now all that remains of the anticipated Somerset oil boom.
The intertidal mud flats of the bay have a long history of use for fishing, with structures on Stert Flats being dated by dendrochronological analysis to between 932 and 966. It is the last site in England used for 'mudhorse fishing' in which a wooden sledge is propelled across the mudflats to collect fish from nets. Catches include: grey mullet, plaice
, dogfish
, cuttlefish
, skate
, shrimp
, prawns, sea bass
, and sole
.
Watchet Boat Museum
displays the unusual local flatner boats which were used in the bay and associated artefacts.
s (the Steart and the Berrow
Flats) are exposed, providing important feeding and over-wintering grounds for wader
s (shorebirds). The ditches and ponds contain a diverse invertebrate
fauna including six nationally rare species and eighteen nationally scarce species. Consequently Bridgwater Bay is a National Nature Reserve
, and is managed by Natural England
.
The Site of Special Scientific Interest is designated as a wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention
. It is also a Nature Conservation Review Grade 1* site. The site is contiguous with the Brean Down
, Berrow Dunes and Blue Anchor to Lilstock Coast SSSIs.
consolidated the fronting mudflats, following plantings in the early 1900s. The spartina is generally shorter in the bay than at other sites due to the high tides and the turbidity of the water, reaching around 30 centimetres (11.8 in) as opposed to 150 centimetres (59.1 in) elsewhere. On higher ground Common Saltmarsh-grass
(Puccinellia maritima) increases in abundance with Sea Aster (Aster tripolium). Where the land is ungrazed, Common Reed (Phragmites australis) ofetn forms a zone above this. Where the upper marsh is grazed Red Fescue (Festuca rubra) and Creeping Bent
(Argostis stolonifera) are found. Sea Couch (Elymus pycnanthus) and Sea Club-rush
(Scirpus maritimus) occur at the landward edge of the marsh.
High level sheep-grazed marshes carry populations of the nationally scarce Bulbous Foxtail
(Alopecurus bulbosus), Slender Hare's-ear (Bupleurum tenuissimum) and Sea Barley
(Hordeum marinum) while Stert Island is known to support the nationally rare Compact Brome
(Bromus madritensis) and nationally scarce Ray's Knotgrass
(Polygonum oxyspermum).
A wide variety of aquatic and bankside plant species occur in the ditches including the nationally restricted Rootless Duckweed (Wolffia arrhiza), together with uncommon species such as Frogbit
(Hydrocharis morsus-ranae) and Water Fern (Azolla filiculoides). The slightly brackish nature of the water is indicated by the presence of plants such as the nationally restricted Brackish Water-crowfoot (Ranunculus baudotii) and Sea Clubrush (Scirpus maritimus).
Brean Down is a site for the nationally rare White Rock-rose (Helianthemum appenninum), which occurs in abundance on the upper reaches of the grassy south-facing slopes. Some of the broomrape
s growing here which were originally thought to be Oxtongue Broomrape (Orobanche artemisiae-campestriae) are now no longer believed to be this species, but atypical specimens of Ivy Broomrape (O. hederae) Other plants on the southern slopes include the Somerset Hair Grass, wild thyme
, Horseshoe Vetch
and birds-foot-trefoil
. The northern side is dominated by Bracken
, bramble
, privet
, hawthorn, cowslips
and bell heather
.
invertebrate species have been recorded: the Great Silver Water Beetle (Hydrophilus piceus), the water beetle
Hydrovatus clypealis, the hover fly (Lejops vittata) and the soldier flies Odontomyia ornata and Stratiomys singularior. Nationally scarce species include the aquatic snail Cyraulus laevis, the Hairy Dragonfly
Brachytron pratense and a ladybird Coccidula scutellata.
Bridgwater Bay is a critical feeding ground for passage and over-wintering waders and wildfowl, with approximately 190 species recorded on the reserve. It supports internationally important numbers of Whimbrel
(Numenius phaeopus) and Black-tailed Godwit
(Limosa limosa) and nationally important numbers of Dunlin
(Calidris alpina) and Wigeon (Anas penelope). In early winter the Wigeon select Puccinellia maritima
in preference to Agrostis stolonifera
and Festuca rubra
. Avocet
s have become regular autumn and winter visitors to the area in recent years, favouring the lower reaches of the River Parrett.
Rare vagrant species spotted in the area include Wilson's Phalarope
, Lesser Yellowlegs
, White-rumped Sandpiper
, Spotted Sandpiper
, Montagu's Harrier
(in spring), Ortolan Bunting
and Richard's Pipit
(in autumn).
The birds seen on Brean Down include Peregrine falcon
, jackdaw
, kestrel
, collared and stock doves, whitethroat
, linnet
, stonechat
, dunnock
and rock pipit
. There are also several species of butterfly
including; Chalkhill blue
, Dark Green Fritillary
, Meadow Brown
, Marbled White, small heath
, and common blue
.
Bristol Channel
The Bristol Channel is a major inlet in the island of Great Britain, separating South Wales from Devon and Somerset in South West England. It extends from the lower estuary of the River Severn to the North Atlantic Ocean...
, 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) north of Bridgwater
Bridgwater
Bridgwater is a market town and civil parish in Somerset, England. It is the administrative centre of the Sedgemoor district, and a major industrial centre. Bridgwater is located on the major communication routes through South West England...
in Somerset
Somerset
The ceremonial and non-metropolitan county of Somerset in South West England borders Bristol and Gloucestershire to the north, Wiltshire to the east, Dorset to the south-east, and Devon to the south-west. It is partly bounded to the north and west by the Bristol Channel and the estuary of the...
, England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
at the mouth of the River Parrett
River Parrett
The River Parrett flows through the counties of Dorset and Somerset in South West England, from its source in the Thorney Mills springs in the hills around Chedington in Dorset...
and the end of the River Parrett Trail
River Parrett Trail
The River Parrett Trail is a long-distance footpath, following the route of the River Parrett in Somerset, England. The trail, which is long, runs from Chedington in Dorset to the mouth of the river in Bridgwater Bay where it joins the West Somerset Coast Path....
. It consists of large areas of mud flats, saltmarsh, sandflats and shingle ridges, some of which are vegetated. It has been designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest
Site of Special Scientific Interest
A Site of Special Scientific Interest is a conservation designation denoting a protected area in the United Kingdom. SSSIs are the basic building block of site-based nature conservation legislation and most other legal nature/geological conservation designations in Great Britain are based upon...
since 1989, and is designated as a wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention
Ramsar Convention
The Ramsar Convention is an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable utilization of wetlands, i.e., to stem the progressive encroachment on and loss of wetlands now and in the future, recognizing the fundamental ecological functions of wetlands and their economic, cultural,...
. The risks to wildlife are highlighted in the local Oil Spill Contingency Plan.
In addition to the rivers, Parrett, Brue
River Brue
The River Brue originates in the parish of Brewham in Somerset, England, and reaches the sea some 50 km west at Burnham-on-Sea. It originally took a different route from Glastonbury to the sea, but this was changed by the monastery in the twelfth century....
and Washford several of the man-made drainage ditches, including the River Huntspill
River Huntspill
The River Huntspill is an artificial river, in the Somerset Levels, in the Sedgemoor district of Somerset, England. It was built in 1940 to supply process water to the armaments factory at Puriton, and has resulted in reduced flooding of the lower Brue Valley.-History:The concept for the Huntspill...
, from the Somerset Levels
Somerset Levels
The Somerset Levels, or the Somerset Levels and Moors as they are less commonly but more correctly known, is a sparsely populated coastal plain and wetland area of central Somerset, South West England, between the Quantock and Mendip Hills...
, including the "Pawlett
Pawlett, Somerset
Pawlett is a small village north of Bridgwater, in the Sedgemoor district of the English county of Somerset.The village has Roman or Saxon origins...
Hams", also drain into the bay.
Geography
Jurassic
The Jurassic is a geologic period and system that extends from about Mya to Mya, that is, from the end of the Triassic to the beginning of the Cretaceous. The Jurassic constitutes the middle period of the Mesozoic era, also known as the age of reptiles. The start of the period is marked by...
Blue Lias
Blue Lias
The Blue Lias is a geologic formation in southern, eastern and western England and parts of South Wales, part of the Lias Group. The Blue Lias consists of a sequence of limestone and shale layers, laid down in latest Triassic and early Jurassic times, between 195 and 200 million years ago...
at the northern tip of the Quantock Hills
Quantock Hills
The Quantock Hills is a range of hills west of Bridgwater in Somerset, England. The Quantock Hills were England’s first Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty being designated in 1956 and consists of large amounts of heathland, oak woodlands, ancient parklands and agricultural land.The hills run from...
and the cliffs of Carboniferous
Carboniferous
The Carboniferous is a geologic period and system that extends from the end of the Devonian Period, about 359.2 ± 2.5 Mya , to the beginning of the Permian Period, about 299.0 ± 0.8 Mya . The name is derived from the Latin word for coal, carbo. Carboniferous means "coal-bearing"...
Dolomite
Dolomite
Dolomite is a carbonate mineral composed of calcium magnesium carbonate CaMg2. The term is also used to describe the sedimentary carbonate rock dolostone....
s and Limestone
Limestone
Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate . Many limestones are composed from skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as coral or foraminifera....
at Brean Down
Brean Down
Brean Down is a promontory off the coast of Somerset standing high and extending into the Bristol Channel at the eastern end of Bridgwater Bay between Weston-super-Mare and Burnham-on-Sea....
which project into the Severn Estuary
Severn Estuary
The Severn Estuary is the estuary of the River Severn, the longest river in Great Britain. Its high tidal range means it has been at the centre of discussions in the UK regarding renewable energy.-Geography:...
and provide some degree of protection from the erosive tidal currents. Strong prevailing westerly winds have thrown up sand dunes at Berrow
Berrow, Somerset
Berrow is a village and civil parish in the Sedgemoor district of Somerset, England. According to the 2001 census it had a population of 1,766.-History:Berrow was part of the hundred of Brent-cum-Wrington.-Governance:...
and a shingle ridge and Steart. On the beach near Stogursey
Stogursey
Stogursey is the name of a small village and civil parish in the Quantock Hills in Somerset, England. It is situated from Nether Stowey, and west of Bridgwater...
are the remains of a submerged forest dated to 2500 B.C. - 6500 BC.
Brean Down
Brean Down is a promontory off the coast of Somerset standing high and extending into the Bristol Channel at the eastern end of Bridgwater Bay between Weston-super-Mare and Burnham-on-Sea....
is a promontory marking the eastern end of the bay. Made of carboniferous limestone
Carboniferous limestone
Carboniferous Limestone is a term used to describe a variety of different types of limestone occurring widely across Great Britain and Ireland which were deposited during the Dinantian epoch of the Carboniferous period. They were formed between 363 and 325 million years ago...
, it is a continuation of the Mendip Hills
Mendip Hills
The Mendip Hills is a range of limestone hills to the south of Bristol and Bath in Somerset, England. Running east to west between Weston-super-Mare and Frome, the hills overlook the Somerset Levels to the south and the Avon Valley to the north...
, and two further continuations are the small island
Island
An island or isle is any piece of sub-continental land that is surrounded by water. Very small islands such as emergent land features on atolls can be called islets, cays or keys. An island in a river or lake may be called an eyot , or holm...
s of Steep Holm
Steep Holm
Steep Holm is an English island lying in the Bristol Channel. The island covers at high tide, expanding to at mean low water. At its highest point it is above mean sea level. It lies within the historic boundaries of Somerset and administratively, it forms part of North Somerset...
and Flat Holm
Flat Holm
Flat Holm is a limestone island lying in the Bristol Channel approximately from Lavernock Point in the Vale of Glamorgan, but in the City and County of Cardiff. It includes the most southerly point of Wales....
. It is owned by the National Trust
National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty
The National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty, usually known as the National Trust, is a conservation organisation in England, Wales and Northern Ireland...
, and is rich in wildlife
Wildlife
Wildlife includes all non-domesticated plants, animals and other organisms. Domesticating wild plant and animal species for human benefit has occurred many times all over the planet, and has a major impact on the environment, both positive and negative....
, history
History
History is the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. History can also mean the period of time after writing was invented. Scholars who write about history are called historians...
and archaeology
Archaeology
Archaeology, or archeology , is the study of human society, primarily through the recovery and analysis of the material culture and environmental data that they have left behind, which includes artifacts, architecture, biofacts and cultural landscapes...
, as well as being a Site of Special Scientific Interest
Site of Special Scientific Interest
A Site of Special Scientific Interest is a conservation designation denoting a protected area in the United Kingdom. SSSIs are the basic building block of site-based nature conservation legislation and most other legal nature/geological conservation designations in Great Britain are based upon...
in its own right. There are steep cliff
Cliff
In geography and geology, a cliff is a significant vertical, or near vertical, rock exposure. Cliffs are formed as erosion landforms due to the processes of erosion and weathering that produce them. Cliffs are common on coasts, in mountainous areas, escarpments and along rivers. Cliffs are usually...
s and, at its seaward point, a Brean Down Fort
Brean Down Fort
Brean Down Fort was built above sea level on the headland at Brean Down, south of Weston-super-Mare, Somerset, England.The site has a long history, because of its prominent position...
built in 1865 and then re-armed in the Second World War
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
. There is evidence of an Iron age
Iron Age
The Iron Age is the archaeological period generally occurring after the Bronze Age, marked by the prevalent use of iron. The early period of the age is characterized by the widespread use of iron or steel. The adoption of such material coincided with other changes in society, including differing...
hill fort
Hill fort
A hill fort is a type of earthworks used as a fortified refuge or defended settlement, located to exploit a rise in elevation for defensive advantage. They are typically European and of the Bronze and Iron Ages. Some were used in the post-Roman period...
and prehistoric barrows and field systems, and a pagan shrine
Shrine
A shrine is a holy or sacred place, which is dedicated to a specific deity, ancestor, hero, martyr, saint, daemon or similar figure of awe and respect, at which they are venerated or worshipped. Shrines often contain idols, relics, or other such objects associated with the figure being venerated....
at dating from pre-Roman times which was re-established as a Romano-Celtic
Romano-British
Romano-British culture describes the culture that arose in Britain under the Roman Empire following the Roman conquest of AD 43 and the creation of the province of Britannia. It arose as a fusion of the imported Roman culture with that of the indigenous Britons, a people of Celtic language and...
style temple
Roman temple
Ancient Roman temples are among the most visible archaeological remains of Roman culture, and are a significant source for Roman architecture. Their construction and maintenance was a major part of ancient Roman religion. The main room housed the cult image of the deity to whom the temple was...
in the mid-4th century and probably succeeded by a small late-4th century Christian oratory. In 1897, following wireless transmissions from Lavernock Point in Wales
Wales
Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain, bordered by England to its east and the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea to its west. It has a population of three million, and a total area of 20,779 km²...
and Flat Holm
Flat Holm
Flat Holm is a limestone island lying in the Bristol Channel approximately from Lavernock Point in the Vale of Glamorgan, but in the City and County of Cardiff. It includes the most southerly point of Wales....
, Guglielmo Marconi
Guglielmo Marconi
Guglielmo Marconi was an Italian inventor, known as the father of long distance radio transmission and for his development of Marconi's law and a radio telegraph system. Marconi is often credited as the inventor of radio, and indeed he shared the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics with Karl Ferdinand...
moved his equipment to Brean Down and set a new distance record for wireless transmission.
At low tide
Tide
Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the moon and the sun and the rotation of the Earth....
large parts of the bay become mud flats, 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) wide, due to the tidal range
Tidal range
The tidal range is the vertical difference between the high tide and the succeeding low tide. Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation of the Earth...
of 15 metres (49.2 ft), second only to Bay of Fundy
Bay of Fundy
The Bay of Fundy is a bay on the Atlantic coast of North America, on the northeast end of the Gulf of Maine between the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, with a small portion touching the U.S. state of Maine...
in Eastern Canada
Eastern Canada
Eastern Canada is generally considered to be the region of Canada east of Manitoba, consisting of the following provinces:* New Brunswick* Newfoundland and Labrador* Nova Scotia* Ontario* Prince Edward Island* Quebec...
. The intertidal mud flats are, as a result, potentially dangerous and it is not uncommon for the emergency services to mount rescue operations. Following the death of Lelaina Hall off Berrow in 2002, a local fund raising campaign succeeded in purchasing a Swedish
Sweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
-built BBV6 rescue hovercraft
Hovercraft
A hovercraft is a craft capable of traveling over surfaces while supported by a cushion of slow moving, high-pressure air which is ejected against the surface below and contained within a "skirt." Although supported by air, a hovercraft is not considered an aircraft.Hovercraft are used throughout...
. The hovercraft is operated by BARB in Burnham-on-Sea
Burnham-on-Sea
Burnham-on-Sea is a town in Somerset, England, at the mouth of the River Parrett and Bridgwater Bay. Burnham was a small village until the late 18th century, when it began to grow because of its popularity as a seaside resort. It forms part of the parish of Burnham-on-Sea and Highbridge...
. Much of the coastline within the western part of the reserve is accessible via a waymarked public footpath, and the South West Coast Path
South West Coast Path
The South West Coast Path is Britain's longest waymarked long-distance footpath and a National Trail. It stretches for , running from Minehead in Somerset, along the coasts of Devon and Cornwall, to Poole Harbour in Dorset. Since it rises and falls with every river mouth, it is also one of the more...
begins at Minehead
Minehead
Minehead is a coastal town and civil parish in Somerset, England. It lies on the south bank of the Bristol Channel, north-west of the county town of Taunton, from the border with the county of Devon and in proximity of the Exmoor National Park...
at the western end of the bay.
Hinkley Point
Hinkley Point
Hinkley Point is a headland on the Bristol Channel coast of Somerset, England, five miles north of Bridgwater and five miles west of Burnham-on-Sea, close to the mouth of the River Parrett....
is a headland extending into Bridgwater Bay 5 miles (8 km) west of Burnham-on-Sea
Burnham-on-Sea
Burnham-on-Sea is a town in Somerset, England, at the mouth of the River Parrett and Bridgwater Bay. Burnham was a small village until the late 18th century, when it began to grow because of its popularity as a seaside resort. It forms part of the parish of Burnham-on-Sea and Highbridge...
, close to the mouth of the River Parrett. The landscape of Hinkley Point is dominated by two nuclear power stations
Nuclear power plant
A nuclear power plant is a thermal power station in which the heat source is one or more nuclear reactors. As in a conventional thermal power station the heat is used to generate steam which drives a steam turbine connected to a generator which produces electricity.Nuclear power plants are usually...
: Hinkley Point A
Hinkley Point A nuclear power station
Hinkley Point A nuclear power station was a Magnox power station located on a site in Somerset on the Bristol Channel coast, west of the River Parrett estuary.-History:...
- Magnox
Magnox
Magnox is a now obsolete type of nuclear power reactor which was designed and is still in use in the United Kingdom, and was exported to other countries, both as a power plant, and, when operated accordingly, as a producer of plutonium for nuclear weapons...
(now closed) and Hinkley Point B
Hinkley Point B nuclear power station
Hinkley Point B is a nuclear power station near Bridgwater, Somerset, on the Bristol Channel coast of south west England.-History:The construction of Hinkley Point B, which was undertaken by a consortium known as The Nuclear Power Group , started in 1967. The reactors were supplied by TNPG and the...
- AGR
Advanced gas-cooled reactor
An advanced gas-cooled reactor is a type of nuclear reactor. These are the second generation of British gas-cooled reactors, using graphite as the neutron moderator and carbon dioxide as coolant...
. A third, twin-unit European Pressurized Reactor
European Pressurized Reactor
The EPR is a third generation pressurized water reactor design. It has been designed and developed mainly by Framatome , Electricité de France in France, and Siemens AG in Germany...
(EPR) reactor is planned, and will become Hinkley Point C
Hinkley Point C nuclear power station
Hinkley Point C nuclear power station is a proposed development for a new nuclear power station in Somerset, England.In September 2008 it was announced, by Electricité de France the new owners of Hinkley Point B, that a third, twin-unit European Pressurised Reactor reactor is planned for Hinkley...
.
Man made sea defenses include a sea wall at Burnham-on-Sea
Burnham-on-Sea
Burnham-on-Sea is a town in Somerset, England, at the mouth of the River Parrett and Bridgwater Bay. Burnham was a small village until the late 18th century, when it began to grow because of its popularity as a seaside resort. It forms part of the parish of Burnham-on-Sea and Highbridge...
and a 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) section south from Brean Down. There is also an isolated fossil aeolian sand dune belt fronted by a salt marsh deliberately planted in 1928. There are some concerns that the proposed Severn Barrage
Severn Barrage
The Severn Barrage refers to a range of ideas for building a barrage from the English coast to the Welsh coast over the Severn tidal estuary. Ideas for damming or barraging the Severn estuary have existed since the 19th century. The building of such a barrage would be a huge engineering feat,...
could leave some sites high and dry, and others permanently under water. The Steart Peninsula
Steart Peninsula
The Steart Peninsula is a peninsula in Somerset, England. At its outermost tip is Fenning Island, at the tip of which is Steart Point. It consists largely of low-lying flat farmland, and projects northwards on the west side of Stockland Reach, the lower stretches of the estuary of the River...
has flooded many times during the last millennium. The most severe recent floods occurred in 1981. By 1997, a combination of coastal erosion, sea level rise and wave action had made some of the defences distinctly fragile and at risk from failure. As a result in 2002 The Environment Agency produced the Stolford to Combwich Coastal Defence Strategy Study to examine options for the future.
The foreshore at Watchet
Watchet
Watchet is a harbour town and civil parish in the English county of Somerset, with an approximate population of 4,400. It is situated west of Bridgwater, north-west of Taunton, and east of Minehead. The parish includes the hamlet of Beggearn Huish...
, which lies at the mouth of the Washford River, and on the edge of Exmoor National Park
Exmoor
Exmoor is an area of hilly open moorland in west Somerset and north Devon in South West England, named after the main river that flows out of the district, the River Exe. The moor has given its name to a National Park, which includes the Brendon Hills, the East Lyn Valley, the Vale of Porlock and ...
, is rocky, but has a small harbour. The cliffs between Watchet and Blue Anchor
Blue Anchor
Blue Anchor is a seaside village, in the parish of Old Cleeve, close to Carhampton in the West Somerset district of Somerset, England. The village takes its name from a 17th century inn....
show a distinct pale, greenish blue colour, resulting from the coloured alabaster
Alabaster
Alabaster is a name applied to varieties of two distinct minerals, when used as a material: gypsum and calcite . The former is the alabaster of the present day; generally, the latter is the alabaster of the ancients...
found there. The name "Watchet" or "Watchet Blue" was used in the 16th century to denote this colour.
East Quantoxhead
East Quantoxhead
East Quantoxhead is a village in West Somerset, from West Quantoxhead, east of Williton, and west of Bridgwater, within the Quantock Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty in Somerset, England.-History:...
used to have a small harbour which brought in limestone for local limekilns
Limekilns
Limekilns, a village in Fife, Scotland, lies on the shore of the Firth of Forth.Unlike the neighbouring village of Charlestown, Limekilns is an extremely old settlement dating back to the 14th century. The oldest building in the village is without doubt The King's Cellar, a large and somewhat...
and exported alabaster
Alabaster
Alabaster is a name applied to varieties of two distinct minerals, when used as a material: gypsum and calcite . The former is the alabaster of the present day; generally, the latter is the alabaster of the ancients...
. It is thought that it was also used for smuggling.
At Kilve
Kilve
Kilve is a village in West Somerset, England, within the Quantock Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, the first AONB to be established, in 1957....
are the remains of a red brick retort, built in 1924, when it was discovered that the shale
Oil shale
Oil shale, an organic-rich fine-grained sedimentary rock, contains significant amounts of kerogen from which liquid hydrocarbons called shale oil can be produced...
found in the cliffs was rich in oil. The beach is part of the Blue Anchor to Lilstock Coast SSSI
Blue Anchor to Lilstock Coast SSSI
Blue Anchor to Lilstock Coast SSSI is a 742.8 hectare geological Site of Special Scientific Interest between Blue Anchor and Lilstock in Somerset, notified in 1971....
(Site of Special Scientific Interest
Site of Special Scientific Interest
A Site of Special Scientific Interest is a conservation designation denoting a protected area in the United Kingdom. SSSIs are the basic building block of site-based nature conservation legislation and most other legal nature/geological conservation designations in Great Britain are based upon...
). Along this coast the cliffs are layered with compressed strata of oil-bearing shale and blue, yellow and brown lias embedded with fossils. In 1924 Dr Forbes-Leslie founded the Shaline Company to exploit them. This retort house is thought to be the first structure erected here for the conversion of shale to oil but the company was unable to raise sufficient capital and this is now all that remains of the anticipated Somerset oil boom.
Fishing
European plaice
The European plaice, Pleuronectes platessa, is a commercially important flatfish.- Distribution and habitat :The geographical range of the European plaice is off all coasts from the Barents Sea to the Mediterranean, also in the Northeast Atlantic and along Greenland...
, dogfish
Squalidae
Squalidae is the family of dogfish sharks. They are found in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans, from tropical equatorial climates to the Arctic and Antarctic....
, cuttlefish
Cuttlefish
Cuttlefish are marine animals of the order Sepiida. They belong to the class Cephalopoda . Despite their name, cuttlefish are not fish but molluscs....
, skate
Skate
Skates are cartilaginous fish belonging to the family Rajidae in the superorder Batoidea of rays. There are more than 200 described species in 27 genera. There are two subfamilies, Rajinae and Arhynchobatinae ....
, shrimp
Shrimp
Shrimp are swimming, decapod crustaceans classified in the infraorder Caridea, found widely around the world in both fresh and salt water. Adult shrimp are filter feeding benthic animals living close to the bottom. They can live in schools and can swim rapidly backwards. Shrimp are an important...
, prawns, sea bass
European seabass
The European seabass, Dicentrarchus labrax, also known as Morone labrax, is a primarily ocean-going fish that sometimes enters brackish and fresh waters. It is also known as the sea dace...
, and sole
Sole (fish)
Sole is a group of flatfish belonging to several families. Generally speaking, they are members of the family Soleidae, but, outside Europe, the name sole is also applied to various other similar flatfish, especially other members of the sole suborder Soleoidei as well as members of the flounder...
.
Watchet Boat Museum
Watchet Boat Museum
Watchet Boat Museum is a small museum in Watchet, Somerset, England.It is housed in an old Victorian goods shed, built in 1862, next to Watchet railway station on the heritage West Somerset Railway....
displays the unusual local flatner boats which were used in the bay and associated artefacts.
Ecology
At low tide extensive areas of mudflatMudflat
Mudflats or mud flats, also known as tidal flats, are coastal wetlands that form when mud is deposited by tides or rivers. They are found in sheltered areas such as bays, bayous, lagoons, and estuaries. Mudflats may be viewed geologically as exposed layers of bay mud, resulting from deposition of...
s (the Steart and the Berrow
Berrow, Somerset
Berrow is a village and civil parish in the Sedgemoor district of Somerset, England. According to the 2001 census it had a population of 1,766.-History:Berrow was part of the hundred of Brent-cum-Wrington.-Governance:...
Flats) are exposed, providing important feeding and over-wintering grounds for wader
Wader
Waders, called shorebirds in North America , are members of the order Charadriiformes, excluding the more marine web-footed seabird groups. The latter are the skuas , gulls , terns , skimmers , and auks...
s (shorebirds). The ditches and ponds contain a diverse invertebrate
Invertebrate
An invertebrate is an animal without a backbone. The group includes 97% of all animal species – all animals except those in the chordate subphylum Vertebrata .Invertebrates form a paraphyletic group...
fauna including six nationally rare species and eighteen nationally scarce species. Consequently Bridgwater Bay is a National Nature Reserve
National Nature Reserves in England
National Nature Reserves in England are managed by Natural England and are key places for wildlife and natural features in England. They were established to protect the most important areas of habitat and of geological formations...
, and is managed by Natural England
Natural England
Natural England is the non-departmental public body of the UK government responsible for ensuring that England's natural environment, including its land, flora and fauna, freshwater and marine environments, geology and soils, are protected and improved...
.
The Site of Special Scientific Interest is designated as a wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention
Ramsar Convention
The Ramsar Convention is an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable utilization of wetlands, i.e., to stem the progressive encroachment on and loss of wetlands now and in the future, recognizing the fundamental ecological functions of wetlands and their economic, cultural,...
. It is also a Nature Conservation Review Grade 1* site. The site is contiguous with the Brean Down
Brean Down
Brean Down is a promontory off the coast of Somerset standing high and extending into the Bristol Channel at the eastern end of Bridgwater Bay between Weston-super-Mare and Burnham-on-Sea....
, Berrow Dunes and Blue Anchor to Lilstock Coast SSSIs.
Flora
Common Cord-grass (Spartina anglica) dominates much of the seaward edge of the marsh, having vigorously invaded andconsolidated the fronting mudflats, following plantings in the early 1900s. The spartina is generally shorter in the bay than at other sites due to the high tides and the turbidity of the water, reaching around 30 centimetres (11.8 in) as opposed to 150 centimetres (59.1 in) elsewhere. On higher ground Common Saltmarsh-grass
Puccinellia
Puccinellia is a genus of grasses which are known as alkali grass. These grasses grow in wet environments, often in saline or alkaline conditions...
(Puccinellia maritima) increases in abundance with Sea Aster (Aster tripolium). Where the land is ungrazed, Common Reed (Phragmites australis) ofetn forms a zone above this. Where the upper marsh is grazed Red Fescue (Festuca rubra) and Creeping Bent
Agrostis
Agrostis is a genus of over 100 species belonging to the grass family Poaceae, commonly referred to as the bent grasses...
(Argostis stolonifera) are found. Sea Couch (Elymus pycnanthus) and Sea Club-rush
Scirpus
The plant genus Scirpus consists of a large number of aquatic, grass-like species in the family Cyperaceae , many with the common names club-rush or bulrush . Other common names are deergrass or grassweed.The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution, and grows in wetlands and moist soil...
(Scirpus maritimus) occur at the landward edge of the marsh.
High level sheep-grazed marshes carry populations of the nationally scarce Bulbous Foxtail
Alopecurus
Alopecurus L., or Foxtail Grass, is a genus of the grass family Poaceae with 25 to 35 species.Foxtails occur in northern temperate regions. They can be annual or perennial. They grow in tufts. They have flat leaves and blunt ligules...
(Alopecurus bulbosus), Slender Hare's-ear (Bupleurum tenuissimum) and Sea Barley
Hordeum
Hordeum is a genus of about 30 species of annual and perennial grasses, native throughout the temperate Northern Hemisphere, temperate South America, and also South Africa....
(Hordeum marinum) while Stert Island is known to support the nationally rare Compact Brome
Bromus madritensis
Bromus madritensis is a species of brome grass known by the common name compact brome.It is native to Europe but it has been widely introduced elsewhere, such as North America, where it is found in many areas. It is now known nearly worldwide...
(Bromus madritensis) and nationally scarce Ray's Knotgrass
Polygonum
Polygonum is a genus in the Polygonaceae family. Common names include knotweed, knotgrass, bistort, tear-thumb, mile-a-minute, and several others. In the Middle English glossary of herbs "Alphita" , it was known as ars-smerte. There have been various opinions about how broadly the genus should be...
(Polygonum oxyspermum).
A wide variety of aquatic and bankside plant species occur in the ditches including the nationally restricted Rootless Duckweed (Wolffia arrhiza), together with uncommon species such as Frogbit
Hydrocharis morsus-ranae
Hydrocharis morsus-ranae, Frogbit, is a flowering plant belonging to the genus Hydrocharis in the family Hydrocharitaceae. In North America, it is referred to as Common Frogbit or European Frogbit to distinguish it from the related American Frogbit .It is a small floating plant resembling a small...
(Hydrocharis morsus-ranae) and Water Fern (Azolla filiculoides). The slightly brackish nature of the water is indicated by the presence of plants such as the nationally restricted Brackish Water-crowfoot (Ranunculus baudotii) and Sea Clubrush (Scirpus maritimus).
Broomrape
Broomrape or Broom-rape is a genus of over 200 species of parasitic herbaceous plants in the family Orobanchaceae, mostly native to the temperate Northern Hemisphere. Some species formerly included in this genus are now referred to the genus Conopholis.The broomrape plant is small, from...
s growing here which were originally thought to be Oxtongue Broomrape (Orobanche artemisiae-campestriae) are now no longer believed to be this species, but atypical specimens of Ivy Broomrape (O. hederae) Other plants on the southern slopes include the Somerset Hair Grass, wild thyme
Wild thyme
Thymus serpyllum, known by the common names of Breckland Thyme, Wild Thyme or Creeping Thyme is a species of thyme native to most of Europe and North Africa. It is a low, usually prostrate subshrub growing to 2 cm tall with creeping stems up to 10 cm long, with oval evergreen leaves...
, Horseshoe Vetch
Horseshoe Vetch
Hippocrepis comosa, known as Horseshoe Vetch, is a flowering plant. It is the sole food of the butterfly species Polyommatus coridon, or the Chalkhill Blue....
and birds-foot-trefoil
Lotus (genus)
Lotus is a genus that includes bird's-foot trefoils and deervetches and contains many dozens of species distributed world-wide. Depending on the taxonomic authority, roughly between 70 and 150 are accepted. Lotus is a genus of legume and its members are adapted to a wide range of habitats, from...
. The northern side is dominated by Bracken
Bracken
Bracken are several species of large, coarse ferns of the genus Pteridium. Ferns are vascular plants that have alternating generations, large plants that produce spores and small plants that produce sex cells . Brackens are in the family Dennstaedtiaceae, which are noted for their large, highly...
, bramble
Bramble
Brambles are thorny plants of the genus Rubus, in the rose family . Bramble fruit is the fruit of any such plant, including the blackberry and raspberry. The word comes from Germanic *bram-bezi, whence also German Brombeere , Dutch Braam and French framboise...
, privet
Privet
Privet was originally the name for the European semi-evergreen shrub Ligustrum vulgare, and later also for the more reliably evergreen Ligustrum ovalifolium , used extensively for privacy hedging. It is often suggested that the name privet is related to private, but the OED states that there is no...
, hawthorn, cowslips
Primula veris
Primula veris is a flowering plant in the genus Primula. The species is found throughout most of temperate Europe and Asia, and although absent from more northerly areas including much of northwest Scotland, it reappears in northernmost Sutherland and Orkney.-Names:The common name cowslip derives...
and bell heather
Erica cinerea
Erica cinerea is a species of heather, native to western and central Europe. It is a low shrub growing to tall, with fine needle-like leaves long arranged in whorls of three...
.
Fauna
Five Red Data BookBritish nature conservation statuses
In Britain, a variety of status categorisation schemes exist, for sites, species and habitats. These include, for species and habitats, Red Data Book threat categories, national rarity and scarcity assessments and Biodiversity Action Plan statuses, and for sites, statutory statuses such as the SSSI...
invertebrate species have been recorded: the Great Silver Water Beetle (Hydrophilus piceus), the water beetle
Water beetle
A water beetle is a beetle adapted to living in water. Water beetles rise to the water surface and take atmospheric air into their tracheal systems. There are approximately 2000 species of water beetles. The rest marine species tend to live in the intertidal zone...
Hydrovatus clypealis, the hover fly (Lejops vittata) and the soldier flies Odontomyia ornata and Stratiomys singularior. Nationally scarce species include the aquatic snail Cyraulus laevis, the Hairy Dragonfly
Hairy Dragonfly
Brachytron is a monophyletic genus of European dragonfly of the family Aeshnidae containing the Hairy Dragonfly , also known as the Hairy Hawker.- Description :...
Brachytron pratense and a ladybird Coccidula scutellata.
Bridgwater Bay is a critical feeding ground for passage and over-wintering waders and wildfowl, with approximately 190 species recorded on the reserve. It supports internationally important numbers of Whimbrel
Whimbrel
The Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus, is a wader in the large family Scolopacidae. It is one of the mostwidespread of the curlews, breeding across much of subarctic North America, Europe and Asia as far south as Scotland....
(Numenius phaeopus) and Black-tailed Godwit
Black-tailed Godwit
The Black-tailed Godwit, Limosa limosa, is a large, long-legged, long-billed shorebird first described by Carolus Linnaeus in 1758. It is a member of the Limosa genus, the godwits...
(Limosa limosa) and nationally important numbers of Dunlin
Dunlin
The Dunlin, Calidris alpina, is a small wader, sometimes separated with the other "stints" in Erolia. It is a circumpolar breeder in Arctic or subarctic regions. Birds that breed in northern Europe and Asia are long-distance migrants, wintering south to Africa, southeast Asia and the Middle East...
(Calidris alpina) and Wigeon (Anas penelope). In early winter the Wigeon select Puccinellia maritima
Puccinellia maritima
Puccinellia maritima is a species of grass known by the common names including seaside alkali grass, common saltmarsh-grass or sea poa grass. It is native to Western Europe and it is present in most of North East North America. It grows in moist, usually saline soils. It can reach a height of...
in preference to Agrostis stolonifera
Agrostis stolonifera
Agrostis stolonifera is a perennial grass species in the Poaceae family. It is stoloniferous and may form mats or tufts...
and Festuca rubra
Festuca rubra
Festuca rubra is a species of grass known by the common name red fescue. It is found worldwide and can tolerate many habitats and climates; it generally needs full sun to thrive...
. Avocet
Pied Avocet
The Pied Avocet, Recurvirostra avosetta, is a large black and white wader in the avocet and stilt family, Recurvirostridae. They breed in temperate Europe and western and Central Asia. It is a migratory species and most winter in Africa or southern Asia...
s have become regular autumn and winter visitors to the area in recent years, favouring the lower reaches of the River Parrett.
Rare vagrant species spotted in the area include Wilson's Phalarope
Wilson's Phalarope
The Wilson's Phalarope, Phalaropus tricolor, is a small wader. This bird, the largest of the phalaropes, breeds in the prairies of North America in western Canada and the western United States. It is migratory, wintering around the central Andes in South America. They are passage migrants through...
, Lesser Yellowlegs
Lesser Yellowlegs
The Lesser Yellowlegs is a medium-sized shorebird similar in appearance to the larger Greater Yellowlegs. It is not closely related to this bird, however, but instead to the much larger and quite dissimilar Willet; merely the fine, clear and dense pattern of the neck shown in breeding plumage...
, White-rumped Sandpiper
White-rumped Sandpiper
The White-rumped Sandpiper is a small shorebird.Adults have black legs and a small thin dark bill. The body is dark brown on top and mainly white underneath, with brown streaks on the breast and a white rump. They have a white stripe over their eyes. This bird shows long wings in flight. In winter...
, Spotted Sandpiper
Spotted Sandpiper
The Spotted Sandpiper is a small shorebird, 18–20 cm long. Together with its sister species, the Common Sandpiper they make up the genus Actitis...
, Montagu's Harrier
Montagu's Harrier
The Montagu's Harrier is a migratory bird of prey of the harrier family. Its common name commemorates the British naturalist George Montagu.-Plumage:...
(in spring), Ortolan Bunting
Ortolan Bunting
The Ortolan, or Ortolan Bunting, Emberiza hortulana, is a bird in the bunting family Emberizidae, a passerine family now separated by most modern authors from the finches, Fringillidae...
and Richard's Pipit
Richard's Pipit
The Richard's Pipit is a medium-sized passerine bird which breeds in open grasslands in northern Asia. It is a long-distance migrant moving to open lowlands in southern Asia. It is a rare but regular vagrant to western Europe...
(in autumn).
The birds seen on Brean Down include Peregrine falcon
Peregrine Falcon
The Peregrine Falcon , also known as the Peregrine, and historically as the Duck Hawk in North America, is a widespread bird of prey in the family Falconidae. A large, crow-sized falcon, it has a blue-gray back, barred white underparts, and a black head and "moustache"...
, jackdaw
Jackdaw
The Jackdaw , sometimes known as the Eurasian Jackdaw, European Jackdaw or Western Jackdaw, is a passerine bird in the crow family. Found across Europe, western Asia and North Africa, it is mostly sedentary, although northern and eastern populations migrate south in winter. Four subspecies are...
, kestrel
Common Kestrel
The Common Kestrel is a bird of prey species belonging to the kestrel group of the falcon family Falconidae. It is also known as the European Kestrel, Eurasian Kestrel, or Old World Kestrel. In Britain, where no other brown falcon occurs, it is generally just called "the kestrel".This species...
, collared and stock doves, whitethroat
Whitethroat
The Common Whitethroat, Sylvia communis, is a common and widespread typical warbler which breeds throughout Europe and across much of temperate western Asia. This small passerine bird is strongly migratory, and winters in tropical Africa, Arabia and Pakistan.This is one of several Sylvia species...
, linnet
Linnet
The Linnet is a small passerine bird in the finch family Fringillidae.The Linnet derives its scientific name from its fondness for hemp and its English name from its liking for seeds of flax, from which linen is made.- Description :...
, stonechat
European Stonechat
The European Stonechat is a small passerine bird that was formerly classed as a subspecies of the Common Stonechat. Long considered a member of the thrush family Turdidae, genetic evidence has placed it and its relatives in the Old World flycatcher family Muscicapidae.It is 11.5–13 cm long and...
, dunnock
Dunnock
The Dunnock, Prunella modularis, is a small passerine bird found throughout temperate Europe and into Asia. It is by far the most widespread member of the accentor family, which otherwise consists of mountain species...
and rock pipit
Rock Pipit
The Rock Pipit, Anthus petrosus, is a small passerine bird species which breeds on rocky coasts of western Europe northwards from Brittany. It is mainly resident in Ireland, Great Britain and France, in the west of its range, but the Scandinavian and Russian populations migrate south in winter;...
. There are also several species of butterfly
Butterfly
A butterfly is a mainly day-flying insect of the order Lepidoptera, which includes the butterflies and moths. Like other holometabolous insects, the butterfly's life cycle consists of four parts: egg, larva, pupa and adult. Most species are diurnal. Butterflies have large, often brightly coloured...
including; Chalkhill blue
Chalkhill Blue
The Chalkhill Blue is a butterfly in the family Lycaenidae.Males have pale silvery-blue wings with black and white border . Females are dark brown, also with the black and white borders...
, Dark Green Fritillary
Dark Green Fritillary
The Dark Green Fritillary is a butterfly of the Nymphalidae family.The insect has a wide range in the Palearctic ecozone - Europe, Morocco, Iran , Siberia, Central Asia, China, Korea and Japan.-Subspecies:...
, Meadow Brown
Meadow Brown
The Meadow Brown, Maniola jurtina, is a butterfly found in European meadows, where its larvae feed on grasses, such as Sheep's Fescue.Similar species are Gatekeeper and Small Heath ....
, Marbled White, small heath
Small Heath (butterfly)
The Small Heath Coenonympha pamphilus is a butterfly species belonging to the family Nymphalidae, . It is widespread in Eurasia and northwestern Africa, preferring drier habitats than other Coenonymphae...
, and common blue
Common Blue
The Common Blue is a small butterfly in the family Lycaenidae, widespread over much of the Palaearctic. Recently, Polyommatus icarus was discovered in Mirabel, Quebec, Canada by Ara Sarafian, an amateur entomologist who observed the butterfly from 2005 to 2008...
.