Broadcasting in the Soviet Union
Encyclopedia
Broadcasting in the Soviet Union was owned by the state, and was under its tight control and Soviet censorship
.
Broadcasting
's governing body in the Soviet Union
was the "USSR State Committee for Television and Radio Broadcasting", or USSR Gosteleradio (Государственный комитет по телевидению и радиовещанию СССР, Гостелерадио СССР), which was in charge both of Soviet TV
and Soviet radio.
s, and thus what would be shown at 18:00 in Moscow
would be different from 18:00 in Frunze, Kyrgyz SSR (now Bishkek
, Kyrgyzstan
). The population too was unevenly spread out, the overwhelming majority being west of the Urals. In addition, the Soviet Union also relayed their programming to other Warsaw Pact
states.
As a result, Soviet television and Soviet radio required ingenuity to overcome the aforementioned problems as well as to transmit programming to the Communist world
.
stations, most of the radio stations operated in the AM band. In typical Soviet fashion, neither the sites nor the frequencies of domestic AM or SW stations were ever disclosed, thus leaving shortwave listeners
wanting to tune into Soviet radio to memorize the frequencies and remember where the sites were. However, the AM/SW programming was relayed on FM, using the OIRT FM band (66-73 MHz).
D (VHF) and K (UHF
) (also known as CIS-SECAM). The Soviet Union also used the OIRT VHF band (the "R" channels ranging from chs. R1 to R12) and the pan-European/African UHF band.
. This channel was one of the most adaptable radio channels in the Soviet radio system. The second channel was called Radio Mayak. Mayak is Russian for "lighthouse", and thus is an all-union musical and literary channel designed to be the "lighthouse" of Soviet music and literature. The Third Programme also was a musical and literary channel, but mostly pop music.
, the main Soviet shortwave radio station. However, that's only part of the picture. Soviet radio also had Radio Station Peace and Progress, officially called the "Voice of Soviet Public Opinion". Most republics also had an external service, relayed by Radio Moscow's transmitters. Radio Moscow also relayed other radio stations from their satellite states, such as Radio Afghanistan
.
s and TV series of original cast were rare until the last decade; a notable example is Seventeen Moments of Spring
which quickly became a cult film
. It involved the exploits of Stirlitz
, a Soviet superspy in Nazi Germany
, who inspired many jokes (see Russian humour
). However in the later years quite a few of soap operas were brought in from the West (United States
, Brazil
, etc.), and a number of detective
series were cast locally.
Like other areas of the Soviet Union, the four national television channels, Radio Mayak, the All-Union First and Third Programmes, and (if equipped with appropriate transmitters) Radio Moscow would be broadcast by either a Television and Radio Company of the Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic or by a State Committee on Radio and Television Broadcasting. However, in the First Programme (TV) and in the All-Union First Programme (radio), the Company/Committee was allowed to broadcast regional programming alongside the official First Programme/All-Union First Programme schedule. Depending on the political status of an administrative division, the Company/Committee would broadcast the regional programming in either Russian
or the local language. In the Chechen-Ingush ASSR's case, the regional programmes would be broadcast in Russian, Chechen
, or Ingush
.
The Company/Committee would also broadcast additional channels for their coverage area only. Such cases were usually a second programme, known by a special name, in the main language of the SSR/ASSR. Other districts had their own local programming, and cities such as Moscow
and Leningrad
had special programs, broadcasting only in the evening and on FM.
's ANIK
satellite system
and the U.S.
's satellite system, the Soviet Union had the largest and most ingenious domestic satellite system
in the world. Part of its ingenuity laid in the programming itself. The Soviet Union was a master at time-shifting programmes so that everyone in the Soviet Union could enjoy radio and television programming. This involved several solutions to the Soviet Union's geography and time zone problems:
Editions of the Third Programme (radio):
Composite editions of the All-Union, Moscow, and Fourth Programmes (TV):
- in 1990 there were 90 Orbita satellites, supplying programming to 900 main transmitters and over 4,000 relay stations. The most famous Soviet satellites were the Molniya
satellites; other satellite groups were the Gorizont
, Ekran, and Stasionar satellites. With the right equipment, people outside the Soviet Union who used TVRO satellite television could receive Soviet television programming.
's radio news
and television news was provided almost entirely by the Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union
, commonly known as TASS.
TASS still exists today, transformed into the Information Telegraph Agency of Russia
(ITAR-TASS). It occupies a Joseph Stalin
-era building in Moscow
, characterised by a bas-relief sculpture above the main entrance. However, much like its counterparts in cinema and the press, it has suffered since the collapse of Communism.
Broadcasters: Radio Alma-Ata (radio), Alma-Atkinskaja studija televidenija (TV)
Broadcasters: Lietuvos Radijas (gov. radio), Radio M-1 (non-gov. radio), Vilnjusskaja studija televidenija (TV)
Broadcaster: State Committee for Broadcasting and Television of the Republic of Tajikistan
2005
Main broadcaster: Tajik Radio
Censorship in the Soviet Union
Censorship in the Soviet Union was pervasive and strictly enforced.Censorship was performed in two main directions:*State secrets were handled by Main Administration for Safeguarding State Secrets in the Press was in charge of censoring all publications and broadcasting for state...
.
Broadcasting
Broadcasting
Broadcasting is the distribution of audio and video content to a dispersed audience via any audio visual medium. Receiving parties may include the general public or a relatively large subset of thereof...
's governing body in the Soviet Union
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
was the "USSR State Committee for Television and Radio Broadcasting", or USSR Gosteleradio (Государственный комитет по телевидению и радиовещанию СССР, Гостелерадио СССР), which was in charge both of Soviet TV
Television in the Soviet Union
Television in the Soviet Union was owned by the state and was under its tight control and Soviet censorship.The governing body in the former Soviet Union was "USSR State Committee for Television and Radio Broadcasting or USSR Gosteleradio , which was in charge both of Soviet Central...
and Soviet radio.
The problem of broadcasting in the Soviet Union
Because of the Soviet Union's size, there were several problems to overcome. The first was geography; the European area of the Soviet Union was typical East European. Then there were the mountains such as the Urals. There were also the taiga and steppes of the east and the north. Another problem was time; the Soviet Union encompassed 11 different time zoneTime zone
A time zone is a region on Earth that has a uniform standard time for legal, commercial, and social purposes. In order for the same clock time to always correspond to the same portion of the day as the Earth rotates , different places on the Earth need to have different clock times...
s, and thus what would be shown at 18:00 in Moscow
Moscow
Moscow is the capital, the most populous city, and the most populous federal subject of Russia. The city is a major political, economic, cultural, scientific, religious, financial, educational, and transportation centre of Russia and the continent...
would be different from 18:00 in Frunze, Kyrgyz SSR (now Bishkek
Bishkek
Bishkek , formerly Pishpek and Frunze, is the capital and the largest city of Kyrgyzstan.Bishkek is also the administrative centre of Chuy Province which surrounds the city, even though the city itself is not part of the province but rather a province-level unit of Kyrgyzstan.The name is thought to...
, Kyrgyzstan
Kyrgyzstan
Kyrgyzstan , officially the Kyrgyz Republic is one of the world's six independent Turkic states . Located in Central Asia, landlocked and mountainous, Kyrgyzstan is bordered by Kazakhstan to the north, Uzbekistan to the west, Tajikistan to the southwest and China to the east...
). The population too was unevenly spread out, the overwhelming majority being west of the Urals. In addition, the Soviet Union also relayed their programming to other Warsaw Pact
Warsaw Pact
The Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance , or more commonly referred to as the Warsaw Pact, was a mutual defense treaty subscribed to by eight communist states in Eastern Europe...
states.
As a result, Soviet television and Soviet radio required ingenuity to overcome the aforementioned problems as well as to transmit programming to the Communist world
Eastern bloc
The term Eastern Bloc or Communist Bloc refers to the former communist states of Eastern and Central Europe, generally the Soviet Union and the countries of the Warsaw Pact...
.
Broadcast radio
Although the Soviet Union had domestic shortwaveShortwave
Shortwave radio refers to the upper MF and all of the HF portion of the radio spectrum, between 1,800–30,000 kHz. Shortwave radio received its name because the wavelengths in this band are shorter than 200 m which marked the original upper limit of the medium frequency band first used...
stations, most of the radio stations operated in the AM band. In typical Soviet fashion, neither the sites nor the frequencies of domestic AM or SW stations were ever disclosed, thus leaving shortwave listeners
Shortwave listening
Shortwave listening is the hobby of listening to shortwave radio broadcasts located on frequencies between 1700 kHz and 30 MHz. Listeners range from casual users seeking international news and entertainment programming to hobbyists immersed in the technical aspects of radio reception and DXing...
wanting to tune into Soviet radio to memorize the frequencies and remember where the sites were. However, the AM/SW programming was relayed on FM, using the OIRT FM band (66-73 MHz).
Television
The Soviet Union used SECAMSECAM
SECAM, also written SÉCAM , is an analog color television system first used in France....
D (VHF) and K (UHF
Ultra high frequency
Ultra-High Frequency designates the ITU Radio frequency range of electromagnetic waves between 300 MHz and 3 GHz , also known as the decimetre band or decimetre wave as the wavelengths range from one to ten decimetres...
) (also known as CIS-SECAM). The Soviet Union also used the OIRT VHF band (the "R" channels ranging from chs. R1 to R12) and the pan-European/African UHF band.
Home services
There were three national radio channels. The first was the All-Union First ProgrammeAll Union First Programme
The All-Union First Programme was a radio channel in the Soviet Union. It had a political focus and discussed events in the Soviet Union. Now it is a small commercial radio station broadcasting with the name "Radio-1".- History :...
. This channel was one of the most adaptable radio channels in the Soviet radio system. The second channel was called Radio Mayak. Mayak is Russian for "lighthouse", and thus is an all-union musical and literary channel designed to be the "lighthouse" of Soviet music and literature. The Third Programme also was a musical and literary channel, but mostly pop music.
External services
Most people who have listened to shortwave are familiar with Radio MoscowVoice of Russia
Voice of Russia is the Russian government's international radio broadcasting service owned by the All-Russia State Television and Radio Company. Its predecessor Radio Moscow was the official international broadcasting station of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.-Early years:Radio Moscow...
, the main Soviet shortwave radio station. However, that's only part of the picture. Soviet radio also had Radio Station Peace and Progress, officially called the "Voice of Soviet Public Opinion". Most republics also had an external service, relayed by Radio Moscow's transmitters. Radio Moscow also relayed other radio stations from their satellite states, such as Radio Afghanistan
Afghanistan
Afghanistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located in the centre of Asia, forming South Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East. With a population of about 29 million, it has an area of , making it the 42nd most populous and 41st largest nation in the world...
.
Television services
National television channels
Generally there were four channels (called "programmes" in the typical European fashion then). The first channel (1st Programme) was the main channel. It was also the most adaptable for the republics to utilize (see "Regional services" below). Other channels were the All Union Programme (the second channel), the Moscow Programme (the third channel aimed mostly at Moscow), and the Fourth Programme (the fourth channel).Television programming
Soap operaSoap opera
A soap opera, sometimes called "soap" for short, is an ongoing, episodic work of dramatic fiction presented in serial format on radio or as television programming. The name soap opera stems from the original dramatic serials broadcast on radio that had soap manufacturers, such as Procter & Gamble,...
s and TV series of original cast were rare until the last decade; a notable example is Seventeen Moments of Spring
Seventeen Moments of Spring
Seventeen Moments of Spring is a 1973 Soviet TV miniseries. It was filmed at Gorky Film Studio, directed by Tatyana Lioznova and based on the book of the same title by the novelist Yulian Semyonov. The series comprises 12 episodes of 70 minutes each...
which quickly became a cult film
Cult film
A cult film, also commonly referred to as a cult classic, is a film that has acquired a highly devoted but specific group of fans. Often, cult movies have failed to achieve fame outside the small fanbases; however, there have been exceptions that have managed to gain fame among mainstream audiences...
. It involved the exploits of Stirlitz
Stirlitz
Max Otto von Stierlitz is the lead character in a popular Russian book series written in the 1960s by novelist Julian Semyonov and of the television adaptation Seventeen Moments of Spring, starring Vyacheslav Tikhonov, as well as in feature films, produced in the Soviet era, and in a number of...
, a Soviet superspy in Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany , also known as the Third Reich , but officially called German Reich from 1933 to 1943 and Greater German Reich from 26 June 1943 onward, is the name commonly used to refer to the state of Germany from 1933 to 1945, when it was a totalitarian dictatorship ruled by...
, who inspired many jokes (see Russian humour
Russian humour
Russian humour gains much of its wit from the inflection of the Russian language, allowing for plays on words and unexpected associations. As with any other culture's humour, its vast scope ranges from lewd jokes and wordplay to political satire.- Jokes :...
). However in the later years quite a few of soap operas were brought in from the West (United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, Brazil
Brazil
Brazil , officially the Federative Republic of Brazil , is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people...
, etc.), and a number of detective
Detective fiction
Detective fiction is a sub-genre of crime fiction and mystery fiction in which an investigator , either professional or amateur, investigates a crime, often murder.-In ancient literature:...
series were cast locally.
Regional services
In addition to the national radio and television channels, each SSR and ASSR had its own state radio and television company or state broadcasting committees, although other regions were allowed regional state broadcasting companies/committees. Taking the Chechen-Ingush ASSR as an example, one would see that there was a lot of flexibility in the Soviet radio and television system.Like other areas of the Soviet Union, the four national television channels, Radio Mayak, the All-Union First and Third Programmes, and (if equipped with appropriate transmitters) Radio Moscow would be broadcast by either a Television and Radio Company of the Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic or by a State Committee on Radio and Television Broadcasting. However, in the First Programme (TV) and in the All-Union First Programme (radio), the Company/Committee was allowed to broadcast regional programming alongside the official First Programme/All-Union First Programme schedule. Depending on the political status of an administrative division, the Company/Committee would broadcast the regional programming in either Russian
Russian language
Russian is a Slavic language used primarily in Russia, Belarus, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. It is an unofficial but widely spoken language in Ukraine, Moldova, Latvia, Turkmenistan and Estonia and, to a lesser extent, the other countries that were once constituent republics...
or the local language. In the Chechen-Ingush ASSR's case, the regional programmes would be broadcast in Russian, Chechen
Chechen language
The Chechen language is spoken by more than 1.5 million people, mostly in Chechnya and by Chechen people elsewhere. It is a member of the Northeast Caucasian languages.-Classification:...
, or Ingush
Ingush
Ingush may refer to:* The Ingush language* The Ingush people, an ethnic group of the North Caucasus...
.
The Company/Committee would also broadcast additional channels for their coverage area only. Such cases were usually a second programme, known by a special name, in the main language of the SSR/ASSR. Other districts had their own local programming, and cities such as Moscow
Moscow
Moscow is the capital, the most populous city, and the most populous federal subject of Russia. The city is a major political, economic, cultural, scientific, religious, financial, educational, and transportation centre of Russia and the continent...
and Leningrad
Saint Petersburg
Saint Petersburg is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea...
had special programs, broadcasting only in the evening and on FM.
Satellite services
Aside from CanadaCanada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
's ANIK
Anik (satellite)
The Anik satellites are geostationary communications satellites launched by Telesat Canada for television in Canada. In Inuktitut, Anik means "little brother".-The Satellites:-Anik A:...
satellite system
Satellite television
Satellite television is television programming delivered by the means of communications satellite and received by an outdoor antenna, usually a parabolic mirror generally referred to as a satellite dish, and as far as household usage is concerned, a satellite receiver either in the form of an...
and the U.S.
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
's satellite system, the Soviet Union had the largest and most ingenious domestic satellite system
Orbita
Orbita is a Soviet-Russian system of broadcasting and delivering TV signals via satellites. It is considered to be the first national network of satellite television....
in the world. Part of its ingenuity laid in the programming itself. The Soviet Union was a master at time-shifting programmes so that everyone in the Soviet Union could enjoy radio and television programming. This involved several solutions to the Soviet Union's geography and time zone problems:
- Schedule. The national television channels were only on the air for part of the day. This would make it easy for transmitting the channels throughout the Union. For instance, the Fourth Programme aired from 1300-1740 GMT. This would make it easy for the Fourth Programme to be aired by satellite.
- Time-shifting. This is the heart of the programming aspect of the Soviet television system. By time-shifting programmes, this allowed the Soviet Union and countries that relayed Soviet television (such as Warsaw PactWarsaw PactThe Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance , or more commonly referred to as the Warsaw Pact, was a mutual defense treaty subscribed to by eight communist states in Eastern Europe...
states) to enjoy programming in their own time zone.
The timeshift grid
There were two types of timeshifting in the Soviet Union. The first was used by both the All-Union First Programme and the First Programme (TV). For simplicity, this system is denoted as the "Radio/TV Orbita" system (named after the editions of these 1st programmes when they are time-shifted). All other national television channels (the All-Union, Moscow, and Fourth Programmes), including Radio Mayak and the Third Programme, used the "Double program" composite time-shifting format.The Radio/TV Orbita system
- Radio/TV Orbita-1 (UTC +11, +12, and +13 time zones)
- Radio/TV Orbita-2 (UTC +9 and +10 time zones)
- Radio/TV Orbita-3 (UTC +7 and +8 time zones)
- Radio/TV Orbita-4 (UTC +5 and +6 time zones)
- All-Union First Programme/First Programme (UTC +2, +3, and +4 time zones)
The "Double Program" system
The "double program" system was the other system used for time-shifting programmes. Like the "Radio/TV Orbita" system, identical content would be broadcast on the time-shifted versions, and, in the case of the Third Programme (radio), followed the same type of editions as the All-Union First Programme. However, it was different in that, especially on TV, it was a composite time-shifting system. This means that multiple services could be broadcast on the same edition and thus reduce the cost of broadcasting several different editions of the channels.Editions of the Third Programme (radio):
- Third Double-1 (UTC +11 and +12 time zones)
- Third Double-2 (UTC +9 and +10 time zones)
- Third Double-3 (UTC +7 and +8 time zones)
- Third Double-4 (UTC +5 and +6 time zones)
- Third Programme (UTC +2, +3, and +4 time zones)
Composite editions of the All-Union, Moscow, and Fourth Programmes (TV):
- Double 2 (UTC +9 and +10 time zones)
- Double 3 (UTC +7 and +8 time zones)
- Double 4 (UTC +5 and +6 time zones)
The satellites
The Soviet domestic satellite system was also known as OrbitaOrbita
Orbita is a Soviet-Russian system of broadcasting and delivering TV signals via satellites. It is considered to be the first national network of satellite television....
- in 1990 there were 90 Orbita satellites, supplying programming to 900 main transmitters and over 4,000 relay stations. The most famous Soviet satellites were the Molniya
Molniya
Molniya may refer to:* The Molniya , the Soviet military communications satellite.* Molniya orbit, distinctive orbit associated with the satellite....
satellites; other satellite groups were the Gorizont
Gorizont
Gorizont, , GRAU index 11F662, is a series of 35 Russian, previously Soviet, geosynchronous communication satellites launched between 1978 and 2000. The programme was started in order to develop a satellite system to relay coverage of the 1980 Olympic Games from Moscow. The first four satellites...
, Ekran, and Stasionar satellites. With the right equipment, people outside the Soviet Union who used TVRO satellite television could receive Soviet television programming.
News
The Soviet UnionSoviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
's radio news
Radio News
Radio News was an American monthly technology magazine published from 1919 to 1971. The magazine was started by Hugo Gernsback as a magazine for amateur radio enthusiasts, but it evolved to cover all the technical aspects to radio and electronics. In 1929 a bankruptcy forced the sale of Gernsback's...
and television news was provided almost entirely by the Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union
Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union
The Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union , was the central agency for collection and distribution of internal and international news for all Soviet newspapers, radio and television stations...
, commonly known as TASS.
TASS still exists today, transformed into the Information Telegraph Agency of Russia
Information Telegraph Agency of Russia
The Information Telegraph Agency of Russia , is the major news agency of Russia. It is headquartered in Moscow.- History :Its origin is in a letter sent by Finance Minister Vladimir Kokovtsov to foreign minister in March 1904 writing that "our trade and industrial circles, as well as the Finance...
(ITAR-TASS). It occupies a Joseph Stalin
Joseph Stalin
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin was the Premier of the Soviet Union from 6 May 1941 to 5 March 1953. He was among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who brought about the October Revolution and had held the position of first General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee...
-era building in Moscow
Moscow
Moscow is the capital, the most populous city, and the most populous federal subject of Russia. The city is a major political, economic, cultural, scientific, religious, financial, educational, and transportation centre of Russia and the continent...
, characterised by a bas-relief sculpture above the main entrance. However, much like its counterparts in cinema and the press, it has suffered since the collapse of Communism.
Broadcasting post-Soviet Union
With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Soviet broadcasting landscape also changed. Instead of one uniform system for radio and television broadcasting, there are now multiple systems, one for each country. Nowhere is this more obvious than in the republics themselves. Below is an incomplete list of the changes to the television system in the republics, in alphabetical order:2005
Main broadcasters: Hayastani Azgain Radio (Armenian National Radio), Armenian National Television, Armenia TV2005
Main broadcaster: Azärbaycan Dövlät Teleradio Verilisläri Sirkäti (State Radio and Television Company of Azerbaijan)2005
Main broadcaster: Nacyjanalnaja Dzjarzaúnaja Teleradyjokampanija Respubliki Belarus (State Television and Radio Company of Belarus)2005
Main broadcasters: Eesti Raadio, Eesti Televisioon, Kanal 2, TV3 ViaSat2005
Main broadcaster: Saqartvelos Teleradio Korporacia (Georgian National Broadcasting Corporation)Kazakhstan
1990Broadcasters: Radio Alma-Ata (radio), Alma-Atkinskaja studija televidenija (TV)
Lithuania
1990Broadcasters: Lietuvos Radijas (gov. radio), Radio M-1 (non-gov. radio), Vilnjusskaja studija televidenija (TV)
Tajikistan
1990Broadcaster: State Committee for Broadcasting and Television of the Republic of Tajikistan
- Radio Dushanbe
2005
Main broadcaster: Tajik Radio
See also
- Radio in the Soviet UnionRadio in the Soviet UnionAll-Union Radio was the radio broadcasting organisation for the USSR from 1924 until the dissolution of the USSR...
- Television in the Soviet UnionTelevision in the Soviet UnionTelevision in the Soviet Union was owned by the state and was under its tight control and Soviet censorship.The governing body in the former Soviet Union was "USSR State Committee for Television and Radio Broadcasting or USSR Gosteleradio , which was in charge both of Soviet Central...
- Eastern Bloc information disseminationEastern Bloc information disseminationEastern Bloc information dissemination was controlled directly by each country's Communist party, which controlled the state media, censorship and propaganda organs...
- Censorship in the Soviet UnionCensorship in the Soviet UnionCensorship in the Soviet Union was pervasive and strictly enforced.Censorship was performed in two main directions:*State secrets were handled by Main Administration for Safeguarding State Secrets in the Press was in charge of censoring all publications and broadcasting for state...
- Propaganda in the Soviet UnionPropaganda in the Soviet UnionCommunist propaganda in the Soviet Union was extensively based on the Marxism-Leninism ideology to promote the Communist Party line. In societies with pervasive censorship, the propaganda was omnipresent and very efficient...
Sources
- NB: Some of the information in this article is from the 1990 edition of the World Radio TV HandbookWorld Radio TV HandbookThe World Radio TV Handbook, known also with the acronym WRTH, is a directory of virtually every radio and TV station on Earth, published yearly. It began publication in 1947 as the World Radio Handbook...
). Other information is from the Television in the Soviet UnionTelevision in the Soviet UnionTelevision in the Soviet Union was owned by the state and was under its tight control and Soviet censorship.The governing body in the former Soviet Union was "USSR State Committee for Television and Radio Broadcasting or USSR Gosteleradio , which was in charge both of Soviet Central...
and Radio in the Soviet UnionRadio in the Soviet UnionAll-Union Radio was the radio broadcasting organisation for the USSR from 1924 until the dissolution of the USSR...
articles.