Chinese in Singapore
Encyclopedia
Chinese Singaporeans are people of Chinese ethnicity
who hold Singaporean nationality
. As of 2010, Chinese Singaporeans constitute 74.1% of Singapore's resident population
, or approximately three out of four Singaporeans, making them the largest ethnic group
in Singapore. Outside Greater China
, Singapore is the only country in the world where ethnic Chinese
constitute a majority of the population.
Ethnic Chinese in Singapore tend to identify themselves primarily as Singaporeans (新加坡人) and only secondarily as Chinese (Huaren/ 华人/華人). The terms Chinese Singaporean or Singaporean Chinese are used interchangeably. In terms of racial or ethnic identity, Chinese in Singapore commonly identify themselves as "Huaren 华人/華人" rather than "Huayi
华裔/華裔" or "Huaqiao
华侨/華僑" . Peranakan
Chinese are the offspring of ethnic Chinese who had married indigenous peoples and have developed a unique culture distinct from the Chinese majority.
'). Chinese in Singapore refer to persons of Chinese origin such as Hokkiens
, Teochews
, Cantonese
, Hakkas
, Hainanese, Hockchias, Foochows, Henghuas
, Shanghainese
, etc. Singaporeans of mixed parentage are classified as "Chinese" if their father is classified as such.
In general, the Chinese in Singapore are grouped according to their respective Chinese spoken language, linguistic-cultural or ancestral groups. The ancestral origins of the Chinese Singaporeans are diverse in nature and they are identified by their linguistic differences and ancestral home (known as "Zuji 祖籍" or "Jiguan 籍贯").
Most of the Chinese in Singapore belong to several linguistic-cultural groups, originating from mainly the southern parts of China
, predominantly Fujian
, Guangdong
and Hainan
province. The Hokkiens
, Teochews
and Cantonese
jointly form more than three-quarters of the Chinese population. The Hakka
, Hainanese and other groups account for most of the remainder. These are generally the descendants of the migrants from southern China during the 19th and early half of 20th century (first and second wave of migration) and are typically known as "local Singaporean Chinese" (新加坡本地华人). The 1990s and early 21st century saw Singapore experiencing a third wave of new Chinese migration from different parts of China.
Inter-marrying between different Chinese language/ancestral groups is quite common in Singapore, but association of linguistic-cultural group will follow the respective ancestry of the father's side. For instance, if one's father is of Hokkien ancestry and another's mother is of Teochew ancestry, the children will tend to associate themselves as Hokkien (i.e. following the roots of the father). Some Chinese Singaporeans also tend to associate themselves with their clans and ancestral origins, as seen in Singapore Chinese Clan Associations.
The Hokkiens (福建人) constitute around 41% of the Chinese Singaporean population. They are the largest Chinese dialect group in Singapore. In Singapore, "Hokkien" is the term referring to the Min-nan people (闽南人) or Hoklo people
(河洛人). They originated from the southern parts of the Fujian
province (福建省), including Xiamen
(厦门), Quanzhou
(泉州), Zhangzhou
(漳州) and other Min-nan towns/villages such as Tongan
(同安), Nanan
(南安), Anxi
(安溪), Huian (惠安), Yongchun
(永春), Longhai
(龍海), Jinjiang (晉江) etc.
They speak Singaporean Hokkien
, the standard of which is based on the Amoy dialect (厦门话 / 厦门闽南语) of Hokkien, a Min-nan (闽南) language, which is 50.4% comprehensible with Teochew (潮州话), and less so with Hainanese (海南话). The Hokkien language was a lingua franca
amongst the various Chinese language groups and was also used by other ethnic groups such as the Malays
and Indians
to communicate with Chinese before Mandarin came into dominance during 1980s and 1990s.
What is noteworthy in Singapore is that "Hokkiens" do not refer to all the people originating from all parts of the Fujian province. It was only used to specifically refer to Min-nan people (闽南人) (i.e. people of southern Fujian province) who speak the Min-nan dialects (闽南语), otherwise also known in Singapore as simply "Hokkien" (福建话). In this sense, "Hokkiens" has excluded other people of Fujian provinces such as Fuzhou
, Putian
etc.
Early Hokkien migrants settled around Amoy Street and Telok Ayer Street, forming enclaves around the Thian Hock Kheng Temple. They subsequently set up clan headquarters (Hokkien Huey Kuan) there and later expanded to Hokkien St and the vicinity of China Street. The Hokkiens were the most active in early trading that centred along the Singapore River
.
As early settlers came from the southern coast of China, they were active in sea trade and worshipped one of the patron-deities of Taoist pantheon
, the Heavenly Mother or "Ma Zhu
" who supposedly looked out for seafarers. Thian Hock Kheng Temple houses Goddess "Ma Zhu" (妈祖) and is thus also known as Ma Zhor Kheng. Another popular patron group of deities are the Nine Emperor Gods, a commemoration of the Emperors who were said in Taoist folklore to have brought peace and prosperity to the people. Among some Chinese Singaporeans, the supreme Taoist God, the Jade Emperor, is revered and his birthday on the 9th day of Chinese New Year
is accorded utmost prominence by them.
An official Taoist practice by a Taoist spiritual medium known as "Tangki 乩童" (a Hokkien term derived from Taiwan) is also popular amongst some Taoist Chinese. In this ceremony, the spiritual medium goes into a trance and is thought to establish a channel of communication between the mortal petitioner and the chosen Deity. It is said that the Taoist Deity
transmogrifies the spiritual medium and provides a wide range of help to devotees ranging from religious rituals to health, business, domestic queries and requests like a talisman to protect their loved ones.
The Teochew
(潮州人) in Singapore constitute about 21% of the Chinese population in Singapore, making them the second largest Chinese dialect group in Singapore. They originated from Chaoshan
region in the eastern part of Guangdong
province of China
, including Chaozhou
(潮州), Shantou
(汕头), Jieyang
(揭阳), etc.
The Teochew people speak Teochew, another Min-Nan language, which is 50.4% mutually intelligible with Hokkien. The Teochews, like the Hainanese, trace their ancestry to southern Fujian (福建). Their migration from southern Fujian to their new homes in what is now known as the Chaoshan region and Hainan Island respectively was due mainly to overpopulation and famine in the southern Fujian region. Despite linguistic and cultural similarities, the Teochews and Hokkiens considered themselves distinct and did not get along well during their early settlement in Singapore, especially during the British colonial era. Like the Hokkiens, the Teochews similarly shared the Taoist belief of a Taoist spiritual medium.
The Teochews were the dominant Chinese Language group for a period of time during the 19th century. Mass emigration of Chinese from Fujian later caused the Hokkiens to outnumber the Teochews, especially in the south. The majority of the Chinese living along the banks of the Straits of Johor
were largely Teochew until the HDB initiated mass redevelopment from the 1980s onwards.
The majority of the Teochews settled along the banks of the Singapore River
in Chinatown
during the 19th and early 20th century. Teochews who settled in Chinatown worked in many commercial sectors as well as fishery
. Traditional commercial sectors of Chinatown once dominated by Teochews include Circular Road and South Bridge Road.
Other Teochew businessmen set up gambier
and pepper
plantations in the dense forests of Singapore, parts of northern Singapore as well as Johor Bahru
. The Chinese first started their plantations with the approval of the Sultan of Johor from the nineteenth century onwards. This attracted more Teochews to start their plantations in those areas over the years. As such, the "Kangchu" system eventually started to form. The Chinese word "Kang" (江) means river, while "Chu" (厝) means house. However, in this context, "Chu" is the clan's name of the first headman in charge of the plantations in the area. The "Kangchus" gave rise to modern place names such as Choa Chu Kang
, Lim Chu Kang
and Yio Chu Kang
, all of which were largely plantation areas prior to urban redevelopment.
Early Chinese immigrants clustered themselves to form clan and language associations. These clan associations or Kongsi served as unions for the mostly illiterate Chinese labourers and represented them when dealing with their colonial
rulers or employers. One of the more prominent clan associations for the Teochews was the Ngee Ann Kongsi
, a Teochew-oriented association formed in 1845 that is still in existence.
The Straits Times
highlighted that Hougang
has a relatively high concentration of Teochew residents.
province in China, including Guangzhou
(广州), Zhaoqing
(肇庆), Shunde
(顺德), Taishan
(台山), Heshan (鹤山), etc.
Unlike the Hokkien, Teochew and the Hainanese, the Cantonese speak a language belonging to the Yue family. The Cantonese community uses several dialect groups. Yue Hai is considered to be the purest form of Cantonese because of its close proximity with the language of Guangzhou
. Other variants include Luoguang, Seiyap and Gouyeung. The Gwainaam variant is largely based in Guangxi
and shares close affinity with Pinghua. As with the Hokkiens and Teochews, some Cantonese also share Taoist beliefs.
The Cantonese worked mainly as doctor
s, politician
s, teacher
s of classical Chinese
, goldsmith
s, tailor
s and restaurateur
s during the early and mid 20th century, and their businesses dominated the shop houses along Temple Street, Pagoda Street, and Mosque Street.
Cantonese women from the Samsui district (Chinese
: 三水区; pinyin
: Sānshǔi Qū), worked in construction sites, and contributed greatly toward Singapore's development. These Samsui women
left their families behind in China and came to Singapore to work in construction sites for a living during the early 20th century. They were noted for their distinctive navy-blue outfits and bright red headgear, which were meant for protecting their hair as they worked. The headgear was first worn by Wang Chao Yun (王朝云 字子霞), a concubine of Su Dongpo
, in the Hakka Fui Chiu district of Guangdong province and it eventually became the traditional headgear of Hakkas. Cantonese women who worked alongside female Hakka labourers adopted the use of the headgear.
Cantonese women from the Seiyap
(Chinese
: 四邑) district in the Jiangmen
prefecture wore black headgear similar to the Samsui women. Seiyap women who wore black headgear mainly worked in shipyard
s at the old harbour along Singapore river
as well as at Keppel Harbour
.
Singaporeans recognize Chinatown
for having a large number of Cantonese people.
The Hakka
(客家人) constitute 11.4%. They originated mainly from the Hakka
-speaking region (north-eastern part) of Guangdong
province in China
, such as Meixian (梅县), Dapu
(大埔), etc. Mr. Lee Kuan Yew
, the founding father of the Republic of Singapore
has Hakka ancestry originating from Dapu
(大埔).
Since the Hakka language is somewhat similar to Mandarin, albeit strongly influenced by Min-nan and Yue, the Hakkas were long thought to have migrated from Northern China between the 4th and the 13th century. Recent genetic studies, however, have shown that the Hakkas originated from Southern China, like the other Chinese language groups in Singapore.
Many Hakka women who came to Singapore during the early 20th century worked in construction sites and wore headgear similar to the Samsui women. However, unlike the Samsui women, those Hakka women wore black, rather than red headgear.
, speaking Hainanese. The Hainanese in Singapore originated mainly from north-eastern region of Hainan
island, including Wenchang
(文昌) and Haikou
(海口).
As late-comers to Singapore (late 19th century), most of them worked as shop helpers, chefs, and waiters in the hospitality
sector. Hainanese chicken rice
is a famous dish.
The Singaporean Hainanese were also known for their Western food, as many of the early Hainanese migrants worked as cooks on European ships.
The Hockchew (Fuzhou
福州人) and Hockchia (福清人) originated from Northeastern Fujian
province and Southern Zhejiang
province of China
. They spoke various Eastern Min
languages.
The Puxian or Hinghwas (兴化人) originated from Central Fujian i.e. Putian
and Xianyou and they speak Puxian Min
.
(台湾人） are often sub-categorised into Singapore's larger Chinese language groups such as Hokkien and Hakka, to which the Taiwanese people usually belong. In recent years, the new Taiwanese immigrants form a distinctive group on their own. They speak Taiwanese Mandarin
, Taiwanese Hokkien, or Hakka, depending on their respective home languages (predominantly based on their Ancestral home languages originating from mainland China
). The Taiwanese in Singapore generally originated from various cities in Taiwan
, including Taipei
, Hsinchu
, Taichung
, Tainan, Kaohsiung
etc.
Migration of Chinese from Taiwan to Singapore could have begun as early as 1940s . According to verbal accounts by Singaporeans who have lived through the 1940s, many of the "Japanese" soldiers, who were involved in the occupation of Singapore during World War II, were in fact Taiwanese serving in the Imperial Japanese Army. Verbal accounts also indicate that many Chinese teachers teaching the Chinese language in the 1950s and 1960s came from Taiwan
. After 1965, due to military ties with Taiwan, some Taiwanese military personnel migrated to Singapore to serve as high ranking officers in Singapore Armed Forces (SAF). More immigration from Taiwan
began during the 1970s and 1980s as more Taiwanese came to Singapore to invest, work, live or study. Most of them are highly-educated, and employed in professions such as engineering, business, investment, research and education. There are also inter-marriages between Chinese Singaporean and Taiwanese, resulting in the Taiwanese partner moving to Singapore and obtain citizenship. As of 2009, the estimated population of Taiwanese in Singapore is around 60,000.
The Peranakan
, also known as Baba-Nyonya, are early Chinese immigrants from Malacca
and Penang, many who later migrated to Singapore. As they are of mixed Chinese and Malays ancestry, the Peranakans are classified as a separate ethnic group from the Han Chinese
in Singapore. They embrace a fusion of Malay and Chinese
cultures but have their own distinct identity. The men are known as Baba while the women are known as Bibiks or Nyonyas. Peranakans in Singapore were once concentrated around Geylang (where many Malays lived) and Katong
(a predominantly Chinese enclave). This is because the Peranakans were often intermediaries for businesses and social groups in colonial Singapore owing to their ability to speak English, Malay, and Hokkien.
Many Peranakans and Hokkien Chinese moved out of the congested town of Singapore - now the Central Business District (CBD) - and built seaside mansions and villas along the East Coast in Tanjong Katong ("Turtle Bay" in the Malay language) for their families.
After Singapore's independence in 1965, Peranankan people have moved throughout the island of Singapore. Peranakans in Singapore generally belong to the Hokkien and Teochew language groups and spoke Baba Malay and Chinese dialects as mother tongues. Many of them converted to Roman Catholicism during the 18th-century Portuguese colonisation of South-East Asia when missionaries set up posts in Batavia (Indonesia
) and Malaya
(Malaysia).
The Peranakans were a transcultural mix of ethnic groups that blended colonial English style with indigenous Malay languages and Hokkien Chinese customs.
and other Chinese provinces such as Shandong
, Sichuan
, Hubei
etc., and Wu speakers from Shanghai
, Jiangsu
and Zhejiang
, constitute less than 2% of the Chinese Singaporean population. Most of the current population of native Mandarin speakers immigrated to Singapore much later than the other groups, specifically after the Singapore government relaxed immigration laws in 1989. They can all speak Standard Mandarin
, the lingua franca
among all the Chinese languages, and may be able to speak their own languages or dialects. Since 1990s, the population of PRC Chinese who come to Singapore to study and work has steadily increased every year. Eventually, many settle down in Singapore permanently and became Singapore permanent residents (PRs) or citizens. This group now constitutes about a fifth of Singapore's population.
The first- and second-generation Chinese Singaporeans who came to Singapore in the 1990s tend to be highly paid white-collar workers in multinational corporation
s or academia in research and educational institutes. There is also an increasing number of Chinese teachers from the PRC
working in primary and secondary schools and junior colleges in Singapore. From the late 1990s, due to a liberalisation of immigrants from China, Singapore has seen a large influx (third wave) of new China migrants from different parts of China. They came to Singapore to study or work in all sectors. While some returned to China after a temporary period of time, there were also many who eventually settled down permanently in Singapore. Immigrants from China during the 1990s and the early 21st century originated from different parts of China. They are typically known as "Xinyimin 新移民".
There are also many new Chinese immigrants from the neighbouring countries such as Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Philippines, Vietnam etc., all adding to the diversity of Chinese in Singapore.
But today, the languages spoken by Chinese in Singapore exhibited a diversity including English
, Singlish
, Mandarin
, Singdarin
(Colloquial Singaporean Mandarin), Hokkien
, Teochew, Cantonese
, Hakka
, Hainanese and other Chinese dialects. Most Chinese Singaporeans are generally bilingual, whereby they can speak both English and Mandarin or some other Chinese dialects.
English
is supposedly the 1st language and therefore presumably spoken by all Singapore residents. This was partly due to Singapore government's policy of making English the medium of instruction in all schools in the 1980s (including former Chinese-based schools),as well as making English the working language for administration and business in Singapore (in short making English the lingua franca
among all Singaporean). The presence of English language in Singapore has its roots originating from Singapore's colonial past, whereby Singapore was part of British colony. As a result of the government's policy, English or Singlish has become widespread among the Singapore residents, including but not confining to the Chinese Singaporeans (esp. the young people). The increase of English/Singlish speaking Chinese family in Singapore was a result of misperceived social and cultural values that the preservation of mother tongues is "low-class" resulting in desperate attempts to replace mother tongues with the English language. As of 2010, it was estimated that 32.6% of Singapore Chinese speak English at home. But at work or in the city and business district, English is the official lingua franca
, but there remains a notably undeniable fact, albeit ironical, that the Hokkien dialect
remains extant amongst Singaporeans, not limiting to the Chinese, and operates as the unofficial common language.
Mandarin
is another widely spoken language among Chinese Singaporeans. As of 2010, it was estimated that 47.7% of Chinese Singaporeans speak Mandarin at home. Evidently, Singapore government's Speak Mandarin Campaign
was launched in 1980s with the intention of making Mandarin the lingua franca
among the Chinese in Singapore. It was intentionally a way to unify the Chinese from different dialect groups. In the 1990s, this campaign began to target the English-speaking Chinese Singaporeans. As a result of this campaign, Mandarin became widespread in places such as residential area, HDB, neighbourhood shopping and even business districts. Evidently, Mandarin is also often spoken in most "traditional Chinese-based" schools, despite the fact that English is their medium of instruction. Colloqually, as with all other languages spoken in Singapore, the Chinese Singaporeans prefers a localized flavour in mixing words from English
, Hokkien
, Malay
, and some other dialects, into the Mandarin language. Most young Chinese Singaporeans are capable of conversational Mandarin, but are weaker in their ability to write Mandarin.
, Cantonese
, Teochew, Hakka
, or Hainanese. As the south-eastern Chinese dialects are not taught in school, the number of their speakers has steadily declined, and with it saw the deterioration of Chinese cultures and values. In addition, many parents have begun to communicate with their children solely in English, in the belief that the language is essential to attain upward social mobility. Many of the young Chinese in Singapore are unable to use their mother tongues fluently. However, a few years into the work force, be it white-collar or blue-collar, most would pick up the Hokkien dialect. This applies equally even to the more westernized Chinese Christian community, who prefers the English language over any other. This (the Hokkien dialect
) apparently seems to be the only struggling force against the loss of Chinese cultural heritage.
(or at least the 2nd language or home language) amongst all Chinese has drawn mixed responses. The more English-speaking Chinese Singaporeans will generally prefer English language as the lingua franca
or their home language, while the Mandarin-speakers worries that English will replace Mandarin as the lingua franca
, thus eliminating the thin thread of Chinese identity altogether, saw English as a strong competition. With the rising economy of China in the 21st century, which has led to more Singapore companies requiring fluency in Mandarin, Mandarin has been viewed with greater importance amongst the Singaporean Chinese than before and has risen in terms of prominence. Both English and Mandarin will continue to dominate the language scene among Chinese Singaporeans.
, has also indirectly contributed to the deterioration of Chinese cultural heritage. Unless the government and Chinese Singaporeans take their own initiative in preserving dialect cultures, Chinese dialects may probably decline or even disappear from Singapore in the near future. There is thus a strong need to restore the Chinese identity or risk it falling into extinction one day. This exigency is translated into recent renewed efforts by Chinese clan associations in Singapore to impart and revive their respective Chinese mother tongues, which are met with warm receptions, including the younger generations. Therefore, there lies a greater challenge for the Chinese community in Singapore - the preservation of the Chinese identity - than just the satisfaction of linguistic domination and material gains.
media from Taiwan
and Cantonese
media from Hong Kong
are however easily available for sale in shops of Singapore and also present in Karaoke
lounges. Some cable channels in Singapore also have Hokkien
media from Taiwan
and Cantonese
media from Hong Kong
.
) as its medium to teach Chinese classics. In the 1920s, as influenced by China's New Cultural Movement, many Chinese schools in Singapore began to change its medium of instruction to Mandarin. During the British colonial times, the colonial government generally allowed the Chinese community in Singapore to organise and develop its own system of Chinese education. By 1930s and 1940s, with donations and fundings from the public, more Chinese organisations began to set up more Chinese schools. In 1953, the chairman of Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan
, Mr.Tan Lark Sye
organised and helped to establish the first overseas Chinese-medium university (Nanyang University
) in Singapore, leading to the establishing of a well-structured Chinese-medium education system (from primary school to university) in Singapore.
However, after the 1960s, the left-wing communist ideology of People's Republic of China
and the cultural revolution
was in conflict with the capitalist
policy of Singapore. In order to attract western investments, Singapore decided to adopt the fundamental policy of making English
its main lingua franca
and working language. In order to prevent the Singaporean Chinese from being influenced by left-wing political thoughts, Singapore greatly promoted English and placed less emphasis on Chinese education. On the one hand, it encouraged Chinese Singaporeans to attend English-medium schools for economic reasons; on the other hand, it initiated a public effort in denouncing communism. Due to a lesser proficiency in English
, Chinese-educated Singaporeans often encountered difficulties in finding jobs in Singapore. Thus, the majority of Chinese Singaporeans sent their children to English-medium schools for better job prospects, causing the number of registered students at Chinese-medium schools to drop annually. All these factors (including that of government policy) eventually caused the Chinese-medium education system to perish in Singapore.
and moral education subjects, all subjects are taught in English
. However, to make sure that Singaporean Chinese still maintain and preserve their mother tongue (Chinese) culture, the Singapore government implemented the teaching of Chinese language in all schools: All Chinese Singaporeans had to learn Mandarin Chinese as a "second language". Singapore also established the Special Assistance Plan Schools
. These were formerly traditional Chinese-medium schools and were tasked with the nurturing of Chinese language and cultural talents. The Chinese subject in Singapore did not just involve the teaching of Chinese languages; it was also tasked with the mission of transmitting Chinese cultural values to Chinese Singaporeans. Because of the continuation of Chinese education in Singapore, the Chinese Singaporeans are generally able to speak, read, and write Mandarin Chinese. Chinese Singaporeans are thus one of the few overseas Chinese
communities (the other being Malaysian Chinese
) which still preserved the Chinese language
and culture.
, Japanese
, Koreans, etc.
, 14.4% Taoist
, 20.1% Christian
and 21.8% non-religious. The Chinese form the vast majority in these four groups, due to their dominance in Singapore.
The majority of the Chinese in Singapore register themselves as Buddhist, and a smaller number claimed to be Taoist. Many Chinese have retained to a certain extent the Taoist belief and practice which is an age-old Chinese tradition. Taoism was once the dominant belief system, but younger generations have either switched to Buddhism or have become non-religious. In Singapore, Chinese folks religious practice such as worship of certain folks deities is often classified under Taoist practice; Though in actual fact, this was inherited from the southern Chinese folk religious practice, which mixed Taoism, Confucianism and Buddhism together.
. Nevertheless, these dishes exhibited local Singaporean Chinese flavours and tastes. Most of the local Singaporean Chinese dishes such as Bak kut teh
, Mee pok
, Ban mian
, Char kway teow
, Chee cheong fun, Hokkien mee
, Hainanese chicken rice
, Wan ton mee, Popiah
etc. can still be easily found in hawker centres or food courts throughout Singapore. Some Singaporean Chinese are vegetarians, as they may be devoted followers of Buddhism
, while others do not consume beef, especially those worshipping the Goddess of Mercy (Guan Yin). With the influx of new migrants from all parts of China in the 21st century, Chinese cuisine of a variety of regional flavours and tastes can be found across Chinese restaurants in Chinatown, Singapore
or in other regions of Singapore, such as Sichuanese cuisine
, North-eastern Chinese cuisine etc.
, Guangdong
and Hainan
province) instead of northern Chinese culture. This is especially true in terms of various southern Chinese dialects, customs, cultural, and religious practices in Singapore.
Although the Culture of Singapore
is diverse in nature, Singapore is one of the few countries outside Greater China
with a vibrant Chinese cultural presence. Although Singapore's infrastructure and environment might seem Western, Chinese culture is generally present across all corners of Singapore. This includes the widespread use of different Chinese languages/dialects, various Chinese writings across Singapore, various Chinese press and entertainment media, a thriving Chinese pop culture, various Chinese organisations, Chinese cultural festivals, Chinese opera, Chinese religious activities, Chinese bookshops etc.
There exists, however, some degree of differences between the Singaporean Chinese and mainland Chinese in terms of mindset, culture, and languages. While the mainland Chinese are largely sino-centric in their outlook of the world, Singaporean Chinese are educated in English medium schools (but taught Chinese language throughout their education) and are exposed to western influences. As such, the local Singaporean Chinese culture is a blend and mix of southern Chinese culture, local Singaporean culture (with various influences from cultures of other ethnicity) and western culture.
There are also some differences in the Singaporean Chinese culture compared to that of China
. Some traditional Chinese religious and folks custom are preserved by the Chinese community in Singapore, but are no longer practised or seen in China
after the Chinese Cultural Revolution
. This is especially true of regional rites and rituals practiced by Singaporean descendants of the peasant immigrants from southern China.
There are also distinctive recognisable differences between Singaporean Mandarin accent
and PRC's Mandarin accent
. Colloquially , many Chinese Singaporeans also speak a mixed language, toggling between Singlish
or Singdarin
. Many of the local Chinese dialects in Singapore such as Hokkien
, Teochew, or Cantonese have also been largely acculturated and differ from what is spoken in China.
Archaeological excavations of artifacts such as Chinese coins or ceramics in Singapore, which dated back to the period of the reign of Emperor Zhenzong of Song
(998-1022) and Emperor Renzong of Song
(1023–1063), indicated that Chinese merchants or traders had already visited Singapore since Song dynasty
.
The Chinese record Annals of various foreign states 《诸蕃志》 (zhufanzhi) written by Zhao Rushi 赵汝适 in 1225 clearly described Chinese merchant ships arriving in Singapore from Quanzhou
and various Chinese trading activities. In this annal, the chapter San Fo Qi men 三佛齐门 (the Chinese name for Srivijaya
) clearly recorded Chinese merchant ships must pass by "Ling Ya Men 凌衙门"(the ancient Chinese name for Singapore) in order to reach Srivijaya
for trading. The Chinese record Investigation of Southern Pacific 《南洋测蠡》 (Nanyang Celi) described the presence of Chinese tombs in Singapore (known as "Xin Ji Li Po 新忌利波" in Chinese). On the Chinese tomb, there were words and inscriptions recording the period of Later Liang Dynasty
and Emperor Gong of Song
. This could have proven that from 907-1274, some Chinese had settled, lived, died and were buried in Singapore.
The Chinese traveller Wang Dayuan
, visiting the island around 1330, described a small Malay settlement called Dan Ma Xi (淡馬錫, from Malay Tamasik) containing a number of Chinese residents. According to Wang Dayuan
, the Chinese inhabitants of Singapore were dressed in local traditional costumes and generally intermarried with local South-East Asian women, following an amalgamamation of Hinduism
, Buddhism
, and Taoism
. These were the earliest Peranakans of Singapore
.
Following the decline of Srivijayan power, Temasek was alternately claimed by the Majapahit and the Siamese, but the invasion of 1377 and 1391 caused Singapore to be destroyed. Following that, there were little Chinese records of the visiting of Chinese to Singapore.
The Chinese explorer Zheng He
's naval voyage in 1403 indicated Singapore as Dan Ma Xi (淡馬錫, from Malay Tamasik). In 1420, en route the 6th voyage, Zheng He
passed by Singapore, but there were no records of presence of Chinese.
till the Japanese occupation in 1942, Singapore was ruled as a colony by the British. When the British first arrived in Singapore, most of the inhabitants on the island of Singapore were fisherman, seamen or pirates, living in small houses. There were about 150 people; about 30 were Chinese, while the rest were Malays.
When Singapore became a Straits Settlement, there were very few Chinese. After Singapore became a British trading post as part of the Straits Settlement, the first batch of Chinese came from Malaysia, predominantly from Malacca
and Penang
. Amongst these Chinese from Malacca
and Penang
, many were peranakans or descendants of Chinese in Malaysia for several generations. Most of them were traders and can speak Chinese dialects, Malays; while many were also English-educated and can communicate with the British. In the Manners and customs of the Chinese of the Straits Settlements, Singapore, it was described that the Straits-born Chinese regarded themselves as British subjects instead of Chinese subjects; their lifestyle were more westernized.
After Singapore
became the capital of the British
Straits Settlements
in 1832, the free trade policy attracted many Chinese from Mainland China
to trade, and many settled down in Singapore
. Because of a booming commerce which required large number of labour force, Chinese coolie
trade also appeared in Singapore. Indentured Chinese labourers (known as coolie
) were contracted by coolie traders and brought to Singapore to work. The large influx of coolies into Singapore only stopped after William Pickering
became the Protector of Chinese. In 1914, the coolie trade was abolished and banned in Singapore.
Because China banned the traveling of Chinese overseas before the Opium War, any form of coolie trade was conducted mainly through the Portuguese-controlled Macau
. Thus any form of large migration of Chinese labourers overseas in the beginning of 19th century is quite unlikely. It was only after the Treaty of Nanking
signed on 1842 (due to Opium War) that large migration of Chinese coolie
began to appear. In 1860 under the 2nd Opium War, Chinese coolie trade became legalized and reached a high peak.
The large influx of Chinese to Singapore led to the establishment of a large number of Chinese associations, schools, and temples in Singapore and, within a century, the Chinese immigrant population exceeded that of the Malays. During this period, Christian
missionaries from Europe
began evangelising to the Asians, especially the Chinese. By 1849, the Chinese formed half of Singapore's population.
From 19th till mid 20th century, migrants from China were known as "Sinkeh"(新客 - New Guest). Out of these Sinkeh, a majority of them were coolies, workers on steam boats etc. Some of them came to Singapore in search of a better living and to escape away from poverty in China. Many of them also escaped to Singapore due to chaos and wars in China during the first half of 20th century. Many of them came from Fujian
, Guangdong
, Hainan
province. Most of them paid loyalty to China and regarded themselves as "Huaqiao
".
Peranakans or those English-educated Chinese who had descended for many generations in Singapore were typically known as "Laokeh" (老客 - Old Guest) or "Straits Chinese". Most of them paid loyalty to the British Empire
and did not regard themselves as "Huaqiao".
The Second Sino-Japanese War
, started in 1937, revived a perceived sense of patriotism in the local Chinese to China and soon the Singaporean Chinese imposed an embargo against Japanese goods and products in Singapore. During the war, fearing for the safety of their relatives in China, some of the immigrants returned to China to fight the Japanese, while established entrepreneurs sent economic aid or military equipment to China. After the Japanese took Singapore
in 1942, the Kempeitai
tracked down many Chinese who aided the Chinese war effort against Japan. However, the Kempeitai's Sook Ching Operation was simply a massacre designed to drive fear into the local populace, so the Kempeitai simply picked out people based on accounts of masked informers, which in many cases were false accounts based on personal vendettas. There were also active anti-Japanese resistance during the war, such as Force 136
, headed by Lim Bo Seng
.
One major riot
took place during birthday celebrations in honour of Muhammad
, on 21 July 1964. There were records of high casualties (23 killed and 454 injured), as well as claims that the riot was politically motivated to oust the then Prime Minister (Lee Kuan Yew
) and his cabinet as well as to prevent the promotion of a Malaysian Malaysia
concept in Peninsular Malaysia
.
After the Independence of Singapore in 1965, Singapore began to foster a more racially harmonious society in Singapore. Following the construction of Singapore national identity and nationhood, the Chinese in Singapore began to change their mindset from temporary stay to permanent settlements in Singapore, thus taking roots in Singapore. Following this transformation, the Chinese in Singapore gradually began to recognize nationally as "Singaporeans", while racially as "Huaren" instead of "Huaqiao
".
Chinese migrants from China during the late 20th century and early 21st century were generally known as "Xinyimin 新移民" (new immigrants). They came from various parts of China.
. Due to closer dialectal affinity, they tend to group themselves according to similar Chinese dialects or place of origins in China. This led the Chinese to form 5 dialectal Cohorts (known as Bangqun 幫群), namely the Hokkien Bang, Teochew Bang, Cantonese Bang, Hakka Bang and Hainanese Bang.
During the British colonial period, the colonial government basically adopted the approach of using "the Chinese to govern the Chinese". They appointed Chinese leaders to govern the Chinese community. Effectively, the Chinese community existed in a half-autonomy state. Most Chinese leaders used the Chinese civil societies (small organizations) to help govern the Chinese community and to help new Chinese immigrants settled into Singapore, including finding jobs and lodgings for them.
As most of these Chinese civil societies were involved in Chinese family religious activities such as funerals or ancestral worship, they were in fact religious-oriented. This gradually evolved into the development of Chinese Temples or Chinese clan associations in Singapore. As time passed by, the Chinese had grown to have more achievements in the business and education in Singapore. Some rich and powerful Chinese businessmen began to establish Clubs, such as the Ee Ho Hean Club (怡和轩) in 1895, and Chamber of Commerce
, such as the Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry
, in order to broaden the Chinese social circle. Established in 1906, the Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry
was the highest body of organization within the Chinese community in Singapore. It was responsible for fighting the rights of the Chinese in Singapore during the British colonial period. During the World War II
, the Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry
had managed to help raise funds and resources to help relieve the sufferings in war-torn China.
After Singapore gained independence and autonomy in 1960s, the Singapore government undertook measures to help foster racial harmony in Singapore. It encouraged various races of different languages and religious backgrounds to intermingle and to live side by side. Following the growth of Singaporean nationhood and national identity, the Chinese immigrants began to change their mindset from temporary migration to permanent settlements, thus soiling their roots in Singapore. With the strengthening of Singaporean national identity, the Chinese clans association gradually declined in terms of importance. Their role of organizing and governing the Chinese community was soon taken over by the Singapore government.
(SCCCI) continued to look after the interests of the Chinese business community as well as sourcing business opportunities in China. The Chinese Development Assistance Council
was founded out of these two organizations (SFCCA and SCCCI) to help nurture and develop the potential of the Chinese community in contributing to the continued success of multiracial Singapore. There are also various Chinese cultural organizations such as Singapore Chinese Calligraphy Society, Singapore Chinese Orchestra
, Nanyang Confucian Association, Singapore Chinese Opera Institute etc. In addition, there are also major Chinese religious Associations such as Singapore Taoist Federation, Singapore Buddhist Federation to look after the religious affairs of Chinese Singaporeans.
All these Chinese organizations continue to play an important role in the economical, cultural and religious activities of Chinese Singaporeans.
Han Chinese
Han Chinese are an ethnic group native to China and are the largest single ethnic group in the world.Han Chinese constitute about 92% of the population of the People's Republic of China , 98% of the population of the Republic of China , 78% of the population of Singapore, and about 20% of the...
who hold Singaporean nationality
Singaporean nationality law
Singaporean nationality law is derived from the Constitution of Singapore and is based on jus sanguinis and a modified form of jus soli...
. As of 2010, Chinese Singaporeans constitute 74.1% of Singapore's resident population
Demographics of Singapore
This article is about the demographic features of the population of Singapore, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population....
, or approximately three out of four Singaporeans, making them the largest ethnic group
Ethnic group
An ethnic group is a group of people whose members identify with each other, through a common heritage, often consisting of a common language, a common culture and/or an ideology that stresses common ancestry or endogamy...
in Singapore. Outside Greater China
Greater China
Greater China is a term used to refer to mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan. As a "phrase of the moment", the precise meaning is not entirely clear, and people may use it for only the commercial ties, only the cultural actions, or even as a euphemism for the Two Chinas, while others may...
, Singapore is the only country in the world where ethnic Chinese
Overseas Chinese
Overseas Chinese are people of Chinese birth or descent who live outside the Greater China Area . People of partial Chinese ancestry living outside the Greater China Area may also consider themselves Overseas Chinese....
constitute a majority of the population.
Ethnic Chinese in Singapore tend to identify themselves primarily as Singaporeans (新加坡人) and only secondarily as Chinese (Huaren/ 华人/華人). The terms Chinese Singaporean or Singaporean Chinese are used interchangeably. In terms of racial or ethnic identity, Chinese in Singapore commonly identify themselves as "Huaren 华人/華人" rather than "Huayi
Overseas Chinese
Overseas Chinese are people of Chinese birth or descent who live outside the Greater China Area . People of partial Chinese ancestry living outside the Greater China Area may also consider themselves Overseas Chinese....
华裔/華裔" or "Huaqiao
Overseas Chinese
Overseas Chinese are people of Chinese birth or descent who live outside the Greater China Area . People of partial Chinese ancestry living outside the Greater China Area may also consider themselves Overseas Chinese....
华侨/華僑" . Peranakan
Peranakan
Peranakan Chinese and Baba-Nyonya are terms used for the descendants of late 15th and 16th-century Chinese immigrants to the Indonesian archipelago of Nusantara during the Colonial era....
Chinese are the offspring of ethnic Chinese who had married indigenous peoples and have developed a unique culture distinct from the Chinese majority.
Definition
The Singapore Department of Statistics defines 'Chinese' as a 'race' (or 'ethnic groupEthnic group
An ethnic group is a group of people whose members identify with each other, through a common heritage, often consisting of a common language, a common culture and/or an ideology that stresses common ancestry or endogamy...
'). Chinese in Singapore refer to persons of Chinese origin such as Hokkiens
Hoklo people
The Hoklo people are Han Chinese people whose traditional Ancestral homes are in southern Fujian of South China...
, Teochews
Teochew people
The Chaozhou people are Han people, native to the Chaoshan region of eastern Guangdong province of China who speak the Teochew dialect. Today, most Teochew people live outside China in Southeast Asia especially in Singapore, Thailand, and Malaysia. They can also be found almost anywhere in the...
, Cantonese
Cantonese people
The Cantonese people are Han people whose ancestral homes are in Guangdong, China. The term "Cantonese people" would then be synonymous with the Bun Dei sub-ethnic group, and is sometimes known as Gwong Fu Jan for this narrower definition...
, Hakkas
Hakka people
The Hakka , sometimes Hakka Han, are Han Chinese who speak the Hakka language and have links to the provincial areas of Guangdong, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Sichuan, Hunan and Fujian in China....
, Hainanese, Hockchias, Foochows, Henghuas
Putian people
The Putian Han or Putian people are Han Chinese people from Putian, part of Fujian Province, China. They speak Puxian Min, a Min language. Min is one of the Sinitic languages....
, Shanghainese
Shanghainese people
The Shanghainese people also commonly referred to as Shanghaiers refers to the people whose families are from Shanghai, China, who can speak the Shanghainese dialect of the Wu language. With the prosperity of Shanghai, more and more migrants have been moving to Shanghai for school and work which...
, etc. Singaporeans of mixed parentage are classified as "Chinese" if their father is classified as such.
Ancestral origins or language groups
Most of the Chinese in Singapore belong to several linguistic-cultural groups, originating from mainly the southern parts of China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
, predominantly Fujian
Fujian
' , formerly romanised as Fukien or Huguing or Foukien, is a province on the southeast coast of mainland China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, and Guangdong to the south. Taiwan lies to the east, across the Taiwan Strait...
, Guangdong
Guangdong
Guangdong is a province on the South China Sea coast of the People's Republic of China. The province was previously often written with the alternative English name Kwangtung Province...
and Hainan
Hainan
Hainan is the smallest province of the People's Republic of China . Although the province comprises some two hundred islands scattered among three archipelagos off the southern coast, of its land mass is Hainan Island , from which the province takes its name...
province. The Hokkiens
Hoklo people
The Hoklo people are Han Chinese people whose traditional Ancestral homes are in southern Fujian of South China...
, Teochews
Teochew people
The Chaozhou people are Han people, native to the Chaoshan region of eastern Guangdong province of China who speak the Teochew dialect. Today, most Teochew people live outside China in Southeast Asia especially in Singapore, Thailand, and Malaysia. They can also be found almost anywhere in the...
and Cantonese
Cantonese people
The Cantonese people are Han people whose ancestral homes are in Guangdong, China. The term "Cantonese people" would then be synonymous with the Bun Dei sub-ethnic group, and is sometimes known as Gwong Fu Jan for this narrower definition...
jointly form more than three-quarters of the Chinese population. The Hakka
Hakka people
The Hakka , sometimes Hakka Han, are Han Chinese who speak the Hakka language and have links to the provincial areas of Guangdong, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Sichuan, Hunan and Fujian in China....
, Hainanese and other groups account for most of the remainder. These are generally the descendants of the migrants from southern China during the 19th and early half of 20th century (first and second wave of migration) and are typically known as "local Singaporean Chinese" (新加坡本地华人). The 1990s and early 21st century saw Singapore experiencing a third wave of new Chinese migration from different parts of China.
Inter-marrying between different Chinese language/ancestral groups is quite common in Singapore, but association of linguistic-cultural group will follow the respective ancestry of the father's side. For instance, if one's father is of Hokkien ancestry and another's mother is of Teochew ancestry, the children will tend to associate themselves as Hokkien (i.e. following the roots of the father). Some Chinese Singaporeans also tend to associate themselves with their clans and ancestral origins, as seen in Singapore Chinese Clan Associations.
| Dialect Group | Ancestral home | 1990 | 2000 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Hokkiens Hoklo people The Hoklo people are Han Chinese people whose traditional Ancestral homes are in southern Fujian of South China... |
Xiamen Xiamen Xiamen , also known as Amoy , is a major city on the southeast coast of the People's Republic of China. It is administered as a sub-provincial city of Fujian province with an area of and population of 3.53 million... (厦门), Quanzhou Quanzhou Quanzhou is a prefecture-level city in Fujian province, People's Republic of China. It borders all other prefecture-level cities in Fujian but two and faces the Taiwan Strait... (泉州), Zhangzhou Zhangzhou Zhangzhou is a prefecture-level city in southern Fujian province, People's Republic of China. Located on the banks of the Jiulong River , Zhangzhou borders the cities of Xiamen and Quanzhou to the northeast, Longyan City to the northwest and the province of Guangdong to the southwest.Zhangzhou... (漳州), Tongan Tong'an District Tong'an District is a northern mainland district of Xiamen which faces Jinmen. Tong'an is located on the southeast of Fujian province. To the north is Anxi and Nan'an, to the south is Jimei. Tong'an is also east of Lianxiang and Changqin to the West... (同安), Nanan Nan'an, Fujian Nan'an is a county-level city within the Quanzhou prefecture level city, Fujian province, China. As of 2010 the city has a population of 1,500,000. More than 3,000,000 overseas Chinese trace their ancestry to Nan'an. -History:... (南安), Anxi Anxi County is a county in the municipal region of Quanzhou, Fujian Province. It lies adjacent to and directly north of Xiamen.Anxi is well-known for a number of varieties of Oolong tea, the most well-known of which is Tieguanyin .... (安溪), Huian (惠安), Yongchun Yongchun County Yongchun County is a county of Fujian province, China. It is under the administration of Quanzhou city.Many Overseas Chinese in south-east Asia have ancestors from Yongchun.-External links:... (永春), Longhai Longhai, Fujian Longhai is a County-level city within the municipality of Zhangzhou. Longhai comprises territory on both banks of the lower Jiulong Jiang River; the left bank yields to Xiamen before reaching the sea, the right bank becomes the south shore of Xiamen Bay and is home to the Zhangzhou Gang... (龍海), Jinjiang (晉江) |
896,080 | 1,028,490 |
| Teochews Teochew people The Chaozhou people are Han people, native to the Chaoshan region of eastern Guangdong province of China who speak the Teochew dialect. Today, most Teochew people live outside China in Southeast Asia especially in Singapore, Thailand, and Malaysia. They can also be found almost anywhere in the... |
Chaozhou Chaozhou Chaozhou is a city in eastern Guangdong province of the People's Republic of China. It borders Shantou to the south, Jieyang to the southwest, Meizhou to the northwest, the province of Fujian to the east, and the South China Sea to the southeast... (潮州), Shantou Shantou Shantou , historically known as Swatow or Suátao, is a prefecture-level city on the eastern coast of Guangdong province, People's Republic of China, with a total population of 5,391,028 as of 2010 and an administrative area of... (汕头), Chaoan Chao'an County Chao'an County is a county in eastern Guangdong Province.It has an area of 1238.77 square kilometers and a population of 1,076,500... (潮安), Chaoyang (潮陽), Jieyang Jieyang Jieyang is a prefecture-level city in Guangdong Province, People's Republic of China. It borders Shantou to the east, Chaozhou to the northeast, Meizhou to the north, Shanwei to the west, and looks out to the South China Sea to the south.-Administration:... (揭阳), Raoping (饒平), Chenghai Chenghai District Chenghai or Tenghai is a district of the city of Shantou, Guangdong Province, People's Republic of China.It is the birthplace of Qin Mu, and Hai-Hong, the father of Taksin who was a Thai king.... (澄海), Puning Puning Puning is a county-level city in the municipal region of Jieyang, Guangdong, China.-Puning in the News:The city's family planning excesses attracted first national then international attention in 2010 April due to the Iron Fist Campaign.... (普寧), Huilai Huilai County Huilai County is a county located in the southeast of Guangdong Province of Southern China. It lies under the jurisdiction of Jieyang.... (惠來) |
466,020 | 526,200 |
| Cantonese Cantonese people The Cantonese people are Han people whose ancestral homes are in Guangdong, China. The term "Cantonese people" would then be synonymous with the Bun Dei sub-ethnic group, and is sometimes known as Gwong Fu Jan for this narrower definition... |
Guangzhou Guangzhou Guangzhou , known historically as Canton or Kwangchow, is the capital and largest city of the Guangdong province in the People's Republic of China. Located in southern China on the Pearl River, about north-northwest of Hong Kong, Guangzhou is a key national transportation hub and trading port... (广州), Zhaoqing Zhaoqing Zhaoqing is a prefecture-level city of Guangdong province in southern China.-Geography:Zhaoqing is located 110 km northwest of Guangzhou, in the west Pearl River Delta. It lies on the north shores of the Xijiang River, which is flows from west to east, and opposite of Gaoyao... (肇庆), Shunde Shunde Shunde District is a district of Foshan prefecture-level city in the Pearl River Delta, Guangdong Province, southeast China.-Administration:Shunde was a county-level city until December 8, 2002, when it became a district of Foshan prefecture-level city... (顺德), Taishan Taishan Taishan is a coastal county-level city in Guangdong Province, China. The city is part of the Greater Taishan Region.... (台山), Heshan (鹤山) |
327,870 | 385,630 |
| Hakkas Hakka people The Hakka , sometimes Hakka Han, are Han Chinese who speak the Hakka language and have links to the provincial areas of Guangdong, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Sichuan, Hunan and Fujian in China.... |
Meixian (梅县), Dapu Dabu County Dabu County is a district of Meizhou, Guangdong Province of China. It is a center of Hakka culture. In Survivor : Micronesia the merged tribe was named Dabu.... (大埔), Huizhou Huizhou Huizhou , historically known as Waichow, is a city located in central Guangdong province of the People's Republic of China. Part of the Pearl River Delta, Huizhou borders the provincial capital of Guangzhou to the west, Shaoguan to the north, Heyuan to the northeast, Shanwei to the east, Shenzhen... (惠州) |
155,980 | 198,440 |
| Hainanese | Wenchang Wenchang Wenchang is a county-level city located in the north east of Hainan province, China. It was promoted from a county to a city on November 7, 1995, and had a population of 86,551 in 1999... (文昌), Haikou Haikou Hǎikǒu , is the capital and most populous city of Hainan Province, in the People's Republic of China. It is situated on the northern coast of Hainan, by the mouth of the Nandu River... (海口) |
148,740 | 167,590 |
| Foochows (Min Dong) | Fuzhou Fuzhou Fuzhou is the capital and one of the largest cities in Fujian Province, People's Republic of China. Along with the many counties of Ningde, those of Fuzhou are considered to constitute the Mindong linguistic and cultural area.... (福州) |
36,490 | 46,890 |
| Henghua (Puxian/Putian) Putian people The Putian Han or Putian people are Han Chinese people from Putian, part of Fujian Province, China. They speak Puxian Min, a Min language. Min is one of the Sinitic languages.... |
Putian Putian Putian is a prefecture-level city in eastern Fujian province, People's Republic of China. It borders Fuzhou City to the north, Quanzhou City to the south, and the Taiwan Strait to the east.-Administration:... (莆田), Xianyou (仙游) |
19,990 | 23,540 |
| Shanghainese Shanghainese people The Shanghainese people also commonly referred to as Shanghaiers refers to the people whose families are from Shanghai, China, who can speak the Shanghainese dialect of the Wu language. With the prosperity of Shanghai, more and more migrants have been moving to Shanghai for school and work which... |
Shanghai Shanghai Shanghai is the largest city by population in China and the largest city proper in the world. It is one of the four province-level municipalities in the People's Republic of China, with a total population of over 23 million as of 2010... (上海) |
17,310 | 21,550 |
| Hockchia (Fuqing) Fuqing Fuqing is a county-level city of Fuzhou in Fujian, China.It is located in the eastern part of the province, borders the East China Sea, just southeast of Fuzhou and 45 kilometers from Changle International Airport of Fuzhou. Fuqing city has geographical advantage, for its location between... |
Fuqing Fuqing Fuqing is a county-level city of Fuzhou in Fujian, China.It is located in the eastern part of the province, borders the East China Sea, just southeast of Fuzhou and 45 kilometers from Changle International Airport of Fuzhou. Fuqing city has geographical advantage, for its location between... (福清) |
13,230 | 15,470 |
| Others | 50,150 | 91,590 | |
Min-Nan (Hokkien)
Hoklo people
The Hoklo people are Han Chinese people whose traditional Ancestral homes are in southern Fujian of South China...
(河洛人). They originated from the southern parts of the Fujian
Fujian
' , formerly romanised as Fukien or Huguing or Foukien, is a province on the southeast coast of mainland China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, and Guangdong to the south. Taiwan lies to the east, across the Taiwan Strait...
province (福建省), including Xiamen
Xiamen
Xiamen , also known as Amoy , is a major city on the southeast coast of the People's Republic of China. It is administered as a sub-provincial city of Fujian province with an area of and population of 3.53 million...
(厦门), Quanzhou
Quanzhou
Quanzhou is a prefecture-level city in Fujian province, People's Republic of China. It borders all other prefecture-level cities in Fujian but two and faces the Taiwan Strait...
(泉州), Zhangzhou
Zhangzhou
Zhangzhou is a prefecture-level city in southern Fujian province, People's Republic of China. Located on the banks of the Jiulong River , Zhangzhou borders the cities of Xiamen and Quanzhou to the northeast, Longyan City to the northwest and the province of Guangdong to the southwest.Zhangzhou...
(漳州) and other Min-nan towns/villages such as Tongan
Tong'an District
Tong'an District is a northern mainland district of Xiamen which faces Jinmen. Tong'an is located on the southeast of Fujian province. To the north is Anxi and Nan'an, to the south is Jimei. Tong'an is also east of Lianxiang and Changqin to the West...
(同安), Nanan
Nan'an, Fujian
Nan'an is a county-level city within the Quanzhou prefecture level city, Fujian province, China. As of 2010 the city has a population of 1,500,000. More than 3,000,000 overseas Chinese trace their ancestry to Nan'an. -History:...
(南安), Anxi
Anxi County
is a county in the municipal region of Quanzhou, Fujian Province. It lies adjacent to and directly north of Xiamen.Anxi is well-known for a number of varieties of Oolong tea, the most well-known of which is Tieguanyin ....
(安溪), Huian (惠安), Yongchun
Yongchun County
Yongchun County is a county of Fujian province, China. It is under the administration of Quanzhou city.Many Overseas Chinese in south-east Asia have ancestors from Yongchun.-External links:...
(永春), Longhai
Longhai, Fujian
Longhai is a County-level city within the municipality of Zhangzhou. Longhai comprises territory on both banks of the lower Jiulong Jiang River; the left bank yields to Xiamen before reaching the sea, the right bank becomes the south shore of Xiamen Bay and is home to the Zhangzhou Gang...
(龍海), Jinjiang (晉江) etc.
They speak Singaporean Hokkien
Singaporean Hokkien
Singaporean Hokkien is a local variant of the Hokkien dialect spoken in Singapore. It is closely related to the Southern Malaysian Hokkien spoken in Southern Malaysia as well as Riau Hokkien spoken in the Indonesian province of Riau...
, the standard of which is based on the Amoy dialect (厦门话 / 厦门闽南语) of Hokkien, a Min-nan (闽南) language, which is 50.4% comprehensible with Teochew (潮州话), and less so with Hainanese (海南话). The Hokkien language was a lingua franca
Lingua franca
A lingua franca is a language systematically used to make communication possible between people not sharing a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both mother tongues.-Characteristics:"Lingua franca" is a functionally defined term, independent of the linguistic...
amongst the various Chinese language groups and was also used by other ethnic groups such as the Malays
Malay people
Malays are an ethnic group of Austronesian people predominantly inhabiting the Malay Peninsula, including the southernmost parts of Thailand, the east coast of Sumatra, the coast of Borneo, and the smaller islands which lie between these locations...
and Indians
Demographics of India
The demographics of India are inclusive of the second most populous country in the world, with over 1.21 billion people , more than a sixth of the world's population. Already containing 17.5% of the world's population, India is projected to be the world's most populous country by 2025, surpassing...
to communicate with Chinese before Mandarin came into dominance during 1980s and 1990s.
What is noteworthy in Singapore is that "Hokkiens" do not refer to all the people originating from all parts of the Fujian province. It was only used to specifically refer to Min-nan people (闽南人) (i.e. people of southern Fujian province) who speak the Min-nan dialects (闽南语), otherwise also known in Singapore as simply "Hokkien" (福建话). In this sense, "Hokkiens" has excluded other people of Fujian provinces such as Fuzhou
Fuzhou
Fuzhou is the capital and one of the largest cities in Fujian Province, People's Republic of China. Along with the many counties of Ningde, those of Fuzhou are considered to constitute the Mindong linguistic and cultural area....
, Putian
Putian
Putian is a prefecture-level city in eastern Fujian province, People's Republic of China. It borders Fuzhou City to the north, Quanzhou City to the south, and the Taiwan Strait to the east.-Administration:...
etc.
Early Hokkien migrants settled around Amoy Street and Telok Ayer Street, forming enclaves around the Thian Hock Kheng Temple. They subsequently set up clan headquarters (Hokkien Huey Kuan) there and later expanded to Hokkien St and the vicinity of China Street. The Hokkiens were the most active in early trading that centred along the Singapore River
Singapore River
The Singapore River is a river in Singapore with great historical importance. The Singapore River flows from the Central Area, which lies in the Central Region in the southern part of Singapore before emptying into the ocean...
.
As early settlers came from the southern coast of China, they were active in sea trade and worshipped one of the patron-deities of Taoist pantheon
Pantheon (gods)
A pantheon is a set of all the gods of a particular polytheistic religion or mythology.Max Weber's 1922 opus, Economy and Society discusses the link between a...
, the Heavenly Mother or "Ma Zhu
Matsu (goddess)
Mazu , also spelt Matsu, is the indigenous goddess of the sea who is said to protect fishermen and sailors, and is invoked as the patron deity of all Southern Chinese and East Asian persons...
" who supposedly looked out for seafarers. Thian Hock Kheng Temple houses Goddess "Ma Zhu" (妈祖) and is thus also known as Ma Zhor Kheng. Another popular patron group of deities are the Nine Emperor Gods, a commemoration of the Emperors who were said in Taoist folklore to have brought peace and prosperity to the people. Among some Chinese Singaporeans, the supreme Taoist God, the Jade Emperor, is revered and his birthday on the 9th day of Chinese New Year
Chinese New Year
Chinese New Year – often called Chinese Lunar New Year although it actually is lunisolar – is the most important of the traditional Chinese holidays. It is an all East and South-East-Asia celebration...
is accorded utmost prominence by them.
An official Taoist practice by a Taoist spiritual medium known as "Tangki 乩童" (a Hokkien term derived from Taiwan) is also popular amongst some Taoist Chinese. In this ceremony, the spiritual medium goes into a trance and is thought to establish a channel of communication between the mortal petitioner and the chosen Deity. It is said that the Taoist Deity
Deity
A deity is a recognized preternatural or supernatural immortal being, who may be thought of as holy, divine, or sacred, held in high regard, and respected by believers....
transmogrifies the spiritual medium and provides a wide range of help to devotees ranging from religious rituals to health, business, domestic queries and requests like a talisman to protect their loved ones.
Teochew
Teochew people
The Chaozhou people are Han people, native to the Chaoshan region of eastern Guangdong province of China who speak the Teochew dialect. Today, most Teochew people live outside China in Southeast Asia especially in Singapore, Thailand, and Malaysia. They can also be found almost anywhere in the...
(潮州人) in Singapore constitute about 21% of the Chinese population in Singapore, making them the second largest Chinese dialect group in Singapore. They originated from Chaoshan
Chaoshan
Cháoshàn refers to the linguistic and cultural region in the east of Guangdong, a southeastern province of China. This region is the origin of the Min Nan dialect Teochew. The area is known as Teochew for most people overseas, although it also consists of the cities of Shantou and Jieyang...
region in the eastern part of Guangdong
Guangdong
Guangdong is a province on the South China Sea coast of the People's Republic of China. The province was previously often written with the alternative English name Kwangtung Province...
province of China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
, including Chaozhou
Chaozhou
Chaozhou is a city in eastern Guangdong province of the People's Republic of China. It borders Shantou to the south, Jieyang to the southwest, Meizhou to the northwest, the province of Fujian to the east, and the South China Sea to the southeast...
(潮州), Shantou
Shantou
Shantou , historically known as Swatow or Suátao, is a prefecture-level city on the eastern coast of Guangdong province, People's Republic of China, with a total population of 5,391,028 as of 2010 and an administrative area of...
(汕头), Jieyang
Jieyang
Jieyang is a prefecture-level city in Guangdong Province, People's Republic of China. It borders Shantou to the east, Chaozhou to the northeast, Meizhou to the north, Shanwei to the west, and looks out to the South China Sea to the south.-Administration:...
(揭阳), etc.
The Teochew people speak Teochew, another Min-Nan language, which is 50.4% mutually intelligible with Hokkien. The Teochews, like the Hainanese, trace their ancestry to southern Fujian (福建). Their migration from southern Fujian to their new homes in what is now known as the Chaoshan region and Hainan Island respectively was due mainly to overpopulation and famine in the southern Fujian region. Despite linguistic and cultural similarities, the Teochews and Hokkiens considered themselves distinct and did not get along well during their early settlement in Singapore, especially during the British colonial era. Like the Hokkiens, the Teochews similarly shared the Taoist belief of a Taoist spiritual medium.
The Teochews were the dominant Chinese Language group for a period of time during the 19th century. Mass emigration of Chinese from Fujian later caused the Hokkiens to outnumber the Teochews, especially in the south. The majority of the Chinese living along the banks of the Straits of Johor
Straits of Johor
The Straits of Johor is a strait that separates the Malaysian state of Johor to the north from Singapore to the south....
were largely Teochew until the HDB initiated mass redevelopment from the 1980s onwards.
The majority of the Teochews settled along the banks of the Singapore River
Singapore River
The Singapore River is a river in Singapore with great historical importance. The Singapore River flows from the Central Area, which lies in the Central Region in the southern part of Singapore before emptying into the ocean...
in Chinatown
Chinatown
A Chinatown is an ethnic enclave of overseas Chinese people, although it is often generalized to include various Southeast Asian people. Chinatowns exist throughout the world, including East Asia, Southeast Asia, the Americas, Australasia, and Europe. Binondo's Chinatown located in Manila,...
during the 19th and early 20th century. Teochews who settled in Chinatown worked in many commercial sectors as well as fishery
Fishery
Generally, a fishery is an entity engaged in raising or harvesting fish which is determined by some authority to be a fishery. According to the FAO, a fishery is typically defined in terms of the "people involved, species or type of fish, area of water or seabed, method of fishing, class of boats,...
. Traditional commercial sectors of Chinatown once dominated by Teochews include Circular Road and South Bridge Road.
Other Teochew businessmen set up gambier
Uncaria
Uncaria is a genus of flowering plants in the family Rubiaceae. It has about 40 species. Their distribution is pantropical, with most species native to tropical Asia, three from Africa and the Mediterranean and two from the neotropics. They are known colloquially as Gambier, Cat's Claw or Uña de...
and pepper
Black pepper
Black pepper is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae, cultivated for its fruit, which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning. The fruit, known as a peppercorn when dried, is approximately in diameter, dark red when fully mature, and, like all drupes, contains a single seed...
plantations in the dense forests of Singapore, parts of northern Singapore as well as Johor Bahru
Johor Bahru
Johor Bahru is the capital city of Johor in southern Malaysia. Johor Bahru is the southernmost city of the Eurasian mainland...
. The Chinese first started their plantations with the approval of the Sultan of Johor from the nineteenth century onwards. This attracted more Teochews to start their plantations in those areas over the years. As such, the "Kangchu" system eventually started to form. The Chinese word "Kang" (江) means river, while "Chu" (厝) means house. However, in this context, "Chu" is the clan's name of the first headman in charge of the plantations in the area. The "Kangchus" gave rise to modern place names such as Choa Chu Kang
Choa Chu Kang
Choa Chu Kang is a major residential town and neighbourhood and is a suburban area in the West Region of Singapore...
, Lim Chu Kang
Lim Chu Kang
Lim Chu Kang is a planning area located in the northwestern part of Singapore.-History:Lim Chu Kang Village was founded by Neo Tiew , a Chinese immigrant who was the sheriff of the village. The village is on the banks of the Sungei Kranji and was controlled by the Lim clan. Neo Tiew also set up a...
and Yio Chu Kang
Yio Chu Kang
Yio Chu Kang is a sub-urban area in the northeast of Singapore, with proximity to the Ang Mo Kio, Seletar and Serangoon areas. Deriving its name from the Yio Chu Kang Village, it is still known for lush greenery and low-density housing with high-rise public housing in its southern fringes...
, all of which were largely plantation areas prior to urban redevelopment.
Early Chinese immigrants clustered themselves to form clan and language associations. These clan associations or Kongsi served as unions for the mostly illiterate Chinese labourers and represented them when dealing with their colonial
Colonialism
Colonialism is the establishment, maintenance, acquisition and expansion of colonies in one territory by people from another territory. It is a process whereby the metropole claims sovereignty over the colony and the social structure, government, and economics of the colony are changed by...
rulers or employers. One of the more prominent clan associations for the Teochews was the Ngee Ann Kongsi
Ngee Ann Kongsi
The Ngee Ann Kongsi is a foundation governed by the Ngee Ann Kongsi Ordinance , that is actively involved in educational, cultural and welfare activities in Singapore. The Ordinance has undergone corrections in Parliament in 2007, adjusting many clauses to keep the Kongsi up to date...
, a Teochew-oriented association formed in 1845 that is still in existence.
The Straits Times
The Straits Times
The Straits Times is an English language daily broadsheet newspaper based in Singapore currently owned by Singapore Press Holdings . It is the country's highest-selling paper, with a current daily circulation of nearly 400,000...
highlighted that Hougang
Hougang
Hougang is an urban planning area and a suburb in the north-eastern area of the city-state of Singapore. Under classification by the Urban Redevelopment Authority, the area is part of the North-East Region, an urban planning division. Hougang borders Sengkang in the north and Serangoon to its...
has a relatively high concentration of Teochew residents.
Cantonese
The Cantonese (广东人) make up 15% of the Chinese Singaporean population. They originated from the southern region of GuangdongGuangdong
Guangdong is a province on the South China Sea coast of the People's Republic of China. The province was previously often written with the alternative English name Kwangtung Province...
province in China, including Guangzhou
Guangzhou
Guangzhou , known historically as Canton or Kwangchow, is the capital and largest city of the Guangdong province in the People's Republic of China. Located in southern China on the Pearl River, about north-northwest of Hong Kong, Guangzhou is a key national transportation hub and trading port...
(广州), Zhaoqing
Zhaoqing
Zhaoqing is a prefecture-level city of Guangdong province in southern China.-Geography:Zhaoqing is located 110 km northwest of Guangzhou, in the west Pearl River Delta. It lies on the north shores of the Xijiang River, which is flows from west to east, and opposite of Gaoyao...
(肇庆), Shunde
Shunde
Shunde District is a district of Foshan prefecture-level city in the Pearl River Delta, Guangdong Province, southeast China.-Administration:Shunde was a county-level city until December 8, 2002, when it became a district of Foshan prefecture-level city...
(顺德), Taishan
Taishan
Taishan is a coastal county-level city in Guangdong Province, China. The city is part of the Greater Taishan Region....
(台山), Heshan (鹤山), etc.
Unlike the Hokkien, Teochew and the Hainanese, the Cantonese speak a language belonging to the Yue family. The Cantonese community uses several dialect groups. Yue Hai is considered to be the purest form of Cantonese because of its close proximity with the language of Guangzhou
Guangzhou
Guangzhou , known historically as Canton or Kwangchow, is the capital and largest city of the Guangdong province in the People's Republic of China. Located in southern China on the Pearl River, about north-northwest of Hong Kong, Guangzhou is a key national transportation hub and trading port...
. Other variants include Luoguang, Seiyap and Gouyeung. The Gwainaam variant is largely based in Guangxi
Guangxi
Guangxi, formerly romanized Kwangsi, is a province of southern China along its border with Vietnam. In 1958, it became the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China, a region with special privileges created specifically for the Zhuang people.Guangxi's location, in...
and shares close affinity with Pinghua. As with the Hokkiens and Teochews, some Cantonese also share Taoist beliefs.
The Cantonese worked mainly as doctor
Physician
A physician is a health care provider who practices the profession of medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring human health through the study, diagnosis, and treatment of disease, injury and other physical and mental impairments...
s, politician
Politician
A politician, political leader, or political figure is an individual who is involved in influencing public policy and decision making...
s, teacher
Teacher
A teacher or schoolteacher is a person who provides education for pupils and students . The role of teacher is often formal and ongoing, carried out at a school or other place of formal education. In many countries, a person who wishes to become a teacher must first obtain specified professional...
s of classical Chinese
Classical Chinese
Classical Chinese or Literary Chinese is a traditional style of written Chinese based on the grammar and vocabulary of ancient Chinese, making it different from any modern spoken form of Chinese...
, goldsmith
Goldsmith
A goldsmith is a metalworker who specializes in working with gold and other precious metals. Since ancient times the techniques of a goldsmith have evolved very little in order to produce items of jewelry of quality standards. In modern times actual goldsmiths are rare...
s, tailor
Tailor
A tailor is a person who makes, repairs, or alters clothing professionally, especially suits and men's clothing.Although the term dates to the thirteenth century, tailor took on its modern sense in the late eighteenth century, and now refers to makers of men's and women's suits, coats, trousers,...
s and restaurateur
Restaurant
A restaurant is an establishment which prepares and serves food and drink to customers in return for money. Meals are generally served and eaten on premises, but many restaurants also offer take-out and food delivery services...
s during the early and mid 20th century, and their businesses dominated the shop houses along Temple Street, Pagoda Street, and Mosque Street.
Cantonese women from the Samsui district (Chinese
Chinese character
Chinese characters are logograms used in the writing of Chinese and Japanese , less frequently Korean , formerly Vietnamese , or other languages...
: 三水区; pinyin
Pinyin
Pinyin is the official system to transcribe Chinese characters into the Roman alphabet in China, Malaysia, Singapore and Taiwan. It is also often used to teach Mandarin Chinese and spell Chinese names in foreign publications and used as an input method to enter Chinese characters into...
: Sānshǔi Qū), worked in construction sites, and contributed greatly toward Singapore's development. These Samsui women
Samsui women
The term Samsui women broadly refers to a group of Chinese immigrants who came to Singapore between the 1920s and the 1940s in search of construction and industrial jobs...
left their families behind in China and came to Singapore to work in construction sites for a living during the early 20th century. They were noted for their distinctive navy-blue outfits and bright red headgear, which were meant for protecting their hair as they worked. The headgear was first worn by Wang Chao Yun (王朝云 字子霞), a concubine of Su Dongpo
Su Shi
Su Shi , was a writer, poet, artist, calligrapher, pharmacologist, gastronome, and statesman of the Song Dynasty, and one of the major poets of the Song era. His courtesy name was Zizhan and his pseudonym was Dongpo Jushi , and he is often referred to as Su Dongpo...
, in the Hakka Fui Chiu district of Guangdong province and it eventually became the traditional headgear of Hakkas. Cantonese women who worked alongside female Hakka labourers adopted the use of the headgear.
Cantonese women from the Seiyap
Sze Yup
Sze Yup, Sze Yap, Seiyap refers to the four former counties of Xinhui, Taishan, Kaiping and Enping in the Pearl River Delta of southern Guangdong province, China. Xinhui is a city district and the other three are county-level cities, all four belong to Jiangmen prefecture administered from the...
(Chinese
Chinese character
Chinese characters are logograms used in the writing of Chinese and Japanese , less frequently Korean , formerly Vietnamese , or other languages...
: 四邑) district in the Jiangmen
Jiangmen
Jiangmen , is a prefecture-level city in Guangdong province in southern China with a population of about 4.48 million in 2010. The 3 urban districts are now part of Guangzhou - Shenzhen built up area.-Names:...
prefecture wore black headgear similar to the Samsui women. Seiyap women who wore black headgear mainly worked in shipyard
Shipyard
Shipyards and dockyards are places which repair and build ships. These can be yachts, military vessels, cruise liners or other cargo or passenger ships. Dockyards are sometimes more associated with maintenance and basing activities than shipyards, which are sometimes associated more with initial...
s at the old harbour along Singapore river
Singapore River
The Singapore River is a river in Singapore with great historical importance. The Singapore River flows from the Central Area, which lies in the Central Region in the southern part of Singapore before emptying into the ocean...
as well as at Keppel Harbour
Keppel Harbour
Keppel Harbour is a stretch of water in Singapore between the mainland and the southern islands of Pulau Brani and Sentosa. Its naturally sheltered and deep waters was to meet the requirements of British colonists attempting to establish a Far East maritime colony in that part of the world, and...
.
Singaporeans recognize Chinatown
Chinatown, Singapore
Singapore's Chinatown is an ethnic neighbourhood featuring distinctly Chinese cultural elements and a historically concentrated ethnic Chinese population. Chinatown is located within the larger district of Outram....
for having a large number of Cantonese people.
Hakka
Hakka people
The Hakka , sometimes Hakka Han, are Han Chinese who speak the Hakka language and have links to the provincial areas of Guangdong, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Sichuan, Hunan and Fujian in China....
(客家人) constitute 11.4%. They originated mainly from the Hakka
Hakka
The Hakka , sometimes Hakka Han, are Han Chinese who speak the Hakka language and have links to the provincial areas of Guangdong, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Sichuan, Hunan and Fujian in China....
-speaking region (north-eastern part) of Guangdong
Guangdong
Guangdong is a province on the South China Sea coast of the People's Republic of China. The province was previously often written with the alternative English name Kwangtung Province...
province in China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
, such as Meixian (梅县), Dapu
Dabu County
Dabu County is a district of Meizhou, Guangdong Province of China. It is a center of Hakka culture. In Survivor : Micronesia the merged tribe was named Dabu....
(大埔), etc. Mr. Lee Kuan Yew
Lee Kuan Yew
Lee Kuan Yew, GCMG, CH is a Singaporean statesman. He was the first Prime Minister of the Republic of Singapore, governing for three decades...
, the founding father of the Republic of Singapore
Singapore
Singapore , officially the Republic of Singapore, is a Southeast Asian city-state off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, north of the equator. An island country made up of 63 islands, it is separated from Malaysia by the Straits of Johor to its north and from Indonesia's Riau Islands by the...
has Hakka ancestry originating from Dapu
Dabu County
Dabu County is a district of Meizhou, Guangdong Province of China. It is a center of Hakka culture. In Survivor : Micronesia the merged tribe was named Dabu....
(大埔).
Since the Hakka language is somewhat similar to Mandarin, albeit strongly influenced by Min-nan and Yue, the Hakkas were long thought to have migrated from Northern China between the 4th and the 13th century. Recent genetic studies, however, have shown that the Hakkas originated from Southern China, like the other Chinese language groups in Singapore.
Many Hakka women who came to Singapore during the early 20th century worked in construction sites and wore headgear similar to the Samsui women. However, unlike the Samsui women, those Hakka women wore black, rather than red headgear.
Hainanese, Min Dong and Puxian Min
This group constitutes 5% of the Chinese Singaporean population. Of them, the majority are Hainanese (海南人), from HainanHainan
Hainan is the smallest province of the People's Republic of China . Although the province comprises some two hundred islands scattered among three archipelagos off the southern coast, of its land mass is Hainan Island , from which the province takes its name...
, speaking Hainanese. The Hainanese in Singapore originated mainly from north-eastern region of Hainan
Hainan
Hainan is the smallest province of the People's Republic of China . Although the province comprises some two hundred islands scattered among three archipelagos off the southern coast, of its land mass is Hainan Island , from which the province takes its name...
island, including Wenchang
Wenchang
Wenchang is a county-level city located in the north east of Hainan province, China. It was promoted from a county to a city on November 7, 1995, and had a population of 86,551 in 1999...
(文昌) and Haikou
Haikou
Hǎikǒu , is the capital and most populous city of Hainan Province, in the People's Republic of China. It is situated on the northern coast of Hainan, by the mouth of the Nandu River...
(海口).
As late-comers to Singapore (late 19th century), most of them worked as shop helpers, chefs, and waiters in the hospitality
Hospitality
Hospitality is the relationship between guest and host, or the act or practice of being hospitable. Specifically, this includes the reception and entertainment of guests, visitors, or strangers, resorts, membership clubs, conventions, attractions, special events, and other services for travelers...
sector. Hainanese chicken rice
Hainanese chicken rice
Hainanese chicken rice is a dish of Chinese origin most commonly associated with Hainanese and Singaporean cuisine, although it is also commonly sold in neighbouring Thailand and Malaysia...
is a famous dish.
The Singaporean Hainanese were also known for their Western food, as many of the early Hainanese migrants worked as cooks on European ships.
The Hockchew (Fuzhou
Fuzhou
Fuzhou is the capital and one of the largest cities in Fujian Province, People's Republic of China. Along with the many counties of Ningde, those of Fuzhou are considered to constitute the Mindong linguistic and cultural area....
福州人) and Hockchia (福清人) originated from Northeastern Fujian
Fujian
' , formerly romanised as Fukien or Huguing or Foukien, is a province on the southeast coast of mainland China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, and Guangdong to the south. Taiwan lies to the east, across the Taiwan Strait...
province and Southern Zhejiang
Zhejiang
Zhejiang is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. The word Zhejiang was the old name of the Qiantang River, which passes through Hangzhou, the provincial capital...
province of China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
. They spoke various Eastern Min
Min Dong
The Eastern Min language, or Min Dong is the language mainly spoken in the eastern part of Fujian Province in China, in and near Fuzhou and Ningde. Fuzhou is the province's capital and largest city...
languages.
The Puxian or Hinghwas (兴化人) originated from Central Fujian i.e. Putian
Putian
Putian is a prefecture-level city in eastern Fujian province, People's Republic of China. It borders Fuzhou City to the north, Quanzhou City to the south, and the Taiwan Strait to the east.-Administration:...
and Xianyou and they speak Puxian Min
Puxian Min
Pu–Xian or Puxian Min , also known as Xinghua, is a branch of Min Chinese.Puxian is a word combination of two place names of Putian City and Xianyou County ....
.
Taiwanese
This group constitutes less than 2% of the Chinese Singaporean population. In Singapore, due to their small population, the TaiwaneseTaiwanese people
Taiwanese people may refer to individuals who either claim or are imputed cultural identity focused on the island of Taiwan and/or Taiwan Area which have been governed by the Republic of China since 1945...
(台湾人） are often sub-categorised into Singapore's larger Chinese language groups such as Hokkien and Hakka, to which the Taiwanese people usually belong. In recent years, the new Taiwanese immigrants form a distinctive group on their own. They speak Taiwanese Mandarin
Taiwanese Mandarin
Taiwanese Mandarin is a variant of Mandarin derived from the official Standard Mandarin spoken in Taiwan Area of the Republic of China . The latter's standard lect is known in Taiwan as 國語 , based on the phonology of the Beijing dialect together with the grammar of Vernacular Chinese...
, Taiwanese Hokkien, or Hakka, depending on their respective home languages (predominantly based on their Ancestral home languages originating from mainland China
Mainland China
Mainland China, the Chinese mainland or simply the mainland, is a geopolitical term that refers to the area under the jurisdiction of the People's Republic of China . According to the Taipei-based Mainland Affairs Council, the term excludes the PRC Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and...
). The Taiwanese in Singapore generally originated from various cities in Taiwan
Taiwan
Taiwan , also known, especially in the past, as Formosa , is the largest island of the same-named island group of East Asia in the western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. The island forms over 99% of the current territory of the Republic of China following...
, including Taipei
Taipei
Taipei City is the capital of the Republic of China and the central city of the largest metropolitan area of Taiwan. Situated at the northern tip of the island, Taipei is located on the Tamsui River, and is about 25 km southwest of Keelung, its port on the Pacific Ocean...
, Hsinchu
Hsinchu
Hsinchu City is a city in northern Taiwan. Hsinchu is popularly nicknamed "The Windy City" for its windy climate.Hsinchu City is administered as a special municipality within Taiwan . The city is bordered by Hsinchu County to the north and east, Miaoli County to the south, and the Taiwan Strait...
, Taichung
Taichung
-Demographics:Taichung’s population was an estimated 1,040,725 in August 2006. There are slightly more females in the city than males.24.32% of residents are children, while 16.63% are young people, 52.68% are middle-age, and 6.73% are elderly....
, Tainan, Kaohsiung
Kaohsiung
Kaohsiung is a city located in southwestern Taiwan, facing the Taiwan Strait on the west. Kaohsiung, officially named Kaohsiung City, is divided into thirty-eight districts. The city is one of five special municipalities of the Republic of China...
etc.
Migration of Chinese from Taiwan to Singapore could have begun as early as 1940s . According to verbal accounts by Singaporeans who have lived through the 1940s, many of the "Japanese" soldiers, who were involved in the occupation of Singapore during World War II, were in fact Taiwanese serving in the Imperial Japanese Army. Verbal accounts also indicate that many Chinese teachers teaching the Chinese language in the 1950s and 1960s came from Taiwan
Taiwan
Taiwan , also known, especially in the past, as Formosa , is the largest island of the same-named island group of East Asia in the western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. The island forms over 99% of the current territory of the Republic of China following...
. After 1965, due to military ties with Taiwan, some Taiwanese military personnel migrated to Singapore to serve as high ranking officers in Singapore Armed Forces (SAF). More immigration from Taiwan
Taiwan
Taiwan , also known, especially in the past, as Formosa , is the largest island of the same-named island group of East Asia in the western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. The island forms over 99% of the current territory of the Republic of China following...
began during the 1970s and 1980s as more Taiwanese came to Singapore to invest, work, live or study. Most of them are highly-educated, and employed in professions such as engineering, business, investment, research and education. There are also inter-marriages between Chinese Singaporean and Taiwanese, resulting in the Taiwanese partner moving to Singapore and obtain citizenship. As of 2009, the estimated population of Taiwanese in Singapore is around 60,000.
Hong Kong
This group consists of most whom migrated to Singapore in the late 1980s' to early 1990s' due to the take over of Hong Kong by People's Republic of China.Peranakan
Peranakan
Peranakan Chinese and Baba-Nyonya are terms used for the descendants of late 15th and 16th-century Chinese immigrants to the Indonesian archipelago of Nusantara during the Colonial era....
, also known as Baba-Nyonya, are early Chinese immigrants from Malacca
Malacca
Malacca , dubbed The Historic State or Negeri Bersejarah among locals) is the third smallest Malaysian state, after Perlis and Penang. It is located in the southern region of the Malay Peninsula, on the Straits of Malacca. It borders Negeri Sembilan to the north and the state of Johor to the south...
and Penang, many who later migrated to Singapore. As they are of mixed Chinese and Malays ancestry, the Peranakans are classified as a separate ethnic group from the Han Chinese
Han Chinese
Han Chinese are an ethnic group native to China and are the largest single ethnic group in the world.Han Chinese constitute about 92% of the population of the People's Republic of China , 98% of the population of the Republic of China , 78% of the population of Singapore, and about 20% of the...
in Singapore. They embrace a fusion of Malay and Chinese
Chinese people
The term Chinese people may refer to any of the following:*People with Han Chinese ethnicity ....
cultures but have their own distinct identity. The men are known as Baba while the women are known as Bibiks or Nyonyas. Peranakans in Singapore were once concentrated around Geylang (where many Malays lived) and Katong
Katong
Katong is a residential area in the east of Singapore near the seafront. Formerly located by the sea, land was reclaimed all the way to East Coast Park to provide more land for housing and recreational purposes due to shortage of land in the late 1960s after Singapore gained independence.Katong was...
(a predominantly Chinese enclave). This is because the Peranakans were often intermediaries for businesses and social groups in colonial Singapore owing to their ability to speak English, Malay, and Hokkien.
Many Peranakans and Hokkien Chinese moved out of the congested town of Singapore - now the Central Business District (CBD) - and built seaside mansions and villas along the East Coast in Tanjong Katong ("Turtle Bay" in the Malay language) for their families.
After Singapore's independence in 1965, Peranankan people have moved throughout the island of Singapore. Peranakans in Singapore generally belong to the Hokkien and Teochew language groups and spoke Baba Malay and Chinese dialects as mother tongues. Many of them converted to Roman Catholicism during the 18th-century Portuguese colonisation of South-East Asia when missionaries set up posts in Batavia (Indonesia
Indonesia
Indonesia , officially the Republic of Indonesia , is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 13,000 islands. It has 33 provinces with over 238 million people, and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an...
) and Malaya
Malay Peninsula
The Malay Peninsula or Thai-Malay Peninsula is a peninsula in Southeast Asia. The land mass runs approximately north-south and, at its terminus, is the southern-most point of the Asian mainland...
(Malaysia).
The Peranakans were a transcultural mix of ethnic groups that blended colonial English style with indigenous Malay languages and Hokkien Chinese customs.
Wu-speaking peoples and others
Prior to 1990, Mandarin speakers from BeijingBeijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
and other Chinese provinces such as Shandong
Shandong
' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
, Sichuan
Sichuan
' , known formerly in the West by its postal map spellings of Szechwan or Szechuan is a province in Southwest China with its capital in Chengdu...
, Hubei
Hubei
' Hupeh) is a province in Central China. The name of the province means "north of the lake", referring to its position north of Lake Dongting...
etc., and Wu speakers from Shanghai
Shanghai
Shanghai is the largest city by population in China and the largest city proper in the world. It is one of the four province-level municipalities in the People's Republic of China, with a total population of over 23 million as of 2010...
, Jiangsu
Jiangsu
' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located along the east coast of the country. The name comes from jiang, short for the city of Jiangning , and su, for the city of Suzhou. The abbreviation for this province is "苏" , the second character of its name...
and Zhejiang
Zhejiang
Zhejiang is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. The word Zhejiang was the old name of the Qiantang River, which passes through Hangzhou, the provincial capital...
, constitute less than 2% of the Chinese Singaporean population. Most of the current population of native Mandarin speakers immigrated to Singapore much later than the other groups, specifically after the Singapore government relaxed immigration laws in 1989. They can all speak Standard Mandarin
Standard Mandarin
Standard Chinese or Modern Standard Chinese, also known as Mandarin or Putonghua, is the official language of the People's Republic of China and Republic of China , and is one of the four official languages of Singapore....
, the lingua franca
Lingua franca
A lingua franca is a language systematically used to make communication possible between people not sharing a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both mother tongues.-Characteristics:"Lingua franca" is a functionally defined term, independent of the linguistic...
among all the Chinese languages, and may be able to speak their own languages or dialects. Since 1990s, the population of PRC Chinese who come to Singapore to study and work has steadily increased every year. Eventually, many settle down in Singapore permanently and became Singapore permanent residents (PRs) or citizens. This group now constitutes about a fifth of Singapore's population.
The first- and second-generation Chinese Singaporeans who came to Singapore in the 1990s tend to be highly paid white-collar workers in multinational corporation
Multinational corporation
A multi national corporation or enterprise , is a corporation or an enterprise that manages production or delivers services in more than one country. It can also be referred to as an international corporation...
s or academia in research and educational institutes. There is also an increasing number of Chinese teachers from the PRC
People's Republic of China
China , officially the People's Republic of China , is the most populous country in the world, with over 1.3 billion citizens. Located in East Asia, the country covers approximately 9.6 million square kilometres...
working in primary and secondary schools and junior colleges in Singapore. From the late 1990s, due to a liberalisation of immigrants from China, Singapore has seen a large influx (third wave) of new China migrants from different parts of China. They came to Singapore to study or work in all sectors. While some returned to China after a temporary period of time, there were also many who eventually settled down permanently in Singapore. Immigrants from China during the 1990s and the early 21st century originated from different parts of China. They are typically known as "Xinyimin 新移民".
There are also many new Chinese immigrants from the neighbouring countries such as Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Philippines, Vietnam etc., all adding to the diversity of Chinese in Singapore.
Language
Overview
Traditionally, Chinese Singaporeans used their respective mother tongues as their main avenue of communication. Although that led to much inconvenience amongst the varying dialect groups, it has nevertheless forged strong dialectal bonds amongst the Chinese community.But today, the languages spoken by Chinese in Singapore exhibited a diversity including English
Singapore English
Singapore English refers to varieties of English spoken in Singapore.There are two main forms of English spoken in Singapore - Standard Singapore English and Singapore Colloquial English, or Singlish....
, Singlish
Singlish
Colloquial Singaporean English, also known as Singlish, is an English-based creole language spoken in Singapore.Singlish is commonly regarded with low prestige in Singapore. The Singaporean government and many Singaporeans alike heavily discourage the use of Singlish in favour of Standard English...
, Mandarin
Singaporean Mandarin
Singaporean Mandarin is a variety of Mandarin Chinese widely spoken in Singapore. It is one of the four official languages of Singapore along with English, Malay and Tamil....
, Singdarin
Singdarin
Colloquial Singaporean Mandarin, also known as Singdarin is an interlanguage native to Singapore. In Taiwan, this language variety is known as Singnese . It is based on Mandarin but has a large amount of English in its vocabulary. For this reason, Singdarin is sometimes known as "Anglo-Chinese"...
(Colloquial Singaporean Mandarin), Hokkien
Singaporean Hokkien
Singaporean Hokkien is a local variant of the Hokkien dialect spoken in Singapore. It is closely related to the Southern Malaysian Hokkien spoken in Southern Malaysia as well as Riau Hokkien spoken in the Indonesian province of Riau...
, Teochew, Cantonese
Cantonese
Cantonese is a dialect spoken primarily in south China.Cantonese may also refer to:* Yue Chinese, the Chinese language that includes Cantonese* Cantonese cuisine, the cuisine of Guangdong province...
, Hakka
Hakka
The Hakka , sometimes Hakka Han, are Han Chinese who speak the Hakka language and have links to the provincial areas of Guangdong, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Sichuan, Hunan and Fujian in China....
, Hainanese and other Chinese dialects. Most Chinese Singaporeans are generally bilingual, whereby they can speak both English and Mandarin or some other Chinese dialects.
Before 1980s
Before 1980s, Chinese Singaporean were either English-educated or Chinese-educated. The English educated Chinese were educated with English as the medium of instruction and learnt little or no Mandarin in school (In such cases, the Mandarin language became an optional language). As a result, they became affianced to English-speaking and inevitable distanced from the Chinese language and their respective mother tongues. On the other hand, the Chinese-educated were educated with Mandarin as the medium of instruction but learnt little or no English. They usually speak Mandarin and their respective mother tongues with little or no English. There were of course a portion of Chinese Singaporeans who were bi-lingual, i.e. simultaneously educated with English and Mandarin as the medium of instruction, or alternatively they attended Chinese-based primary schools and subsequently transferred to English-based schools from their secondary education.After 1980s
After 1980s, all schools (including former Chinese-based schools) in Singapore began to use English as the primary medium of instruction with Mandarin as a secondary language. Thus, Chinese Singaporean educated in the post-80s are usually bi-lingual.English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
is supposedly the 1st language and therefore presumably spoken by all Singapore residents. This was partly due to Singapore government's policy of making English the medium of instruction in all schools in the 1980s (including former Chinese-based schools),as well as making English the working language for administration and business in Singapore (in short making English the lingua franca
Lingua franca
A lingua franca is a language systematically used to make communication possible between people not sharing a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both mother tongues.-Characteristics:"Lingua franca" is a functionally defined term, independent of the linguistic...
among all Singaporean). The presence of English language in Singapore has its roots originating from Singapore's colonial past, whereby Singapore was part of British colony. As a result of the government's policy, English or Singlish has become widespread among the Singapore residents, including but not confining to the Chinese Singaporeans (esp. the young people). The increase of English/Singlish speaking Chinese family in Singapore was a result of misperceived social and cultural values that the preservation of mother tongues is "low-class" resulting in desperate attempts to replace mother tongues with the English language. As of 2010, it was estimated that 32.6% of Singapore Chinese speak English at home. But at work or in the city and business district, English is the official lingua franca
Lingua franca
A lingua franca is a language systematically used to make communication possible between people not sharing a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both mother tongues.-Characteristics:"Lingua franca" is a functionally defined term, independent of the linguistic...
, but there remains a notably undeniable fact, albeit ironical, that the Hokkien dialect
Hokkien
Hokkien is a Hokkien word corresponding to Standard Chinese "Fujian". It may refer to:* Hokkien dialect, a dialect of Min Nan Chinese spoken in Southern Fujian , Taiwan, South-east Asia, and elsewhere....
remains extant amongst Singaporeans, not limiting to the Chinese, and operates as the unofficial common language.
Mandarin
Singaporean Mandarin
Singaporean Mandarin is a variety of Mandarin Chinese widely spoken in Singapore. It is one of the four official languages of Singapore along with English, Malay and Tamil....
is another widely spoken language among Chinese Singaporeans. As of 2010, it was estimated that 47.7% of Chinese Singaporeans speak Mandarin at home. Evidently, Singapore government's Speak Mandarin Campaign
Speak Mandarin Campaign
The Speak Mandarin Campaign is an initiative by the government of Singapore to encourage the Singaporean Chinese population to speak Mandarin, one of the four official languages of Singapore...
was launched in 1980s with the intention of making Mandarin the lingua franca
Lingua franca
A lingua franca is a language systematically used to make communication possible between people not sharing a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both mother tongues.-Characteristics:"Lingua franca" is a functionally defined term, independent of the linguistic...
among the Chinese in Singapore. It was intentionally a way to unify the Chinese from different dialect groups. In the 1990s, this campaign began to target the English-speaking Chinese Singaporeans. As a result of this campaign, Mandarin became widespread in places such as residential area, HDB, neighbourhood shopping and even business districts. Evidently, Mandarin is also often spoken in most "traditional Chinese-based" schools, despite the fact that English is their medium of instruction. Colloqually, as with all other languages spoken in Singapore, the Chinese Singaporeans prefers a localized flavour in mixing words from English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
, Hokkien
Hokkien
Hokkien is a Hokkien word corresponding to Standard Chinese "Fujian". It may refer to:* Hokkien dialect, a dialect of Min Nan Chinese spoken in Southern Fujian , Taiwan, South-east Asia, and elsewhere....
, Malay
Malaysian language
Malaysian or Standard Malay is the official language of Malaysia and a standardized form of the Malay language of the Austronesian family. It is over 80% cognate with Indonesian and is spoken natively by over 10 million people...
, and some other dialects, into the Mandarin language. Most young Chinese Singaporeans are capable of conversational Mandarin, but are weaker in their ability to write Mandarin.
Variations according to age group
The main languages spoken by Chinese Singaporean vary according to the age group. Most young Chinese Singaporean speak either English or Mandarin whilst the elderly, though able to converse in Mandarin, have preferred Chinese dialects such as HokkienHokkien
Hokkien is a Hokkien word corresponding to Standard Chinese "Fujian". It may refer to:* Hokkien dialect, a dialect of Min Nan Chinese spoken in Southern Fujian , Taiwan, South-east Asia, and elsewhere....
, Cantonese
Cantonese
Cantonese is a dialect spoken primarily in south China.Cantonese may also refer to:* Yue Chinese, the Chinese language that includes Cantonese* Cantonese cuisine, the cuisine of Guangdong province...
, Teochew, Hakka
Hakka
The Hakka , sometimes Hakka Han, are Han Chinese who speak the Hakka language and have links to the provincial areas of Guangdong, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Sichuan, Hunan and Fujian in China....
, or Hainanese. As the south-eastern Chinese dialects are not taught in school, the number of their speakers has steadily declined, and with it saw the deterioration of Chinese cultures and values. In addition, many parents have begun to communicate with their children solely in English, in the belief that the language is essential to attain upward social mobility. Many of the young Chinese in Singapore are unable to use their mother tongues fluently. However, a few years into the work force, be it white-collar or blue-collar, most would pick up the Hokkien dialect. This applies equally even to the more westernized Chinese Christian community, who prefers the English language over any other. This (the Hokkien dialect
Singaporean Hokkien
Singaporean Hokkien is a local variant of the Hokkien dialect spoken in Singapore. It is closely related to the Southern Malaysian Hokkien spoken in Southern Malaysia as well as Riau Hokkien spoken in the Indonesian province of Riau...
) apparently seems to be the only struggling force against the loss of Chinese cultural heritage.
Debate over preferred language
The question of which language is preferred in Singapore seem to have caused a series of debate among the Chinese Singaporeans recently. The question of declining standards in the command of the Chinese language amongst Chinese Singaporeans seems to cause several revision in the government's education package towards the Chinese language. The Singapore government's continued policy towards bilingualism for all Chinese Singaporean, which is to continue to pursue English as the first language while making Mandarin the lingua francaLingua franca
A lingua franca is a language systematically used to make communication possible between people not sharing a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both mother tongues.-Characteristics:"Lingua franca" is a functionally defined term, independent of the linguistic...
(or at least the 2nd language or home language) amongst all Chinese has drawn mixed responses. The more English-speaking Chinese Singaporeans will generally prefer English language as the lingua franca
Lingua franca
A lingua franca is a language systematically used to make communication possible between people not sharing a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both mother tongues.-Characteristics:"Lingua franca" is a functionally defined term, independent of the linguistic...
or their home language, while the Mandarin-speakers worries that English will replace Mandarin as the lingua franca
Lingua franca
A lingua franca is a language systematically used to make communication possible between people not sharing a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both mother tongues.-Characteristics:"Lingua franca" is a functionally defined term, independent of the linguistic...
, thus eliminating the thin thread of Chinese identity altogether, saw English as a strong competition. With the rising economy of China in the 21st century, which has led to more Singapore companies requiring fluency in Mandarin, Mandarin has been viewed with greater importance amongst the Singaporean Chinese than before and has risen in terms of prominence. Both English and Mandarin will continue to dominate the language scene among Chinese Singaporeans.
Chinese Dialects Preservation
There also exists a strong urge and need in preserving the dialect cultures in Singapore. The decline of the Chinese indigenous religion, TaoismTaoism
Taoism refers to a philosophical or religious tradition in which the basic concept is to establish harmony with the Tao , which is the mechanism of everything that exists...
, has also indirectly contributed to the deterioration of Chinese cultural heritage. Unless the government and Chinese Singaporeans take their own initiative in preserving dialect cultures, Chinese dialects may probably decline or even disappear from Singapore in the near future. There is thus a strong need to restore the Chinese identity or risk it falling into extinction one day. This exigency is translated into recent renewed efforts by Chinese clan associations in Singapore to impart and revive their respective Chinese mother tongues, which are met with warm receptions, including the younger generations. Therefore, there lies a greater challenge for the Chinese community in Singapore - the preservation of the Chinese identity - than just the satisfaction of linguistic domination and material gains.
| Language Most Frequently Spoken at Home Among Chinese Resident Population Aged 5 and Over. | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Home language | 1990 ('000) | 2000 ('000) | 1990 (%) | 2000 (%) | 2010 (%) |
| Total | 1,884.0 | 2,236.1 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 |
| English | 363.4 | 533.9 | 19.3 | 23.9 | 32.6 |
| Mandarin | 566.2 | 1,008.5 | 30.1 | 45.1 | 47.7 |
| Chinese Dialects | 948.1 | 685.8 | 50.3 | 30.7 | 19.2 |
| Others | 6.4 | 7.9 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.4 |
Chinese languages Media
In Singapore, Mandarin is generally propagated through various Mandarin Chinese TV media, cable TV and radio channels. Most Chinese dialect media (such as those of Hokkien, Cantonese) are generally censored in the mainstream Chinese media of Singapore, except for some Chinese dialect news broadcasting in radio channel FM95.8. HokkienHokkien
Hokkien is a Hokkien word corresponding to Standard Chinese "Fujian". It may refer to:* Hokkien dialect, a dialect of Min Nan Chinese spoken in Southern Fujian , Taiwan, South-east Asia, and elsewhere....
media from Taiwan
Taiwan
Taiwan , also known, especially in the past, as Formosa , is the largest island of the same-named island group of East Asia in the western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. The island forms over 99% of the current territory of the Republic of China following...
and Cantonese
Cantonese
Cantonese is a dialect spoken primarily in south China.Cantonese may also refer to:* Yue Chinese, the Chinese language that includes Cantonese* Cantonese cuisine, the cuisine of Guangdong province...
media from Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Hong Kong is one of two Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China , the other being Macau. A city-state situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South China Sea, it is renowned for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour...
are however easily available for sale in shops of Singapore and also present in Karaoke
Karaoke
is a form of interactive entertainment or video game in which amateur singers sing along with recorded music using a microphone and public address system. The music is typically a well-known pop song minus the lead vocal. Lyrics are usually displayed on a video screen, along with a moving symbol,...
lounges. Some cable channels in Singapore also have Hokkien
Hokkien
Hokkien is a Hokkien word corresponding to Standard Chinese "Fujian". It may refer to:* Hokkien dialect, a dialect of Min Nan Chinese spoken in Southern Fujian , Taiwan, South-east Asia, and elsewhere....
media from Taiwan
Taiwan
Taiwan , also known, especially in the past, as Formosa , is the largest island of the same-named island group of East Asia in the western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. The island forms over 99% of the current territory of the Republic of China following...
and Cantonese
Cantonese
Cantonese is a dialect spoken primarily in south China.Cantonese may also refer to:* Yue Chinese, the Chinese language that includes Cantonese* Cantonese cuisine, the cuisine of Guangdong province...
media from Hong Kong
Hong Kong
Hong Kong is one of two Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China , the other being Macau. A city-state situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South China Sea, it is renowned for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour...
.
Before 1980s
Singapore's Chinese education began with the establishment of old-style private Chinese schools (known as "Sishu 私塾") by early Chinese immigrants during the 19th century . These schools predominantly used various southern Chinese languages (such as HokkienHokkien
Hokkien is a Hokkien word corresponding to Standard Chinese "Fujian". It may refer to:* Hokkien dialect, a dialect of Min Nan Chinese spoken in Southern Fujian , Taiwan, South-east Asia, and elsewhere....
) as its medium to teach Chinese classics. In the 1920s, as influenced by China's New Cultural Movement, many Chinese schools in Singapore began to change its medium of instruction to Mandarin. During the British colonial times, the colonial government generally allowed the Chinese community in Singapore to organise and develop its own system of Chinese education. By 1930s and 1940s, with donations and fundings from the public, more Chinese organisations began to set up more Chinese schools. In 1953, the chairman of Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan
Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan
Singapore Hokkien Huay Kuan is a cultural and educational foundation. It was established in 1840 to promote education, social welfare and the preservation of the Chinese language and culture among immigrants of Chinese descent in Singapore and throughout Southeast Asia.-Educational...
, Mr.Tan Lark Sye
Tan Lark Sye
Tan Lark Sye was a prominent Singaporese Hoklo businessman and philanthropist.Born to a poor family, at the age of 18 Tan migrated to Singapore....
organised and helped to establish the first overseas Chinese-medium university (Nanyang University
Nanyang University
Nanyang University was a university in Singapore from 1956 to 1980. During its existence, it was Singapore's only Chinese language post-secondary institution...
) in Singapore, leading to the establishing of a well-structured Chinese-medium education system (from primary school to university) in Singapore.
However, after the 1960s, the left-wing communist ideology of People's Republic of China
People's Republic of China
China , officially the People's Republic of China , is the most populous country in the world, with over 1.3 billion citizens. Located in East Asia, the country covers approximately 9.6 million square kilometres...
and the cultural revolution
Cultural Revolution
The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, commonly known as the Cultural Revolution , was a socio-political movement that took place in the People's Republic of China from 1966 through 1976...
was in conflict with the capitalist
Capitalism
Capitalism is an economic system that became dominant in the Western world following the demise of feudalism. There is no consensus on the precise definition nor on how the term should be used as a historical category...
policy of Singapore. In order to attract western investments, Singapore decided to adopt the fundamental policy of making English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
its main lingua franca
Lingua franca
A lingua franca is a language systematically used to make communication possible between people not sharing a mother tongue, in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both mother tongues.-Characteristics:"Lingua franca" is a functionally defined term, independent of the linguistic...
and working language. In order to prevent the Singaporean Chinese from being influenced by left-wing political thoughts, Singapore greatly promoted English and placed less emphasis on Chinese education. On the one hand, it encouraged Chinese Singaporeans to attend English-medium schools for economic reasons; on the other hand, it initiated a public effort in denouncing communism. Due to a lesser proficiency in English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
, Chinese-educated Singaporeans often encountered difficulties in finding jobs in Singapore. Thus, the majority of Chinese Singaporeans sent their children to English-medium schools for better job prospects, causing the number of registered students at Chinese-medium schools to drop annually. All these factors (including that of government policy) eventually caused the Chinese-medium education system to perish in Singapore.
After 1980s
Since the early 1980s, the Singapore government gradually abolished the Chinese-medium education system in Singapore. Apart from Chinese languageChinese language
The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
and moral education subjects, all subjects are taught in English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
. However, to make sure that Singaporean Chinese still maintain and preserve their mother tongue (Chinese) culture, the Singapore government implemented the teaching of Chinese language in all schools: All Chinese Singaporeans had to learn Mandarin Chinese as a "second language". Singapore also established the Special Assistance Plan Schools
Special Assistance Plan
The Special Assistance Plan is a programme in Singapore which caters to academically strong students who excel in both their mother tongue as well as English. It is only available in selected secondary schools. In a SAP school, several subjects may be taught in the mother tongue, alongside other...
. These were formerly traditional Chinese-medium schools and were tasked with the nurturing of Chinese language and cultural talents. The Chinese subject in Singapore did not just involve the teaching of Chinese languages; it was also tasked with the mission of transmitting Chinese cultural values to Chinese Singaporeans. Because of the continuation of Chinese education in Singapore, the Chinese Singaporeans are generally able to speak, read, and write Mandarin Chinese. Chinese Singaporeans are thus one of the few overseas Chinese
Overseas Chinese
Overseas Chinese are people of Chinese birth or descent who live outside the Greater China Area . People of partial Chinese ancestry living outside the Greater China Area may also consider themselves Overseas Chinese....
communities (the other being Malaysian Chinese
Malaysian Chinese
Malaysian Chinese is a Malaysian of Chinese origin. Most are descendants of Chinese who arrived between the fifteenth and the mid-twentieth centuries. Within Malaysia, they are usually simply referred to as "Chinese" in all languages. The term Chinese Malaysian is also sometimes used to refer to...
) which still preserved the Chinese language
Chinese language
The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
and culture.
Inter-marriage
The Chinese in Singapore generally maintain a distinct communal identity and are more likely to intermarry within the Chinese community. Inter-marriage between different Chinese dialect groups are quite common. There is also a minority of Chinese in Singapore who inter-marry with other ethnic groups in Singapore such as Singaporean Malays, Singaporean Indians, Eurasians, Africans, CaucasiansCaucasian race
The term Caucasian race has been used to denote the general physical type of some or all of the populations of Europe, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, Western Asia , Central Asia and South Asia...
, Japanese
Japanese people
The are an ethnic group originating in the Japanese archipelago and are the predominant ethnic group of Japan. Worldwide, approximately 130 million people are of Japanese descent; of these, approximately 127 million are residents of Japan. People of Japanese ancestry who live in other countries...
, Koreans, etc.
Religion
According to the 2010 census, 43% of Singapore's Chinese population declared themselves to be BuddhistBuddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
, 14.4% Taoist
Taoism
Taoism refers to a philosophical or religious tradition in which the basic concept is to establish harmony with the Tao , which is the mechanism of everything that exists...
, 20.1% Christian
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
and 21.8% non-religious. The Chinese form the vast majority in these four groups, due to their dominance in Singapore.
The majority of the Chinese in Singapore register themselves as Buddhist, and a smaller number claimed to be Taoist. Many Chinese have retained to a certain extent the Taoist belief and practice which is an age-old Chinese tradition. Taoism was once the dominant belief system, but younger generations have either switched to Buddhism or have become non-religious. In Singapore, Chinese folks religious practice such as worship of certain folks deities is often classified under Taoist practice; Though in actual fact, this was inherited from the southern Chinese folk religious practice, which mixed Taoism, Confucianism and Buddhism together.
Food
Many of the Singaporean Chinese dishes were adapted by early Chinese immigrants to suit local circumstances (such as available ingredients) and cannot strictly be considered mainstream Chinese cuisineChinese cuisine
Chinese cuisine is any of several styles originating in the regions of China, some of which have become highly popular in other parts of the world – from Asia to the Americas, Australia, Western Europe and Southern Africa...
. Nevertheless, these dishes exhibited local Singaporean Chinese flavours and tastes. Most of the local Singaporean Chinese dishes such as Bak kut teh
Bak kut teh
Bak-kut-teh is a Chinese soup popularly served in Malaysia, Singapore, Mainland China and Taiwan and also, neighbouring regions like Riau Islands and Southern Thailand.The name literally translates as "meat bone tea", and, at its simplest, consists of meaty pork ribs simmered in a complex broth...
, Mee pok
Mee pok
Mee pok is a type of Chinese noodle characterized by its flat and yellow appearance, varying in thickness and width. The dish is of Teochew origin and is commonly served in a number of countries such as Chaoshan , Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand...
, Ban mian
Ban mian
Bǎn miàn is a Hokkien-style egg noodle soup common in parts of China's Fujian province, and also in other parts of the world such as Singapore and Malaysia, although the dish itself may vary significantly...
, Char kway teow
Char kway teow
Char kway teow, literally "stir-fried ricecake strips", is a popular noodle dish in Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei and Singapore. The dish was typically prepared at hawker stalls especially in Penang, Malaysia.It is made from flat rice noodles of approximately 1 cm or...
, Chee cheong fun, Hokkien mee
Hokkien mee
Hokkien mee refers to fried noodles cooked in Hokkien style. Hokkien mee is served in many Southeast Asian countries and was brought there by immigrants from Fujian province in southeastern China.-Types:...
, Hainanese chicken rice
Hainanese chicken rice
Hainanese chicken rice is a dish of Chinese origin most commonly associated with Hainanese and Singaporean cuisine, although it is also commonly sold in neighbouring Thailand and Malaysia...
, Wan ton mee, Popiah
Popiah
Popiah is a Fujian/Chaozhou-style fresh spring roll common in Taiwan, Singapore, and Malaysia. Popiah is often eaten in the Fujian province of China and its neighbouring Chaoshan on the Qingming Festival. In the Teochew dialect, popiah is pronounced as "Bo-BEE-a", which means "thin wafer"...
etc. can still be easily found in hawker centres or food courts throughout Singapore. Some Singaporean Chinese are vegetarians, as they may be devoted followers of Buddhism
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
, while others do not consume beef, especially those worshipping the Goddess of Mercy (Guan Yin). With the influx of new migrants from all parts of China in the 21st century, Chinese cuisine of a variety of regional flavours and tastes can be found across Chinese restaurants in Chinatown, Singapore
Chinatown, Singapore
Singapore's Chinatown is an ethnic neighbourhood featuring distinctly Chinese cultural elements and a historically concentrated ethnic Chinese population. Chinatown is located within the larger district of Outram....
or in other regions of Singapore, such as Sichuanese cuisine
Szechuan cuisine
Szechuan cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, or Szechwan cuisine is a style of Chinese cuisine originating in the Sichuan Province of southwestern China famed for bold flavors, particularly the pungency and spiciness resulting from liberal use of garlic and chili peppers, as well as the unique flavour of...
, North-eastern Chinese cuisine etc.
Cultural differences
Since most of the Singaporean Chinese have ancestry originating from southern China, the Singaporean Chinese culture generally has a closer affinity with the southern Chinese culture (predominantly that of FujianFujian
' , formerly romanised as Fukien or Huguing or Foukien, is a province on the southeast coast of mainland China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, and Guangdong to the south. Taiwan lies to the east, across the Taiwan Strait...
, Guangdong
Guangdong
Guangdong is a province on the South China Sea coast of the People's Republic of China. The province was previously often written with the alternative English name Kwangtung Province...
and Hainan
Hainan
Hainan is the smallest province of the People's Republic of China . Although the province comprises some two hundred islands scattered among three archipelagos off the southern coast, of its land mass is Hainan Island , from which the province takes its name...
province) instead of northern Chinese culture. This is especially true in terms of various southern Chinese dialects, customs, cultural, and religious practices in Singapore.
Although the Culture of Singapore
Culture of Singapore
Singapore was a part of British Malaya for many centuries. It was ruled by the Sultanate of Johor. In 1819, the British came to the Island and set up a port and colony. During British rule, the port of Singapore flourished and attracted many migrants...
is diverse in nature, Singapore is one of the few countries outside Greater China
Greater China
Greater China is a term used to refer to mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan. As a "phrase of the moment", the precise meaning is not entirely clear, and people may use it for only the commercial ties, only the cultural actions, or even as a euphemism for the Two Chinas, while others may...
with a vibrant Chinese cultural presence. Although Singapore's infrastructure and environment might seem Western, Chinese culture is generally present across all corners of Singapore. This includes the widespread use of different Chinese languages/dialects, various Chinese writings across Singapore, various Chinese press and entertainment media, a thriving Chinese pop culture, various Chinese organisations, Chinese cultural festivals, Chinese opera, Chinese religious activities, Chinese bookshops etc.
There exists, however, some degree of differences between the Singaporean Chinese and mainland Chinese in terms of mindset, culture, and languages. While the mainland Chinese are largely sino-centric in their outlook of the world, Singaporean Chinese are educated in English medium schools (but taught Chinese language throughout their education) and are exposed to western influences. As such, the local Singaporean Chinese culture is a blend and mix of southern Chinese culture, local Singaporean culture (with various influences from cultures of other ethnicity) and western culture.
There are also some differences in the Singaporean Chinese culture compared to that of China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
. Some traditional Chinese religious and folks custom are preserved by the Chinese community in Singapore, but are no longer practised or seen in China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
after the Chinese Cultural Revolution
Cultural Revolution
The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution, commonly known as the Cultural Revolution , was a socio-political movement that took place in the People's Republic of China from 1966 through 1976...
. This is especially true of regional rites and rituals practiced by Singaporean descendants of the peasant immigrants from southern China.
There are also distinctive recognisable differences between Singaporean Mandarin accent
Singaporean Mandarin
Singaporean Mandarin is a variety of Mandarin Chinese widely spoken in Singapore. It is one of the four official languages of Singapore along with English, Malay and Tamil....
and PRC's Mandarin accent
Standard Mandarin
Standard Chinese or Modern Standard Chinese, also known as Mandarin or Putonghua, is the official language of the People's Republic of China and Republic of China , and is one of the four official languages of Singapore....
. Colloquially , many Chinese Singaporeans also speak a mixed language, toggling between Singlish
Singlish
Colloquial Singaporean English, also known as Singlish, is an English-based creole language spoken in Singapore.Singlish is commonly regarded with low prestige in Singapore. The Singaporean government and many Singaporeans alike heavily discourage the use of Singlish in favour of Standard English...
or Singdarin
Singdarin
Colloquial Singaporean Mandarin, also known as Singdarin is an interlanguage native to Singapore. In Taiwan, this language variety is known as Singnese . It is based on Mandarin but has a large amount of English in its vocabulary. For this reason, Singdarin is sometimes known as "Anglo-Chinese"...
. Many of the local Chinese dialects in Singapore such as Hokkien
Singaporean Hokkien
Singaporean Hokkien is a local variant of the Hokkien dialect spoken in Singapore. It is closely related to the Southern Malaysian Hokkien spoken in Southern Malaysia as well as Riau Hokkien spoken in the Indonesian province of Riau...
, Teochew, or Cantonese have also been largely acculturated and differ from what is spoken in China.
Before 1819
The earliest records of Singapore in Imperial Chinese sources named Singapore as "Long Ya Men 龙牙门", "Ling Ya Men 凌衙门", "Dan Ma Xi 单马锡", "Dan Ma Xi 淡马锡", "Xi La 息辣", "Xi Li 息力" or "Shi le 石叻" etc.Archaeological excavations of artifacts such as Chinese coins or ceramics in Singapore, which dated back to the period of the reign of Emperor Zhenzong of Song
Emperor Zhenzong of Song
Emperor Zhenzong was the third emperor of the Song Dynasty of China. He reigned from 997 to 1022. Zhenzong was the third son of Emperor Taizong. His personal name was Zhao Heng and his temple name Zhenzong means "True Ancestor".Zhenzong's reign was noted for the consolidation of power and the...
(998-1022) and Emperor Renzong of Song
Emperor Renzong of Song
Emperor Renzong was the fourth emperor of the Song Dynasty of China. His personal name was Zhao Zhen . He reigned from 1022 to 1063. Renzong was the son of Emperor Zhenzong of Song. Despite his long reign of over 40 years, Renzong is not widely known...
(1023–1063), indicated that Chinese merchants or traders had already visited Singapore since Song dynasty
Song Dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
.
The Chinese record Annals of various foreign states 《诸蕃志》 (zhufanzhi) written by Zhao Rushi 赵汝适 in 1225 clearly described Chinese merchant ships arriving in Singapore from Quanzhou
Quanzhou
Quanzhou is a prefecture-level city in Fujian province, People's Republic of China. It borders all other prefecture-level cities in Fujian but two and faces the Taiwan Strait...
and various Chinese trading activities. In this annal, the chapter San Fo Qi men 三佛齐门 (the Chinese name for Srivijaya
Srivijaya
Srivijaya was a powerful ancient thalassocratic Malay empire based on the island of Sumatra, modern day Indonesia, which influenced much of Southeast Asia. The earliest solid proof of its existence dates from the 7th century; a Chinese monk, I-Tsing, wrote that he visited Srivijaya in 671 for 6...
) clearly recorded Chinese merchant ships must pass by "Ling Ya Men 凌衙门"(the ancient Chinese name for Singapore) in order to reach Srivijaya
Srivijaya
Srivijaya was a powerful ancient thalassocratic Malay empire based on the island of Sumatra, modern day Indonesia, which influenced much of Southeast Asia. The earliest solid proof of its existence dates from the 7th century; a Chinese monk, I-Tsing, wrote that he visited Srivijaya in 671 for 6...
for trading. The Chinese record Investigation of Southern Pacific 《南洋测蠡》 (Nanyang Celi) described the presence of Chinese tombs in Singapore (known as "Xin Ji Li Po 新忌利波" in Chinese). On the Chinese tomb, there were words and inscriptions recording the period of Later Liang Dynasty
Later Liang Dynasty
The Later Liang was one of the Five Dynasties during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period in China. It was founded by Zhu Wen, posthumously known as Taizu of Later Liang, after he forced the last emperor of the Tang dynasty to abdicate in his favour...
and Emperor Gong of Song
Emperor Gong of Song
Emperor Gong of Song Emperor Gong of Song Emperor Gong of Song (1271- unknown (possibly 1323), born Zhào Xiǎn (趙顯), was the 7th Emperor of the Chinese Southern Song Dynasty. He reigned from 1274 until his abdication in 1276 CE when he was succeeded by his elder brother, Emperor Duanzong of Song....
. This could have proven that from 907-1274, some Chinese had settled, lived, died and were buried in Singapore.
The Chinese traveller Wang Dayuan
Wang Dayuan
Wang Dayuan was a traveller from Quanzhou, China during the Yuan Dynasty in the 14th century. He made two major trips on ships. During 1328-1333, he sailed along the South China Sea and visited many places in Southeast Asia and reached as far as South Asia, landing in Sri Lanka and India...
, visiting the island around 1330, described a small Malay settlement called Dan Ma Xi (淡馬錫, from Malay Tamasik) containing a number of Chinese residents. According to Wang Dayuan
Wang Dayuan
Wang Dayuan was a traveller from Quanzhou, China during the Yuan Dynasty in the 14th century. He made two major trips on ships. During 1328-1333, he sailed along the South China Sea and visited many places in Southeast Asia and reached as far as South Asia, landing in Sri Lanka and India...
, the Chinese inhabitants of Singapore were dressed in local traditional costumes and generally intermarried with local South-East Asian women, following an amalgamamation of Hinduism
Hinduism
Hinduism is the predominant and indigenous religious tradition of the Indian Subcontinent. Hinduism is known to its followers as , amongst many other expressions...
, Buddhism
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
, and Taoism
Taoism
Taoism refers to a philosophical or religious tradition in which the basic concept is to establish harmony with the Tao , which is the mechanism of everything that exists...
. These were the earliest Peranakans of Singapore
Singapore
Singapore , officially the Republic of Singapore, is a Southeast Asian city-state off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, north of the equator. An island country made up of 63 islands, it is separated from Malaysia by the Straits of Johor to its north and from Indonesia's Riau Islands by the...
.
Following the decline of Srivijayan power, Temasek was alternately claimed by the Majapahit and the Siamese, but the invasion of 1377 and 1391 caused Singapore to be destroyed. Following that, there were little Chinese records of the visiting of Chinese to Singapore.
The Chinese explorer Zheng He
Zheng He
Zheng He , also known as Ma Sanbao and Hajji Mahmud Shamsuddin was a Hui-Chinese mariner, explorer, diplomat and fleet admiral, who commanded voyages to Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and East Africa, collectively referred to as the Voyages of Zheng He or Voyages of Cheng Ho from...
's naval voyage in 1403 indicated Singapore as Dan Ma Xi (淡馬錫, from Malay Tamasik). In 1420, en route the 6th voyage, Zheng He
Zheng He
Zheng He , also known as Ma Sanbao and Hajji Mahmud Shamsuddin was a Hui-Chinese mariner, explorer, diplomat and fleet admiral, who commanded voyages to Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and East Africa, collectively referred to as the Voyages of Zheng He or Voyages of Cheng Ho from...
passed by Singapore, but there were no records of presence of Chinese.
1819-1937
From the founding of modern Singapore by Stamford RafflesStamford Raffles
Sir Thomas Stamford Bingley Raffles, FRS was a British statesman, best known for his founding of the city of Singapore . He is often described as the "Father of Singapore"...
till the Japanese occupation in 1942, Singapore was ruled as a colony by the British. When the British first arrived in Singapore, most of the inhabitants on the island of Singapore were fisherman, seamen or pirates, living in small houses. There were about 150 people; about 30 were Chinese, while the rest were Malays.
When Singapore became a Straits Settlement, there were very few Chinese. After Singapore became a British trading post as part of the Straits Settlement, the first batch of Chinese came from Malaysia, predominantly from Malacca
Malacca
Malacca , dubbed The Historic State or Negeri Bersejarah among locals) is the third smallest Malaysian state, after Perlis and Penang. It is located in the southern region of the Malay Peninsula, on the Straits of Malacca. It borders Negeri Sembilan to the north and the state of Johor to the south...
and Penang
Penang
Penang is a state in Malaysia and the name of its constituent island, located on the northwest coast of Peninsular Malaysia by the Strait of Malacca. It is bordered by Kedah in the north and east, and Perak in the south. Penang is the second smallest Malaysian state in area after Perlis, and the...
. Amongst these Chinese from Malacca
Malacca
Malacca , dubbed The Historic State or Negeri Bersejarah among locals) is the third smallest Malaysian state, after Perlis and Penang. It is located in the southern region of the Malay Peninsula, on the Straits of Malacca. It borders Negeri Sembilan to the north and the state of Johor to the south...
and Penang
Penang
Penang is a state in Malaysia and the name of its constituent island, located on the northwest coast of Peninsular Malaysia by the Strait of Malacca. It is bordered by Kedah in the north and east, and Perak in the south. Penang is the second smallest Malaysian state in area after Perlis, and the...
, many were peranakans or descendants of Chinese in Malaysia for several generations. Most of them were traders and can speak Chinese dialects, Malays; while many were also English-educated and can communicate with the British. In the Manners and customs of the Chinese of the Straits Settlements, Singapore, it was described that the Straits-born Chinese regarded themselves as British subjects instead of Chinese subjects; their lifestyle were more westernized.
After Singapore
Singapore
Singapore , officially the Republic of Singapore, is a Southeast Asian city-state off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, north of the equator. An island country made up of 63 islands, it is separated from Malaysia by the Straits of Johor to its north and from Indonesia's Riau Islands by the...
became the capital of the British
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the...
Straits Settlements
Straits Settlements
The Straits Settlements were a group of British territories located in Southeast Asia.Originally established in 1826 as part of the territories controlled by the British East India Company, the Straits Settlements came under direct British control as a crown colony on 1 April 1867...
in 1832, the free trade policy attracted many Chinese from Mainland China
Mainland China
Mainland China, the Chinese mainland or simply the mainland, is a geopolitical term that refers to the area under the jurisdiction of the People's Republic of China . According to the Taipei-based Mainland Affairs Council, the term excludes the PRC Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and...
to trade, and many settled down in Singapore
Singapore
Singapore , officially the Republic of Singapore, is a Southeast Asian city-state off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, north of the equator. An island country made up of 63 islands, it is separated from Malaysia by the Straits of Johor to its north and from Indonesia's Riau Islands by the...
. Because of a booming commerce which required large number of labour force, Chinese coolie
Coolie
Historically, a coolie was a manual labourer or slave from Asia, particularly China, India, and the Phillipines during the 19th century and early 20th century...
trade also appeared in Singapore. Indentured Chinese labourers (known as coolie
Coolie
Historically, a coolie was a manual labourer or slave from Asia, particularly China, India, and the Phillipines during the 19th century and early 20th century...
) were contracted by coolie traders and brought to Singapore to work. The large influx of coolies into Singapore only stopped after William Pickering
William A. Pickering
William A. Pickering was the first Protector appointed by the British government to administer the Chinese Protectorate in colonial Singapore. He was the first European official in Singapore who could speak fluent Mandarin and Hokkien and gained the trust of many of the Singapore Chinese...
became the Protector of Chinese. In 1914, the coolie trade was abolished and banned in Singapore.
Because China banned the traveling of Chinese overseas before the Opium War, any form of coolie trade was conducted mainly through the Portuguese-controlled Macau
Macau
Macau , also spelled Macao , is, along with Hong Kong, one of the two special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China...
. Thus any form of large migration of Chinese labourers overseas in the beginning of 19th century is quite unlikely. It was only after the Treaty of Nanking
Treaty of Nanking
The Treaty of Nanking was signed on 29 August 1842 to mark the end of the First Opium War between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the Qing Dynasty of China...
signed on 1842 (due to Opium War) that large migration of Chinese coolie
Coolie
Historically, a coolie was a manual labourer or slave from Asia, particularly China, India, and the Phillipines during the 19th century and early 20th century...
began to appear. In 1860 under the 2nd Opium War, Chinese coolie trade became legalized and reached a high peak.
The large influx of Chinese to Singapore led to the establishment of a large number of Chinese associations, schools, and temples in Singapore and, within a century, the Chinese immigrant population exceeded that of the Malays. During this period, Christian
Christian
A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament...
missionaries from Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
began evangelising to the Asians, especially the Chinese. By 1849, the Chinese formed half of Singapore's population.
From 19th till mid 20th century, migrants from China were known as "Sinkeh"(新客 - New Guest). Out of these Sinkeh, a majority of them were coolies, workers on steam boats etc. Some of them came to Singapore in search of a better living and to escape away from poverty in China. Many of them also escaped to Singapore due to chaos and wars in China during the first half of 20th century. Many of them came from Fujian
Fujian
' , formerly romanised as Fukien or Huguing or Foukien, is a province on the southeast coast of mainland China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, and Guangdong to the south. Taiwan lies to the east, across the Taiwan Strait...
, Guangdong
Guangdong
Guangdong is a province on the South China Sea coast of the People's Republic of China. The province was previously often written with the alternative English name Kwangtung Province...
, Hainan
Hainan
Hainan is the smallest province of the People's Republic of China . Although the province comprises some two hundred islands scattered among three archipelagos off the southern coast, of its land mass is Hainan Island , from which the province takes its name...
province. Most of them paid loyalty to China and regarded themselves as "Huaqiao
Overseas Chinese
Overseas Chinese are people of Chinese birth or descent who live outside the Greater China Area . People of partial Chinese ancestry living outside the Greater China Area may also consider themselves Overseas Chinese....
".
Peranakans or those English-educated Chinese who had descended for many generations in Singapore were typically known as "Laokeh" (老客 - Old Guest) or "Straits Chinese". Most of them paid loyalty to the British Empire
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the...
and did not regard themselves as "Huaqiao".
1937-1945 (World War II)
Second Sino-Japanese War
The Second Sino-Japanese War was a military conflict fought primarily between the Republic of China and the Empire of Japan. From 1937 to 1941, China fought Japan with some economic help from Germany , the Soviet Union and the United States...
, started in 1937, revived a perceived sense of patriotism in the local Chinese to China and soon the Singaporean Chinese imposed an embargo against Japanese goods and products in Singapore. During the war, fearing for the safety of their relatives in China, some of the immigrants returned to China to fight the Japanese, while established entrepreneurs sent economic aid or military equipment to China. After the Japanese took Singapore
Battle of Singapore
The Battle of Singapore was fought in the South-East Asian theatre of the Second World War when the Empire of Japan invaded the Allied stronghold of Singapore. Singapore was the major British military base in Southeast Asia and nicknamed the "Gibraltar of the East"...
in 1942, the Kempeitai
Kempeitai
The was the military police arm of the Imperial Japanese Army from 1881 to 1945. It was not an English-style military police, but a French-style gendarmerie...
tracked down many Chinese who aided the Chinese war effort against Japan. However, the Kempeitai's Sook Ching Operation was simply a massacre designed to drive fear into the local populace, so the Kempeitai simply picked out people based on accounts of masked informers, which in many cases were false accounts based on personal vendettas. There were also active anti-Japanese resistance during the war, such as Force 136
Force 136
Force 136 was the general cover name for a branch of the British World War II organization, the Special Operations Executive . The organisation was established to encourage and supply resistance movements in enemy-occupied territory, and occasionally mount clandestine sabotage operations...
, headed by Lim Bo Seng
Lim Bo Seng
Lim Bo Seng was a World War II anti-Japanese resistance fighter based in Singapore and Malaya.-Family background and early life:...
.
After 1945
Race riots were common during the early post-war period, predominantly in the period between self-governance and independence in 1965.One major riot
1964 Race Riots
The 1964 Race Riots were a series of riots that took place in Singapore during two separate periods in July and September between Chinese and Malay groups. The first incident occurred on 21 July during a Malay procession that marked Prophet Muhammad's birthday. In total, the violence killed 36...
took place during birthday celebrations in honour of Muhammad
Muhammad
Muhammad |ligature]] at U+FDF4 ;Arabic pronunciation varies regionally; the first vowel ranges from ~~; the second and the last vowel: ~~~. There are dialects which have no stress. In Egypt, it is pronounced not in religious contexts...
, on 21 July 1964. There were records of high casualties (23 killed and 454 injured), as well as claims that the riot was politically motivated to oust the then Prime Minister (Lee Kuan Yew
Lee Kuan Yew
Lee Kuan Yew, GCMG, CH is a Singaporean statesman. He was the first Prime Minister of the Republic of Singapore, governing for three decades...
) and his cabinet as well as to prevent the promotion of a Malaysian Malaysia
Malaysian Malaysia
The phrase "Malaysian Malaysia" was originally used in the early 1960s as the rallying motto of the Malaysian Solidarity Council, a confederation of political parties formed to oppose Article 153 of the Constitution of Malaysia...
concept in Peninsular Malaysia
Peninsular Malaysia
Peninsular Malaysia , also known as West Malaysia , is the part of Malaysia which lies on the Malay Peninsula. Its area is . It shares a land border with Thailand in the north. To the south is the island of Singapore. Across the Strait of Malacca to the west lies the island of Sumatra...
.
After the Independence of Singapore in 1965, Singapore began to foster a more racially harmonious society in Singapore. Following the construction of Singapore national identity and nationhood, the Chinese in Singapore began to change their mindset from temporary stay to permanent settlements in Singapore, thus taking roots in Singapore. Following this transformation, the Chinese in Singapore gradually began to recognize nationally as "Singaporeans", while racially as "Huaren" instead of "Huaqiao
Overseas Chinese
Overseas Chinese are people of Chinese birth or descent who live outside the Greater China Area . People of partial Chinese ancestry living outside the Greater China Area may also consider themselves Overseas Chinese....
".
Chinese migrants from China during the late 20th century and early 21st century were generally known as "Xinyimin 新移民" (new immigrants). They came from various parts of China.
Chinese Associations or Institutions in Singapore
Historical Background
When the Chinese migrants first arrived in Singapore in the 19th and early 20th century, they settled in an enclave such as ChinatownChinatown, Singapore
Singapore's Chinatown is an ethnic neighbourhood featuring distinctly Chinese cultural elements and a historically concentrated ethnic Chinese population. Chinatown is located within the larger district of Outram....
. Due to closer dialectal affinity, they tend to group themselves according to similar Chinese dialects or place of origins in China. This led the Chinese to form 5 dialectal Cohorts (known as Bangqun 幫群), namely the Hokkien Bang, Teochew Bang, Cantonese Bang, Hakka Bang and Hainanese Bang.
During the British colonial period, the colonial government basically adopted the approach of using "the Chinese to govern the Chinese". They appointed Chinese leaders to govern the Chinese community. Effectively, the Chinese community existed in a half-autonomy state. Most Chinese leaders used the Chinese civil societies (small organizations) to help govern the Chinese community and to help new Chinese immigrants settled into Singapore, including finding jobs and lodgings for them.
As most of these Chinese civil societies were involved in Chinese family religious activities such as funerals or ancestral worship, they were in fact religious-oriented. This gradually evolved into the development of Chinese Temples or Chinese clan associations in Singapore. As time passed by, the Chinese had grown to have more achievements in the business and education in Singapore. Some rich and powerful Chinese businessmen began to establish Clubs, such as the Ee Ho Hean Club (怡和轩) in 1895, and Chamber of Commerce
Chamber of commerce
A chamber of commerce is a form of business network, e.g., a local organization of businesses whose goal is to further the interests of businesses. Business owners in towns and cities form these local societies to advocate on behalf of the business community...
, such as the Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry
Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry
The Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry is a business chamber in Singapore.-History:Established in 1906 as the General Chinese Trade Affairs Association, the SCCCI's original purpose was to look after the interests of the Chinese business community, but it has expanded its scope...
, in order to broaden the Chinese social circle. Established in 1906, the Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry
Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry
The Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry is a business chamber in Singapore.-History:Established in 1906 as the General Chinese Trade Affairs Association, the SCCCI's original purpose was to look after the interests of the Chinese business community, but it has expanded its scope...
was the highest body of organization within the Chinese community in Singapore. It was responsible for fighting the rights of the Chinese in Singapore during the British colonial period. During the World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, the Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry
Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry
The Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry is a business chamber in Singapore.-History:Established in 1906 as the General Chinese Trade Affairs Association, the SCCCI's original purpose was to look after the interests of the Chinese business community, but it has expanded its scope...
had managed to help raise funds and resources to help relieve the sufferings in war-torn China.
After Singapore gained independence and autonomy in 1960s, the Singapore government undertook measures to help foster racial harmony in Singapore. It encouraged various races of different languages and religious backgrounds to intermingle and to live side by side. Following the growth of Singaporean nationhood and national identity, the Chinese immigrants began to change their mindset from temporary migration to permanent settlements, thus soiling their roots in Singapore. With the strengthening of Singaporean national identity, the Chinese clans association gradually declined in terms of importance. Their role of organizing and governing the Chinese community was soon taken over by the Singapore government.
Today
Today, all Singapore's clans associations came under the flagship of Singapore Federation of Chinese Clans Association (SFCCA). They function as the cultural role for connecting Chinese Singaporeans to their Chinese roots or Ancestral home. In addition, the Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and IndustrySingapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry
The Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry is a business chamber in Singapore.-History:Established in 1906 as the General Chinese Trade Affairs Association, the SCCCI's original purpose was to look after the interests of the Chinese business community, but it has expanded its scope...
(SCCCI) continued to look after the interests of the Chinese business community as well as sourcing business opportunities in China. The Chinese Development Assistance Council
Chinese Development Assistance Council
The Chinese Development Assistance Council is a joint development of the Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry and the Singapore Federation of Chinese Clan Associations . This council was established in 1992...
was founded out of these two organizations (SFCCA and SCCCI) to help nurture and develop the potential of the Chinese community in contributing to the continued success of multiracial Singapore. There are also various Chinese cultural organizations such as Singapore Chinese Calligraphy Society, Singapore Chinese Orchestra
Singapore Chinese Orchestra
The Singapore Chinese Orchestra is Singapore's only professional Chinese orchestra. It has been located at the Singapore Conference Hall since 2001 after the revamp of the building. Its music director Tsung Yeh, leads the 70 member orchestra. It runs several community outreach programmes as well...
, Nanyang Confucian Association, Singapore Chinese Opera Institute etc. In addition, there are also major Chinese religious Associations such as Singapore Taoist Federation, Singapore Buddhist Federation to look after the religious affairs of Chinese Singaporeans.
All these Chinese organizations continue to play an important role in the economical, cultural and religious activities of Chinese Singaporeans.
See also
- Malaysian ChineseMalaysian ChineseMalaysian Chinese is a Malaysian of Chinese origin. Most are descendants of Chinese who arrived between the fifteenth and the mid-twentieth centuries. Within Malaysia, they are usually simply referred to as "Chinese" in all languages. The term Chinese Malaysian is also sometimes used to refer to...
- Overseas ChineseOverseas ChineseOverseas Chinese are people of Chinese birth or descent who live outside the Greater China Area . People of partial Chinese ancestry living outside the Greater China Area may also consider themselves Overseas Chinese....
- Chinese peopleChinese peopleThe term Chinese people may refer to any of the following:*People with Han Chinese ethnicity ....
- HuayiOverseas ChineseOverseas Chinese are people of Chinese birth or descent who live outside the Greater China Area . People of partial Chinese ancestry living outside the Greater China Area may also consider themselves Overseas Chinese....
- Tangren
- Han ChineseHan ChineseHan Chinese are an ethnic group native to China and are the largest single ethnic group in the world.Han Chinese constitute about 92% of the population of the People's Republic of China , 98% of the population of the Republic of China , 78% of the population of Singapore, and about 20% of the...
- British ChineseBritish ChineseBritish Chinese , including British-born Chinese are people of Chinese ancestry who were born in, or have migrated to, the United Kingdom. They are part of the Chinese diaspora, or overseas Chinese...
- Chinese culture
- ConfucianismConfucianismConfucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . Confucianism originated as an "ethical-sociopolitical teaching" during the Spring and Autumn Period, but later developed metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han...
- SinosphereSinosphereIn areal linguistics, Sinosphere refers to a grouping of countries and regions that are currently inhabited with a majority of Chinese population or were historically under Chinese cultural influence...
- Chinatown, SingaporeChinatown, SingaporeSingapore's Chinatown is an ethnic neighbourhood featuring distinctly Chinese cultural elements and a historically concentrated ethnic Chinese population. Chinatown is located within the larger district of Outram....
- ChinatownChinatownA Chinatown is an ethnic enclave of overseas Chinese people, although it is often generalized to include various Southeast Asian people. Chinatowns exist throughout the world, including East Asia, Southeast Asia, the Americas, Australasia, and Europe. Binondo's Chinatown located in Manila,...
- Buddhism in SingaporeBuddhism in SingaporeAs of 2010, 33.6% of Singaporeans identified themselves as Buddhist. Adherents of Buddhism are mostly of the Chinese majority ethnic group, although small minorities of Sinhalese and Thai Buddhists do exist as well....
- Taoism in SingaporeTaoism in SingaporeTaoism is adhered to by 8.5% of the entire population of Singapore. In general, nearly all adherents of Taoism in Singapore are associated with the mainstream Zhen Yi school...
- SinglishSinglishColloquial Singaporean English, also known as Singlish, is an English-based creole language spoken in Singapore.Singlish is commonly regarded with low prestige in Singapore. The Singaporean government and many Singaporeans alike heavily discourage the use of Singlish in favour of Standard English...
- Jook-sing
- List of common Chinese surnames in Singapore
- Chinese language romanisation in SingaporeChinese language romanisation in SingaporeThe romanisation of the Chinese language in Singapore is not dictated by a single policy, nor is its policy implementation consistent, as the local Chinese community is composed of a myriad of dialect groups...
- Singaporean MandarinSingaporean MandarinSingaporean Mandarin is a variety of Mandarin Chinese widely spoken in Singapore. It is one of the four official languages of Singapore along with English, Malay and Tamil....
- Standard Singaporean MandarinStandard Singaporean MandarinStandard Singaporean Mandarin is the standard form of Singaporean Mandarin. It is used in all official Chinese media, including all television programs on Channel 8 and Channel U, various radio stations, as well as in Chinese lessons in all Singapore government schools. The written form of Chinese...
- Speak Mandarin CampaignSpeak Mandarin CampaignThe Speak Mandarin Campaign is an initiative by the government of Singapore to encourage the Singaporean Chinese population to speak Mandarin, one of the four official languages of Singapore...
- Singaporean HokkienSingaporean HokkienSingaporean Hokkien is a local variant of the Hokkien dialect spoken in Singapore. It is closely related to the Southern Malaysian Hokkien spoken in Southern Malaysia as well as Riau Hokkien spoken in the Indonesian province of Riau...
- Singapore Chinese CharactersSingapore Chinese CharactersSingapore's Chinese Characters were introduced to the island during the time that it was a British colony in the 1920s. The development of Singapore's Chinese characters is divided into three periods:# Before 1969 : Used Traditional Chinese Characters...
- SingdarinSingdarinColloquial Singaporean Mandarin, also known as Singdarin is an interlanguage native to Singapore. In Taiwan, this language variety is known as Singnese . It is based on Mandarin but has a large amount of English in its vocabulary. For this reason, Singdarin is sometimes known as "Anglo-Chinese"...
External links
- Thai Theravada Buddhist Shop in Singapore
- Festival of the Nine Emperor Gods
- 2003 speech by Lee Hsien Loong on Teochews
- Research Center for Overseas Chinese at National University of Singapore
- Singapore Chinese Heritage Center
- Singapore Huayi Net
- Singapore Chinese Teachers' Union
- Singapore Chinese Development Assistance Council
- Singapore Federation of Chinese Clan Associations
- Singapore Chinese Chamber of Commerce and Industry