Christianity in Korea
Encyclopedia
The practice of Christianity
in Korea
revolves around two of its largest branches, Protestantism
and Catholicism
, accounting for 8.6 million and 5.1 million members respectively. Roman Catholicism was first introduced during the late Joseon Dynasty
period. In 1603, Yi Gwang-jeong, Korean diplomat, returned from Beijing
carrying a world atlas
and several theological
books written by Matteo Ricci
, a Jesuit missionary to China
. He began disseminating the information in the books and the first seeds of Christianity were sown. In 1758 King Yeongjo of Joseon
officially outlawed Catholicism as an evil practice. Roman Catholicism was again introduced in 1785 by Yi Sung-hun
. Korean Christians were subject to persecution and hardship but this has not detered believers.
Many were martyr
ed, especially during the Catholic Persecution of 1801
and later, the most famous of whom was Andrew Kim Taegon
, who was beheaded in 1846 at the age of 25 for his practice of a foreign religion. The Joseon Dynasty
saw the new religion as a subversive influence and persecuted its earliest followers in Korea, culminating in the Catholic Persecution of 1866, in which 8,000 Catholics across the country were killed, including 9 French missionaries. The opening of Korea to the outside world in the following years brought religious toleration for the remaining Catholics and also introduced Protestantism. The first Presbyterian missionary in Korea, Horace Newton Allen
, arrived in 1884 and remained in Korea until 1890, by which time he had been joined by many others.
The growth of both was gradual until the middle of the 20th century, when a number of factors encouraged the growth of Christianity in Korea, and its growth since the 1960s has been significant enough that the number of adherents to Christianity surpassed that of adherents to the traditional religions. Today, Protestantism and Roman Catholicism in South Korea
face different challenges, with Korean Protestantism struggling with controversy and a declining number of followers, while the Catholic Church in Korea has increased its membership by 70% in the last ten years.
(1950–1953), two-thirds of Korean Christians lived in the North, but most later fled to the South. It is not known exactly how many Christians remain in North Korea
today, and there is some uncertainty about the exact number in South Korea
. It is known that by the end of the 1960s there were around one million Protestants in South Korea, but during the "Conversion Boom" period ending in the 1980s, the number of Protestants increased faster than in any other country. The 2005 South Korean census showed 29.2 percent of the population as Christian, up from 26.3 percent ten years previously. Presbyterian Churches are the biggest Protestant denominations in South Korea, with close to 20,000 churches affiliated with the two largest Presbyterian denominations in the country.
South Korea provides the world's second largest number of Christian missionaries
, surpassed by the United States
. GSM, the missionary body of the "Hapdong" General Assembly of Presbyterian Churches of Korea, is the single largest missionary organization in South Korea. South Korean missionaries are especially prevalent in 10/40 Window
nations that are hostile to Westerners. In 2000, there were 10,646 Protestant South Korean missionaries in 156 countries, along with an undisclosed number of Catholic missionaries. According to an article published in 2004 "South Korea dispatched more than 12,000 missionaries to over 160 countries in comparison to about 46,000 American and 6,000 British missionaries, according to missionary organizations in South Korea and the West". According to an article published in 2007 "Korea has 16,000 missionaries working overseas, second only to the US". In 1980, South Korea sent 93 missionaries and by 2009 it was around 20,000.
Seoul
contains 11 of the world's 12 largest Christian congregations. A number of South Korean Christians, including David Yonggi Cho
, senior pastor of Yoido Full Gospel Church
, have attained worldwide prominence. Rev. Abraham Park Yoon-Sik, Senior Pastor of the Pyungkang Cheil Presbyterian Church (one of the largest Christian churches in South Korea), is the author of the History of Redemption Series of books which have garnered strong praise from theologians worldwide. He is also the co-founder of the Abraham Park Kenneth Vine Collection
biblical museum in Seoul. Aaron Tan, director of the Hong Kong architectural firm called Research Architecture Design, described the night scene of Seoul as "full of glowing Christian crosses".
's books provoked academic
controversy when Yi Gwang-jeong brought them into Korea, and academics remained critical for many years. Early in the 17th century, Yi Su-gwang
, a court scholar, and Yu Mong-in, a cabinet minister, wrote highly critical commentaries
on Ricci's works, and over the next two centuries academic criticism of Christian beliefs continued. Some scholars, however, were more sympathetic to Christianity. Members of the Silhak
(실학; "practical learning") school believed in social structure based on merit rather than birth (see classism
), and were therefore often opposed by the mainstream academic establishment.
Silhak scholars saw Christianity as an ideological
basis for their beliefs and were therefore attracted to what they saw as the egalitarian
values of Christianity. When Christianity was finally established in Korea, there was already a substantial body of educated opinion sympathetic to it, which was crucial to the spread of the Catholic faith in the 1790s. An 1801 study indicated that 55% of all Catholics had family ties to the Silhak school.
lay
movement rather than being imposed by a foreign ecclesiastical hierarchy
. The first Catholic prayer-house was founded in 1784 at Pyongyang
by Yi Sung-hun
, a diplomat
who had been baptized
in Beijing
. In 1786, Yi proceeded to establish a hierarchy of lay-priests. Although the Vatican ruled in 1789 that the appointment of lay-priests violated Canon Law
, Christianity was introduced into Korea by indigenous lay-workers, not by foreign prelate
s. Since Christianity began as largely a grass roots
effort in Korea, it spread more quickly through the population than it would if it had originated with outsiders with no initial popular support.
, a phonemic
Korean alphabet
invented around 1446 by scholars in the court of King Sejong, was used little for several centuries because of the perceived cultural superiority of Classical Chinese
(a position similar to that of Latin
in Europe). However, the Catholic Church became the first Korean organization to officially recognize the value of using Hangul, and Bishop Berneux
mandated that all Catholic children be taught to read it. Christian literature printed for use in Korea, including that used by the network of schools established by Christian missionaries, mostly used the Korean language and the easily-learned Hangul script
. This combination of factors resulted in a rise in the overall literacy
rate, and enabled Christian teachings to spread beyond the elite, who mostly used Chinese. As early as the 1780s, portions of the Gospels appeared in Hangul; doctrinal
books such as the "Jugyo Yoji" (주교요지) appeared in the 1790s and a Catholic hymnary was printed around 1800.
John Ross
, a Scottish
Presbyterian missionary in Manchuria
, completed his translation of the Bible
into Korean in 1887 and Protestant leaders began a mass-circulation effort. In addition, they established the first modern educational institutions in Korea. The Methodist Paichai School
for boys was founded in 1885, and the Methodist Ewha School for girls (later to become Ewha Womans University
) followed in 1886. These, and similar schools established soon afterwards, helped the expansion of Protestantism among the common people, and Protestants surpassed Catholics as the largest Christian group in Korea. Female literacy rose sharply, since women had previously been excluded from the educational system.
s. Unlike prevailing Chinese and Japanese religions of the time, shamanist Koreans had a monotheistic
concept of a Creator-God, whom they called Hwan-in
or Hanal-nim (하날님) (later also Haneul-nim, 하늘님/하느님, or Hana-nim, 하나님). According to an ancient myth, Hwan-in had a son named Hwanung
(환웅), who in turn had fathered a human son named Dangun
in 2333 BC. According to the story, Dangun founded the first Korean state and taught his people the elements of civilization during his thousand-year reign. There are several variants of the myth, one of which depicts Dangun as having been mothered by a virgin. Some modern theologians have even attempted to explain the Christian concept of the Trinity
in terms of the three divine characters in the Dangun myth. These parallels helped the Korean people's understanding of various Christian teachings, such as the incarnation
of Jesus
.
during the Japanese occupation
(1910–1945). During this period, seven million Koreans were exile
d or deported
and a systematic campaign of cultural assimilation
was attempted. In 1938, even use of the Korean language was prohibited. However, the distinctly Korean nature of the church was reinforced during those years by the allegiance to the nation that was demonstrated by many Christians. While the subsequent constitution
of South Korea guarantees freedom of religion
as well as separation of church and state
, the South Korean government has been favorable to Christianity, regarding the religion as an ideological protection against Communism
.
On March 1, 1919, an assembly of 33 religious and professional leaders known as the "March 1 Movement" passed a Declaration of Independence
. Although organized by leaders of the Chondogyo religion, 15 of the 33 signatories were Protestants, and many of them were imprisoned. Also in 1919, the predominantly Catholic pro-independence movement called "Ulmindan" was founded, and a China-based government-in-exile
was at one time led by Syngman Rhee
, a Methodist.
Christianity was linked even more with the patriotic cause when Christians refused to participate in worship of the Japanese Emperor
, which was required by law in the 1930s. Although this refusal was motivated by theological rather than political convictions, the consequent imprisonment of many Christians strongly identified their faith, in the eyes of many Koreans, with the cause of Korean nationalism and resistance to the Japanese occupation.
. Minjung theology is based on the "image of God" concept expressed in Genesis 1:26-27, but also incorporates the traditional Korean feeling of han
, a word that has no exact English translation, but that denotes a sense of inconsolable pain and utter helplessness. Minjung theology depicts commoners in Korean history as the rightful masters of their own destiny. Two of the country's best known political leaders, Kim Young-sam
, a Presbyterian, and Kim Dae-jung, a Roman Catholic, subscribe to Minjung theology. Both men spent decades opposing military governments in South Korea and were frequently imprisoned as a result, and both also served terms as President of the Republic after democracy was restored in 1988.
One manifestation of Minjung theology in the final years of the Park Chung-hee
regime (1961–1979) was the rise of several Christian social missions, such as the Catholic Farmers Movement and the Protestant Urban Industrial Mission, which campaigned for better wages and working conditions for laborers. The military government imprisoned many of their leaders because it considered the movement a threat to social stability, and their struggle coincided with a period of unrest which culminated in the assassination
of President Park on October 26, 1979,.
Christians regarded the emperor as a mere man who was as much under God's authority as were his subjects, and Christian values favored the social emancipation of women and children. The church permitted the remarriage of widows (as taught by the apostle Paul, not traditionally allowed in East Asian societies), prohibited concubinage and polygamy, and forbade cruelty to or desertion of wives. Christian parents were taught to regard their children as gifts from God, and were required to educate them. Arranged child marriages and the neglect of daughters (who were often regarded as less desirable than sons in Asian culture) were prohibited.
led by Park Chung-hee to indigenous cultural values and work ethic
, a strong alliance with the United States, and the infusion of foreign capital
. Many South Korean Christians view their religion as a factor in the country's dramatic economic growth over the past three decades, believing that its success and prosperity are indications of God's blessing.
A 2003 study by economists Robert J. Barro and Rachel McCleary suggests that societies with high levels of belief in heaven and high levels of church attendance exhibit high rates of economic growth. Barro and McCleary's model has been influential in subsequent scholarship and, to some observers, it supports the belief that Christianity has played a major role in South Korea's economic success. The study has been criticised by scholars such as Durlauf, Kortellos and Tan (2006). There is a tendency to build megachurch
es since 2000, that leads some churches to financial debt.
came into power. The South Korean government proposed to restrict South Korean citizens working for missionary works in the Middle East. Professor Son Bong-ho of Goshin University criticized the president for partaking in a national-level Christian prayers' gathering on March 2011 that signaled a potential danger of the strong Protestant influence in the secular South Korean politics.
, proposed a referendum
in Seoul on August 24th, 2011. Pastors of multiple churches in Seoul were found to involve unlawfully with the lay people about the referendum and later being penalized by the Seoul Metropolitan election Commission (서울시선거관리위원회).
, before the October 2011 by-election.
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
in Korea
Korea
Korea ) is an East Asian geographic region that is currently divided into two separate sovereign states — North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by the People's Republic of China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the...
revolves around two of its largest branches, Protestantism
Protestantism
Protestantism is one of the three major groupings within Christianity. It is a movement that began in Germany in the early 16th century as a reaction against medieval Roman Catholic doctrines and practices, especially in regards to salvation, justification, and ecclesiology.The doctrines of the...
and Catholicism
Catholicism
Catholicism is a broad term for the body of the Catholic faith, its theologies and doctrines, its liturgical, ethical, spiritual, and behavioral characteristics, as well as a religious people as a whole....
, accounting for 8.6 million and 5.1 million members respectively. Roman Catholicism was first introduced during the late Joseon Dynasty
Joseon Dynasty
Joseon , was a Korean state founded by Taejo Yi Seong-gye that lasted for approximately five centuries. It was founded in the aftermath of the overthrow of the Goryeo at what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul...
period. In 1603, Yi Gwang-jeong, Korean diplomat, returned from Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
carrying a world atlas
Atlas
An atlas is a collection of maps; it is typically a map of Earth or a region of Earth, but there are atlases of the other planets in the Solar System. Atlases have traditionally been bound into book form, but today many atlases are in multimedia formats...
and several theological
Theology
Theology is the systematic and rational study of religion and its influences and of the nature of religious truths, or the learned profession acquired by completing specialized training in religious studies, usually at a university or school of divinity or seminary.-Definition:Augustine of Hippo...
books written by Matteo Ricci
Matteo Ricci
Matteo Ricci, SJ was an Italian Jesuit priest, and one of the founding figures of the Jesuit China Mission, as it existed in the 17th-18th centuries. His current title is Servant of God....
, a Jesuit missionary to China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
. He began disseminating the information in the books and the first seeds of Christianity were sown. In 1758 King Yeongjo of Joseon
Yeongjo of Joseon
Yeongjo was the twenty-first king of the Korean Joseon Dynasty. He was the second son of Sukjong by Lady Suk-bin of the Choi clan , succeeded his older brother Gyeongjong.-Reign:...
officially outlawed Catholicism as an evil practice. Roman Catholicism was again introduced in 1785 by Yi Sung-hun
Yi Sung-hun
Yi Sung-Hun is an early Roman Catholic martyr in Korea. He was born in 1756 in Seoul to a high Korean official. He came into contact with Catholicism via Yi Byuk in 1779. He accompanied his father on a diplomatic mission to Beijing, China, and was baptised in spring, 1784...
. Korean Christians were subject to persecution and hardship but this has not detered believers.
Many were martyr
Martyr
A martyr is somebody who suffers persecution and death for refusing to renounce, or accept, a belief or cause, usually religious.-Meaning:...
ed, especially during the Catholic Persecution of 1801
Catholic Persecution of 1801
The Catholic Persecution of 1801, also known as the Sinyu Persecution , was a mass persecution of Korean Catholics ordered by regent Dowager Queen Jeongsun during King Sunjo of Joseon's reign on April 8, 1801 ....
and later, the most famous of whom was Andrew Kim Taegon
Andrew Kim Taegon
St. Andrew Kim Taegon aka Butterfly King was the first Korean-born Catholic priest. In the late 18th century, Roman Catholicism began to take root slowly in Korea, and was introduced by laypeople...
, who was beheaded in 1846 at the age of 25 for his practice of a foreign religion. The Joseon Dynasty
Joseon Dynasty
Joseon , was a Korean state founded by Taejo Yi Seong-gye that lasted for approximately five centuries. It was founded in the aftermath of the overthrow of the Goryeo at what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul...
saw the new religion as a subversive influence and persecuted its earliest followers in Korea, culminating in the Catholic Persecution of 1866, in which 8,000 Catholics across the country were killed, including 9 French missionaries. The opening of Korea to the outside world in the following years brought religious toleration for the remaining Catholics and also introduced Protestantism. The first Presbyterian missionary in Korea, Horace Newton Allen
Horace Newton Allen
Horace Newton Allen was a Protestant medical missionary and a diplomat from the United States to Korea at the end of the Joseon Dynasty.-Biography:He was born in Delaware, Ohio on April 23, 1858. He lreceived his B.S...
, arrived in 1884 and remained in Korea until 1890, by which time he had been joined by many others.
The growth of both was gradual until the middle of the 20th century, when a number of factors encouraged the growth of Christianity in Korea, and its growth since the 1960s has been significant enough that the number of adherents to Christianity surpassed that of adherents to the traditional religions. Today, Protestantism and Roman Catholicism in South Korea
Roman Catholicism in South Korea
The Roman Catholic Church in South Korea is part of the worldwide Catholic Church, under the spiritual leadership of the Pope and curia in Rome. The history of Catholicism in Korea began in 1784 when Yi Sung-hun was baptized while in China under the Christian name of Peter...
face different challenges, with Korean Protestantism struggling with controversy and a declining number of followers, while the Catholic Church in Korea has increased its membership by 70% in the last ten years.
Cultural significance
Prior to the Korean WarKorean War
The Korean War was a conventional war between South Korea, supported by the United Nations, and North Korea, supported by the People's Republic of China , with military material aid from the Soviet Union...
(1950–1953), two-thirds of Korean Christians lived in the North, but most later fled to the South. It is not known exactly how many Christians remain in North Korea
North Korea
The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea , , is a country in East Asia, occupying the northern half of the Korean Peninsula. Its capital and largest city is Pyongyang. The Korean Demilitarized Zone serves as the buffer zone between North Korea and South Korea...
today, and there is some uncertainty about the exact number in South Korea
South Korea
The Republic of Korea , , is a sovereign state in East Asia, located on the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula. It is neighbored by the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the east, North Korea to the north, and the East China Sea and Republic of China to the south...
. It is known that by the end of the 1960s there were around one million Protestants in South Korea, but during the "Conversion Boom" period ending in the 1980s, the number of Protestants increased faster than in any other country. The 2005 South Korean census showed 29.2 percent of the population as Christian, up from 26.3 percent ten years previously. Presbyterian Churches are the biggest Protestant denominations in South Korea, with close to 20,000 churches affiliated with the two largest Presbyterian denominations in the country.
South Korea provides the world's second largest number of Christian missionaries
Missionary
A missionary is a member of a religious group sent into an area to do evangelism or ministries of service, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care and economic development. The word "mission" originates from 1598 when the Jesuits sent members abroad, derived from the Latin...
, surpassed by the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
. GSM, the missionary body of the "Hapdong" General Assembly of Presbyterian Churches of Korea, is the single largest missionary organization in South Korea. South Korean missionaries are especially prevalent in 10/40 Window
10/40 Window
The 10/40 Window is a term coined by Christian missionary strategist Luis Bush in 1990 to refer those regions of the eastern hemisphere located between 10 and 40 degrees north of the equator, a general area that in 1990 was purported to have the highest level of socioeconomic challenges and least...
nations that are hostile to Westerners. In 2000, there were 10,646 Protestant South Korean missionaries in 156 countries, along with an undisclosed number of Catholic missionaries. According to an article published in 2004 "South Korea dispatched more than 12,000 missionaries to over 160 countries in comparison to about 46,000 American and 6,000 British missionaries, according to missionary organizations in South Korea and the West". According to an article published in 2007 "Korea has 16,000 missionaries working overseas, second only to the US". In 1980, South Korea sent 93 missionaries and by 2009 it was around 20,000.
Seoul
Seoul
Seoul , officially the Seoul Special City, is the capital and largest metropolis of South Korea. A megacity with a population of over 10 million, it is the largest city proper in the OECD developed world...
contains 11 of the world's 12 largest Christian congregations. A number of South Korean Christians, including David Yonggi Cho
David Yonggi Cho
David Yonggi Cho is a Korean Christian minister. He is Senior Pastor and founder of the Yoido Full Gospel Church , the world's largest congregation with a membership of 1,000,000...
, senior pastor of Yoido Full Gospel Church
Yoido Full Gospel Church
Yoido Full Gospel Church is a Pentecostal church on Yeouido in Seoul, South Korea. With about 1,000,000 members , it is the largest Pentecostal Christian congregation in South Korea, and the world...
, have attained worldwide prominence. Rev. Abraham Park Yoon-Sik, Senior Pastor of the Pyungkang Cheil Presbyterian Church (one of the largest Christian churches in South Korea), is the author of the History of Redemption Series of books which have garnered strong praise from theologians worldwide. He is also the co-founder of the Abraham Park Kenneth Vine Collection
The Abraham Park Kenneth Vine Collection
The Abraham Park Kenneth Vine Collection, also known as the Pyung Kang Biblical Archaeology Museum is a privately owned museum established by Rev...
biblical museum in Seoul. Aaron Tan, director of the Hong Kong architectural firm called Research Architecture Design, described the night scene of Seoul as "full of glowing Christian crosses".
Evangelization
"In the 1960s the church reached out to people who were oppressed, such as prostitutes and new industrial laborers. As the Korean economy was burgeoning, the issue of the industrial labor force came to the fore as one of the most important areas of evangelization work. Churches established industrial chaplaincies among the workers within factories. In addition, with military service mandatory for men in South Korea, the role of the chaplain's corps in the armed forces became equally important. Many soldiers converted to Christianity during their military service."Academic sympathy
Matteo RicciMatteo Ricci
Matteo Ricci, SJ was an Italian Jesuit priest, and one of the founding figures of the Jesuit China Mission, as it existed in the 17th-18th centuries. His current title is Servant of God....
's books provoked academic
Academia
Academia is the community of students and scholars engaged in higher education and research.-Etymology:The word comes from the akademeia in ancient Greece. Outside the city walls of Athens, the gymnasium was made famous by Plato as a center of learning...
controversy when Yi Gwang-jeong brought them into Korea, and academics remained critical for many years. Early in the 17th century, Yi Su-gwang
Yi Su-gwang
Yi Su-gwang , also known as Lee Sugwang, was a Korean sarim, a military official, and a diplomat of the Joseon Dynasty. He was also an academic and an encyclopedist who created Jibong yuseol, the earliest Korean encyclopedia.-Early life:...
, a court scholar, and Yu Mong-in, a cabinet minister, wrote highly critical commentaries
Literary criticism
Literary criticism is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature. Modern literary criticism is often informed by literary theory, which is the philosophical discussion of its methods and goals...
on Ricci's works, and over the next two centuries academic criticism of Christian beliefs continued. Some scholars, however, were more sympathetic to Christianity. Members of the Silhak
Silhak
Silhak was a Korean Confucian social reform movement in late Joseon Dynasty. Sil means "actual" or "practical," and hak means "studies" or "learning." It developed in response to the increasingly metaphysical nature of Neo-Confucianism that seemed disconnected from the rapid agricultural,...
(실학; "practical learning") school believed in social structure based on merit rather than birth (see classism
Classism
Classism is prejudice or discrimination on the basis of social class. It includes individual attitudes and behaviors, systems of policies and practices that are set up to benefit the upper classes at the expense of the lower classes...
), and were therefore often opposed by the mainstream academic establishment.
Silhak scholars saw Christianity as an ideological
Ideology
An ideology is a set of ideas that constitutes one's goals, expectations, and actions. An ideology can be thought of as a comprehensive vision, as a way of looking at things , as in common sense and several philosophical tendencies , or a set of ideas proposed by the dominant class of a society to...
basis for their beliefs and were therefore attracted to what they saw as the egalitarian
Egalitarianism
Egalitarianism is a trend of thought that favors equality of some sort among moral agents, whether persons or animals. Emphasis is placed upon the fact that equality contains the idea of equity of quality...
values of Christianity. When Christianity was finally established in Korea, there was already a substantial body of educated opinion sympathetic to it, which was crucial to the spread of the Catholic faith in the 1790s. An 1801 study indicated that 55% of all Catholics had family ties to the Silhak school.
Lay leadership
As a result of the influence of the Silhak school, Christianity in Korea began as an indigenousIndigenous peoples
Indigenous peoples are ethnic groups that are defined as indigenous according to one of the various definitions of the term, there is no universally accepted definition but most of which carry connotations of being the "original inhabitants" of a territory....
lay
Laity
In religious organizations, the laity comprises all people who are not in the clergy. A person who is a member of a religious order who is not ordained legitimate clergy is considered as a member of the laity, even though they are members of a religious order .In the past in Christian cultures, the...
movement rather than being imposed by a foreign ecclesiastical hierarchy
Hierarchy
A hierarchy is an arrangement of items in which the items are represented as being "above," "below," or "at the same level as" one another...
. The first Catholic prayer-house was founded in 1784 at Pyongyang
Pyongyang
Pyongyang is the capital of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, commonly known as North Korea, and the largest city in the country. Pyongyang is located on the Taedong River and, according to preliminary results from the 2008 population census, has a population of 3,255,388. The city was...
by Yi Sung-hun
Yi Sung-hun
Yi Sung-Hun is an early Roman Catholic martyr in Korea. He was born in 1756 in Seoul to a high Korean official. He came into contact with Catholicism via Yi Byuk in 1779. He accompanied his father on a diplomatic mission to Beijing, China, and was baptised in spring, 1784...
, a diplomat
Diplomat
A diplomat is a person appointed by a state to conduct diplomacy with another state or international organization. The main functions of diplomats revolve around the representation and protection of the interests and nationals of the sending state, as well as the promotion of information and...
who had been baptized
Baptism
In Christianity, baptism is for the majority the rite of admission , almost invariably with the use of water, into the Christian Church generally and also membership of a particular church tradition...
in Beijing
Beijing
Beijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
. In 1786, Yi proceeded to establish a hierarchy of lay-priests. Although the Vatican ruled in 1789 that the appointment of lay-priests violated Canon Law
Canon law
Canon law is the body of laws & regulations made or adopted by ecclesiastical authority, for the government of the Christian organization and its members. It is the internal ecclesiastical law governing the Catholic Church , the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox churches, and the Anglican Communion of...
, Christianity was introduced into Korea by indigenous lay-workers, not by foreign prelate
Prelate
A prelate is a high-ranking member of the clergy who is an ordinary or who ranks in precedence with ordinaries. The word derives from the Latin prælatus, the past participle of præferre, which means "carry before", "be set above or over" or "prefer"; hence, a prelate is one set over others.-Related...
s. Since Christianity began as largely a grass roots
Grass Roots
Grass Roots is an Australian television series produced by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation between 2000 and 2003.The series is set around the fictional Arcadia Waters Council near Sydney, and was primarily a satirical look at the machinations of local government...
effort in Korea, it spread more quickly through the population than it would if it had originated with outsiders with no initial popular support.
Hangul, literacy and education
HangulHangul
Hangul,Pronounced or ; Korean: 한글 Hangeul/Han'gŭl or 조선글 Chosŏn'gŭl/Joseongeul the Korean alphabet, is the native alphabet of the Korean language. It is a separate script from Hanja, the logographic Chinese characters which are also sometimes used to write Korean...
, a phonemic
Phonemic orthography
A phonemic orthography is a writing system where the written graphemes correspond to phonemes, the spoken sounds of the language. In terms of orthographic depth, these are termed shallow orthographies, contrasting with deep orthographies...
Korean alphabet
Alphabet
An alphabet is a standard set of letters—basic written symbols or graphemes—each of which represents a phoneme in a spoken language, either as it exists now or as it was in the past. There are other systems, such as logographies, in which each character represents a word, morpheme, or semantic...
invented around 1446 by scholars in the court of King Sejong, was used little for several centuries because of the perceived cultural superiority of Classical Chinese
Classical Chinese
Classical Chinese or Literary Chinese is a traditional style of written Chinese based on the grammar and vocabulary of ancient Chinese, making it different from any modern spoken form of Chinese...
(a position similar to that of Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
in Europe). However, the Catholic Church became the first Korean organization to officially recognize the value of using Hangul, and Bishop Berneux
Siméon-François Berneux
Siméon-François Berneux was a French Catholic missionary, and a member of the Paris Foreign Missions Society who was canonized as a saint....
mandated that all Catholic children be taught to read it. Christian literature printed for use in Korea, including that used by the network of schools established by Christian missionaries, mostly used the Korean language and the easily-learned Hangul script
Writing system
A writing system is a symbolic system used to represent elements or statements expressible in language.-General properties:Writing systems are distinguished from other possible symbolic communication systems in that the reader must usually understand something of the associated spoken language to...
. This combination of factors resulted in a rise in the overall literacy
Literacy
Literacy has traditionally been described as the ability to read for knowledge, write coherently and think critically about printed material.Literacy represents the lifelong, intellectual process of gaining meaning from print...
rate, and enabled Christian teachings to spread beyond the elite, who mostly used Chinese. As early as the 1780s, portions of the Gospels appeared in Hangul; doctrinal
Doctrine
Doctrine is a codification of beliefs or a body of teachings or instructions, taught principles or positions, as the body of teachings in a branch of knowledge or belief system...
books such as the "Jugyo Yoji" (주교요지) appeared in the 1790s and a Catholic hymnary was printed around 1800.
John Ross
John Ross (missionary)
John Ross was a Scottish Protestant missionary to Northeast China who established Dongguan Church in Shenyang. He is also known for translating the first Korean Bible.-Life:...
, a Scottish
Scotland
Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the...
Presbyterian missionary in Manchuria
Manchuria
Manchuria is a historical name given to a large geographic region in northeast Asia. Depending on the definition of its extent, Manchuria usually falls entirely within the People's Republic of China, or is sometimes divided between China and Russia. The region is commonly referred to as Northeast...
, completed his translation of the Bible
Bible
The Bible refers to any one of the collections of the primary religious texts of Judaism and Christianity. There is no common version of the Bible, as the individual books , their contents and their order vary among denominations...
into Korean in 1887 and Protestant leaders began a mass-circulation effort. In addition, they established the first modern educational institutions in Korea. The Methodist Paichai School
Pai Chai University
Pai Chai University is one of South Korea's oldest modern universities. Its campus is located in Seo-gu, in Daejeon metropolitan city, on the lower slopes of Yeonja Mountain. It has a present-day student body of about 14,000...
for boys was founded in 1885, and the Methodist Ewha School for girls (later to become Ewha Womans University
Ewha Womans University
Ewha Womans University is a private women's university in central Seoul, South Korea. It is one of the city's largest institutions of higher learning and currently the world's largest female educational institute. It is one of the best-known universities in South Korea, and often considered to...
) followed in 1886. These, and similar schools established soon afterwards, helped the expansion of Protestantism among the common people, and Protestants surpassed Catholics as the largest Christian group in Korea. Female literacy rose sharply, since women had previously been excluded from the educational system.
Korean tradition
The spread of Christianity in Korea was aided by the similarity of certain Christian doctrines with a number of Korean traditionTradition
A tradition is a ritual, belief or object passed down within a society, still maintained in the present, with origins in the past. Common examples include holidays or impractical but socially meaningful clothes , but the idea has also been applied to social norms such as greetings...
s. Unlike prevailing Chinese and Japanese religions of the time, shamanist Koreans had a monotheistic
Monotheism
Monotheism is the belief in the existence of one and only one god. Monotheism is characteristic of the Baha'i Faith, Christianity, Druzism, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Samaritanism, Sikhism and Zoroastrianism.While they profess the existence of only one deity, monotheistic religions may still...
concept of a Creator-God, whom they called Hwan-in
Hwanin
Hwanin, or "Divine Regent" is a figure in Korean mythology. In the traditional Dangun mythology he is portrayed as the Emperor of Heaven himself, with his son Hwanung 환웅 and his grandson Dangun being the mythical founder of Korea...
or Hanal-nim (하날님) (later also Haneul-nim, 하늘님/하느님, or Hana-nim, 하나님). According to an ancient myth, Hwan-in had a son named Hwanung
Hwanung
Hwanung is an important figure in the mythological origins of Korea. He plays a central role in the story of Dangun Wanggeom , the legendary founder of Gojoseon, the first kingdom of Korea. Hwanung is the son of Hwanin , the "Lord of Heaven"...
(환웅), who in turn had fathered a human son named Dangun
Dangun
Dangun Wanggeom was the legendary founder of Gojoseon, the first Korean kingdom, around present-day Liaoning, Manchuria, and the Korean Peninsula. He is said to be the "grandson of heaven", and to have founded the kingdom in 2333 BC...
in 2333 BC. According to the story, Dangun founded the first Korean state and taught his people the elements of civilization during his thousand-year reign. There are several variants of the myth, one of which depicts Dangun as having been mothered by a virgin. Some modern theologians have even attempted to explain the Christian concept of the Trinity
Trinity
The Christian doctrine of the Trinity defines God as three divine persons : the Father, the Son , and the Holy Spirit. The three persons are distinct yet coexist in unity, and are co-equal, co-eternal and consubstantial . Put another way, the three persons of the Trinity are of one being...
in terms of the three divine characters in the Dangun myth. These parallels helped the Korean people's understanding of various Christian teachings, such as the incarnation
Incarnation (Christianity)
The Incarnation in traditional Christianity is the belief that Jesus Christ the second person of the Trinity, also known as God the Son or the Logos , "became flesh" by being conceived in the womb of a woman, the Virgin Mary, also known as the Theotokos .The Incarnation is a fundamental theological...
of Jesus
Jesus
Jesus of Nazareth , commonly referred to as Jesus Christ or simply as Jesus or Christ, is the central figure of Christianity...
.
Korean nationalism
One of the most important factors leading to widespread acceptance of Christianity in Korea was the identification that many Christians forged with the cause of Korean nationalismKorean nationalism
Korean nationalism refers to nationalism among the Korean people. In the Korean context, this encompasses various of movements throughout history to maintain the Korean cultural identity, history, and ethnicity.-History:...
during the Japanese occupation
Korea under Japanese rule
Korea was under Japanese rule as part of Japan's 35-year imperialist expansion . Japanese rule ended in 1945 shortly after the Japanese defeat in World War II....
(1910–1945). During this period, seven million Koreans were exile
Exile
Exile means to be away from one's home , while either being explicitly refused permission to return and/or being threatened with imprisonment or death upon return...
d or deported
Deportation
Deportation means the expulsion of a person or group of people from a place or country. Today it often refers to the expulsion of foreign nationals whereas the expulsion of nationals is called banishment, exile, or penal transportation...
and a systematic campaign of cultural assimilation
Cultural assimilation
Cultural assimilation is a socio-political response to demographic multi-ethnicity that supports or promotes the assimilation of ethnic minorities into the dominant culture. The term assimilation is often used with regard to immigrants and various ethnic groups who have settled in a new land. New...
was attempted. In 1938, even use of the Korean language was prohibited. However, the distinctly Korean nature of the church was reinforced during those years by the allegiance to the nation that was demonstrated by many Christians. While the subsequent constitution
Constitution
A constitution is a set of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is governed. These rules together make up, i.e. constitute, what the entity is...
of South Korea guarantees freedom of religion
Freedom of religion
Freedom of religion is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or community, in public or private, to manifest religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance; the concept is generally recognized also to include the freedom to change religion or not to follow any...
as well as separation of church and state
Separation of church and state
The concept of the separation of church and state refers to the distance in the relationship between organized religion and the nation state....
, the South Korean government has been favorable to Christianity, regarding the religion as an ideological protection against Communism
Communism
Communism is a social, political and economic ideology that aims at the establishment of a classless, moneyless, revolutionary and stateless socialist society structured upon common ownership of the means of production...
.
On March 1, 1919, an assembly of 33 religious and professional leaders known as the "March 1 Movement" passed a Declaration of Independence
Declaration of independence
A declaration of independence is an assertion of the independence of an aspiring state or states. Such places are usually declared from part or all of the territory of another nation or failed nation, or are breakaway territories from within the larger state...
. Although organized by leaders of the Chondogyo religion, 15 of the 33 signatories were Protestants, and many of them were imprisoned. Also in 1919, the predominantly Catholic pro-independence movement called "Ulmindan" was founded, and a China-based government-in-exile
Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea
The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was the partially recognised government in exile of Korea, based in Shanghai, China, and later in Chongqing, during the Colonial Korea.-History:...
was at one time led by Syngman Rhee
Syngman Rhee
Syngman Rhee or Yi Seungman was the first president of South Korea. His presidency, from August 1948 to April 1960, remains controversial, affected by Cold War tensions on the Korean peninsula and elsewhere. Rhee was regarded as an anti-Communist and a strongman, and he led South Korea through the...
, a Methodist.
Christianity was linked even more with the patriotic cause when Christians refused to participate in worship of the Japanese Emperor
Emperor of Japan
The Emperor of Japan is, according to the 1947 Constitution of Japan, "the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people." He is a ceremonial figurehead under a form of constitutional monarchy and is head of the Japanese Imperial Family with functions as head of state. He is also the highest...
, which was required by law in the 1930s. Although this refusal was motivated by theological rather than political convictions, the consequent imprisonment of many Christians strongly identified their faith, in the eyes of many Koreans, with the cause of Korean nationalism and resistance to the Japanese occupation.
Minjung theology
The Christian concept of individual worth has found expression in a lengthy struggle for human rights and democracy in Korea. In recent years, this struggle has taken the form of Minjung theologyMinjung theology
Minjung theology emerged in the 1970s from the experience of South Korean Christians in the struggle for social justice. It is a people's theology, and, according to its authors, "a development of the political hermeneutics of the Gospel in terms of the Korean reality".It is part of a wider Asian...
. Minjung theology is based on the "image of God" concept expressed in Genesis 1:26-27, but also incorporates the traditional Korean feeling of han
Han (cultural)
Han is a concept in Korean culture attributed as a national cultural trait. Han denotes a collective feeling of oppression and isolation in the face of overwhelming odds...
, a word that has no exact English translation, but that denotes a sense of inconsolable pain and utter helplessness. Minjung theology depicts commoners in Korean history as the rightful masters of their own destiny. Two of the country's best known political leaders, Kim Young-sam
Kim Young-sam
Kim Young-sam was a South Korean politician and democratic activist. From 1961, he spent 30 years as South Korea's leader of the opposition, and one of Park Chung-hee's most powerful rivals....
, a Presbyterian, and Kim Dae-jung, a Roman Catholic, subscribe to Minjung theology. Both men spent decades opposing military governments in South Korea and were frequently imprisoned as a result, and both also served terms as President of the Republic after democracy was restored in 1988.
One manifestation of Minjung theology in the final years of the Park Chung-hee
Park Chung-hee
Park Chung-hee was a Republic of Korea Army general and the leader of South Korea from 1961 to 1979. He seized power in a military coup and ruled until his assassination in 1979. He has been credited with the industrialization of the Republic of Korea through export-led growth...
regime (1961–1979) was the rise of several Christian social missions, such as the Catholic Farmers Movement and the Protestant Urban Industrial Mission, which campaigned for better wages and working conditions for laborers. The military government imprisoned many of their leaders because it considered the movement a threat to social stability, and their struggle coincided with a period of unrest which culminated in the assassination
Assassination
To carry out an assassination is "to murder by a sudden and/or secret attack, often for political reasons." Alternatively, assassination may be defined as "the act of deliberately killing someone, especially a public figure, usually for hire or for political reasons."An assassination may be...
of President Park on October 26, 1979,.
Social change
Many Korean Christians believe that their values have had a positive effect on various social relationships. Traditional Korean society was hierarchically arranged according to Confucian principles under the semi-divine emperor. Women had no social rights, children were totally subservient to their parents, and individuals had no rights except as defined by the overall social system. This structure was challenged by the Christian teaching that all men are created in the image of God and thus that every individual has essential worth. Closely aligned to this concept is an emphasis on the right to own private property.Christians regarded the emperor as a mere man who was as much under God's authority as were his subjects, and Christian values favored the social emancipation of women and children. The church permitted the remarriage of widows (as taught by the apostle Paul, not traditionally allowed in East Asian societies), prohibited concubinage and polygamy, and forbade cruelty to or desertion of wives. Christian parents were taught to regard their children as gifts from God, and were required to educate them. Arranged child marriages and the neglect of daughters (who were often regarded as less desirable than sons in Asian culture) were prohibited.
Economic growth
South Korea's rapid economic growth in the 1960s and 1970s is usually credited to the policy of export-oriented industrializationExport-oriented industrialization
Export-oriented Industrialization sometimes called export substitution industrialization or export led industrialization is a trade and economic policy aiming to speed up the industrialization process of a country by exporting goods for which the nation has a comparative advantage...
led by Park Chung-hee to indigenous cultural values and work ethic
Work ethic
Work ethic is a set of values based on hard work and diligence. It is also a belief in the moral benefit of work and its ability to enhance character. An example would be the Protestant work ethic...
, a strong alliance with the United States, and the infusion of foreign capital
Capital (economics)
In economics, capital, capital goods, or real capital refers to already-produced durable goods used in production of goods or services. The capital goods are not significantly consumed, though they may depreciate in the production process...
. Many South Korean Christians view their religion as a factor in the country's dramatic economic growth over the past three decades, believing that its success and prosperity are indications of God's blessing.
A 2003 study by economists Robert J. Barro and Rachel McCleary suggests that societies with high levels of belief in heaven and high levels of church attendance exhibit high rates of economic growth. Barro and McCleary's model has been influential in subsequent scholarship and, to some observers, it supports the belief that Christianity has played a major role in South Korea's economic success. The study has been criticised by scholars such as Durlauf, Kortellos and Tan (2006). There is a tendency to build megachurch
Megachurch
A megachurch is a church having 2,000 or more in average weekend attendance. The Hartford Institute's database lists more than 1,300 such Protestant churches in the United States. According to that data, approximately 50 churches on the list have attendance ranging from 10,000 to 47,000...
es since 2000, that leads some churches to financial debt.
Political issues
There have been various political criticisms in the Korean Christian scene since President Lee Myung-bakLee Myung-bak
Lee Myung-bak is the President of South Korea. Prior to his presidency, he was the CEO of Hyundai Engineering and Construction and the mayor of Seoul. He is married to Kim Yoon-ok and has three daughters and one son. His older brother is Lee Sang-deuk, a South Korean politician. He attends the...
came into power. The South Korean government proposed to restrict South Korean citizens working for missionary works in the Middle East. Professor Son Bong-ho of Goshin University criticized the president for partaking in a national-level Christian prayers' gathering on March 2011 that signaled a potential danger of the strong Protestant influence in the secular South Korean politics.
Seoul Free Lunch Referendum
Former Mayor of Seoul, Oh Se-hoonOh Se-hoon
Oh Se-hoon was the Mayor of Seoul between 2006 and August 26, 2011. On June 3, 2010, Oh was reelected as the Mayor of Seoul but resigned after losing a referendum on the Seoul Free Lunch Referendum.. Oh is a member of the Grand National Party.-Personal history:Oh was born in Seongdong-gu...
, proposed a referendum
Seoul Free Lunch Referendum
The Seoul Free Lunch Referendum was a referendum of allowing the free school meal in the schools around the Seoul Metropolitan Area on August 24th, 2011...
in Seoul on August 24th, 2011. Pastors of multiple churches in Seoul were found to involve unlawfully with the lay people about the referendum and later being penalized by the Seoul Metropolitan election Commission (서울시선거관리위원회).
October 2011 by-election
Some Christian groups in Seoul had been indicted by the Seoul Metropolitan election Commission for sending politically-motivated emails to the laypeople in order to vote for the conservative candidate, Na Kyung-wonNa Kyung-won
Na Kyung-won is a South Korean politician and lawyer. She is a member of the conservative Grand National Party. She is one of two candidates of the October 2011 by-election after Oh Se-hoon resigned his position as the Mayor of Seoul...
, before the October 2011 by-election.
See also
- Roman Catholicism in South KoreaRoman Catholicism in South KoreaThe Roman Catholic Church in South Korea is part of the worldwide Catholic Church, under the spiritual leadership of the Pope and curia in Rome. The history of Catholicism in Korea began in 1784 when Yi Sung-hun was baptized while in China under the Christian name of Peter...
- Roman Catholicism in KoreaRoman Catholicism in KoreaThe Roman Catholic Church in Korea is part of the worldwide Catholic Church, under the spiritual leadership of the Pope and curia in Rome.See the separate entries:*Roman Catholicism in North Korea*Roman Catholicism in South Korea...
- Religion in KoreaReligion in KoreaReligion in Korea encompasses a number of different traditions. Traditional Buddhism, Mugyo with a background of Korean Confucianism and later Christianity all play a role in Korea's religious tradition...
- Korean Orthodox ChurchKorean Orthodox ChurchThe Korean Orthodox Church is an Eastern Orthodox church in Korea.In 1897 the Russian Orthodox Church resolved to send missionaries to Korea by decision of the Holy Synod in July 1897...
Numbered references
- Patrick Johnstone and Jason Mandryk, Operation WorldOperation WorldOperation World is a reference book and prayer guide, begun by Patrick Johnstone and continued by Jason Mandryk, both from WEC International. Operation World is published by , and produced by...
, Carlisle, Cumbria, and Waynesboro, GA., 2001, pp. 387–390. - CHOI Suk-woo, 'Korean Catholicism Yesterday and Today', Korean Journal XXIV, 8, August 1984, p. 4.
- KIM Han-sik, 'The Influence of Christianity', Korean Journal XXIII, 12, December 1983, p. 5.
- Ibid., pp. 6–7.
- Ibid., p. 6.
- KIM Ok-hy, 'Women in the History of Catholicism in Korea', Korean Journal XXIV, 8, August 1984, p. 30.
- CHOI Suk-Woo, pp. 5–6.
- National Unification Board, The Identity of the Korean People, Seoul, 1983, pp. 132–136.
- Seoul International Publishing House, Focus on Korea, Korean History, Seoul, 1983, pp. 7–8.
- Seoul International Publishing House, Focus on Korea, Korean History, Seoul, 1983, pp. 7–8.
- The Identity of the Korean People, pp. 132–136.
- Ilyon, tr. HA Tae-hung and Grafton K. Minz, Samguk YusaSamguk YusaSamguk Yusa, or Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms, is a collection of legends, folktales, and historical accounts relating to the Three Kingdoms of Korea , as well as to other periods and states before, during, and after the Three Kingdoms period.The text was written in Classical Chinese, which was...
, Seoul 1972, pp. 32–33. - Marguerite Johnson, 'The Culture', in Pico IyerPico IyerPico Iyer is a British-born essayist and novelist. He is the author of numerous books on travel including Video Night in Kathmandu. His shorter pieces regularly appear in Time, Harper's, NYRB and many other publications.-Life and career:...
(ed.) 'An Ancient Nation on the Eve of a Modern Spectacle: SOUTH KOREA', Time CXXXII, 10, 5 September 1988, p. 48. - Ibid., p. 48.
- Focus on Korea, pp. 7–8.
- CHO Kwang, 'The Meaning of Catholicism in Korean History', Korean Journal XXIV, 8, August 1984, pp. 20–21.
- Colin Whittaker, Korea Miracle, Eastbourne, 1988, p. 133.
- Andrew C. Nah, A Panorama of 5000 Years: Korean History, Seoul, 1983, p. 81.
- Whittaker, p. 62.
- Ibid., p. 65.
- Ibid., p. 63.
- CHOI Suk-woo, p. 10.
- Encyclopedia AmericanaEncyclopedia AmericanaEncyclopedia Americana is one of the largest general encyclopedias in the English language. Following the acquisition of Grolier in 2000, the encyclopedia has been produced by Scholastic....
, Vol. 23, Danbury, Conn., 1988, p. 464. - CHO Kwang, p. 11.
- Whittaker, p. 65.
- Merit Students EncyclopediaMerit Students EncyclopediaMerit Students Encyclopedia was a printed encyclopedia that was very similar to Collier's Encyclopedia, but was geared towards upper grade school through college level. It was printed by Crowell-Collier Educational Corporation from about 1967-1992...
, Vol. 10, New York and London, 1980, p. 440. - Whittaker, p. 34.
- CHO Kwang, pp. 20–21.
- Whittaker, p. 40.
- KIM Ok-hy, p. 34.
- CHO Kwang, pp. 16–18.
- Ibid., pp. 18–19.
- KIM Han-sik, pp. 11–12.
- CHOI Suk-woo, p. 7.
- CHO Kwang, pp. 16–18.
- Ibid., pp. 18–19.
- Ibid., pp. 16–19.
- Michael Lee, 'Korean Churches Pursue Social and Political Justice', in Brian Heavy (Ed.), Accent III, 3 Auckland, May 1988, pp. 19–20.
- Kessing's Contemporary Archives, London, 25 April 1980, p. 30216.
- J. Earnest Fisher, Pioneers of Modern Korea, Seoul, 1977, pp. 65–74.
External links
- Pressure of Buddhism from Christianity in Korea
- Questions for Buddhist and Christian Cooperation in Korea
- CIA The World Factbook - Korea, South
- Life Church International Community
- The Religious Revolution in Modern Korean History: Podcast of Professor Don Baker at The Korea Society
- The Great Revival Movement of 1907 And its Historical Impact on Korean Church 대통령보다 세고 헌법보다 무서운 목사님, Criticizing Fundamental Protestantism in South Korean politics “한국만큼 ‘종교 장사’하기 좋은 나라 없다”, Korean Christianity as a profit made by boom of big church constructions "결혼 때문에 개종하는 한국인 이해안돼", Korean religion scenes explained by non-Korean religious figures