Cinnamon Sparrow
Encyclopedia
The Russet Sparrow also called the Cinnamon or Cinnamon Tree Sparrow, is a passerine
bird of the sparrow
family
Passeridae. A chunky little seed-eating bird with a thick bill
, it has a body length of 14 to 15 cm (5.5 to 5.9 in). Its plumage
is mainly warm rufous
above and grey
below. It exhibits sexual dimorphism
, with the plumage of both sexes patterned similarly to that of the corresponding sex of House Sparrow
. Its vocalisations are sweet and musical chirps, which when strung together form a song.
Three subspecies
are recognised, differing chiefly in the yellowness of their underparts. The subspecies rutilans and intensior breed in parts of eastern Asia
, where they are usually found in light woodland, and the subspecies cinnamomeus breeds in the Himalayas
, where it is usually associated with terrace cultivation
. The Russet Sparrow is the typical sparrow of human habitations in towns where the House and Eurasian Tree sparrows are absent. In the southern part of its range, the Russet Sparrow prefers higher altitudes, but in the north it breeds by the sea. The Russet Sparrow is known well enough in the Himalayas to have a distinct name in some languages, and is depicted in Japanese art.
This sparrow feeds mainly on the seed
s of herb
s and grain
s, but it also eats berries
and insect
s, particularly during the breeding season. This diet makes it a minor pest in agricultural areas, but also a predator of insect pests. While breeding, it is not social, as its nests are dispersed. It forms flocks when not breeding, although it associates with other bird species infrequently. In some parts of its range, the Russet Sparrow migrates, at least to lower altitudes. Its nest is located in a tree cavity, or a hole in a cliff or building. The male chooses the nest site before finding a mate and uses the nest for courtship display
. The typical clutch
contains five or six whitish eggs
. Both sexes incubate and feed the young.
_i_img_6788.jpg)
The Russet Sparrow is a small chunky bird, with plumage
warm rufous
in overall colour. It is a medium-sized sparrow at 14 to 15 cm (5.5 to 5.9 in) and 18 to 22.5 g (0.634931317892015 to 0.793664147365019 oz). It has a thick bill
suited to eating seeds, which is black on the breeding male, horn-coloured on the non-breeding male, and yellowish with a dark tip on the female. Wingspans for males range between 6.8 to 8.2 cm (2.7 to 3.2 in) and those for females from 6.7 to 7.7 cm (2.6 to 3 in). Tail, bill, and tarsus
lengths are 4.3 to 5.1 cm (1.7 to 2 in), 1.1 to 1.3 cm (0.433070866141732 to 0.511811023622047 in), and 1.6 to 1.8 cm (0.62992125984252 to 0.708661417322835 in), respectively. Measurements for the Russet Sparrow vary geographically, between the three subspecies
, and also within the Himalayan subspecies cinnamomeus. The subspecies cinnamomeus is generally larger than the others, and within this form there is a tendency for birds at higher altitudes to be larger, and a clinal variation in size with the smallest birds in the west of the range and the largest in the east. The iris
is chestnut
in colour. The legs of both sexes are pale brown to pinkish-brown. The flight of all sparrows is swift, and that of the Russet Sparrow is described as swifter and more direct than that of the Eurasian Tree Sparrow.
The sexes differ, or are dimorphic
, in their plumage, and have a similar pattern to that in the corresponding sex of House Sparrow
. There is some variation between the three subspecies, especially in the colouration of the underparts. Birds of the subspecies rutilans are off-white on their cheeks and the sides of their necks, and have pale grey underparts. Birds of the subspecies intensior have a pale yellow wash on their underparts and cheeks, as well as darker upperparts, while those of the subspecies cinnamomeus have a heavy yellow tinge to their underparts. Moult is poorly recorded, the only records coming from Sakhalin
and Himachal Pradesh
. In Sakhalin, moult occurs in August and September, between the breeding season and migration. In Himachal Pradesh, aviculturalist G. A. Perreau observed captive and wild birds and reported that they were yellow from December to spring and whitish during the remainder of the year, a pattern which may be atypical.
The breeding male is bright russet
or cinnamon red on its upperparts from its crown
to its rump
, with a black streaking on its mantle. It has a small black bib and black around its eye, separated from the russet of its crown by a very thin white supercilium
, a stripe running from the bill to the rear of the head. The side of its neck and cheek are off-white, and its underparts are pale grey or washed with yellow, varying geographically. Shoulders and greater coverts
are chestnut, and its median coverts are black at the base with white at the tips. The rest of the wing is light brown with black tinges. Its tail is blackish brown, edged with ashy brown. The non-breeding male differs little from the breeding male, being paler with more orange upperparts. The only species with which the male is easily confused is the Eurasian Tree Sparrow, which differs in its black cheek spot and brown back. The female has mostly pale brown upperparts, and pale grey underparts, so it resembles the female House Sparrow. It differs from the House Sparrow in its slightly darker, russet-tinged plumage. It has a conspicuous cream supercilium from above its eye nearly around its head, and a bold dark brown stripe through its eye. It has mostly greyish brown wings and a back streaked with black and buff
. The juvenile is similar to the female, though more pale and sandy. As the male reaches its first winter, it resembles the adult, differing in less bold chestnut and a dusky bib.
. A thin swee swee vocalisation not unlike that of an Indian Robin
has been reported, but the context of this call is unrecorded. During territorial disputes, males give a rapid chit-chit-chit call.
in 1835, from a specimen collected in Japan
. Its specific name comes from the Latin
rutilus, "of a glowing or auburn red". It has usually been placed in the genus
Passer
, and within this genus it is seen as a part of the "Palearctic black-bibbed sparrow" group, which includes the Eurasian Tree Sparrow as well as the House Sparrow. It has generally been seen as a close relation of the House Sparrow, and Richard Meinertzhagen
even considered it to be the same species as the Somali Sparrow
, one of the House Sparrow's closest relatives. However, studies of mitochondrial DNA
indicate that the Russet Sparrow is an early offshoot or basal
species among the Palearctic black-bibbed sparrows. While mitochrondrial DNA suggest speciation
in Passer occurred during the Miocene
and Pliocene
, British ornithologist J. Denis Summers-Smith
considers the Russet Sparrow to have separated from the other Palearctic black-bibbed sparrows about 25,000 to 15,000 years ago, during the last glacial period. During this time, sparrows would have only been found in isolated ice-free refugia, such as the lower Yangtze
valley, which Summers-Smith considers the most likely centre of evolution for the Russet Sparrow.
Thirteen subspecies
have been described, but only three are widely recognised, these differing largely in the colour of their underparts. The nominate subspecies
Passer rutilans rutilans breeds in Japan, Korea
, Taiwan
, and southeastern and central China
. The subspecies intensior, described in 1922 by Walter Rothschild
from Yunnan
, breeds in southwest China and parts of India
, Burma, Laos
, and Vietnam
. In a large part of Sichuan
intensior intergrades
with the nominate subspecies, and a number of subspecies names have been proposed for the intergrades. The subspecies cinnamomeus, described in 1836 by John Gould
from the northwestern Himalayas, breeds from northern Arunachal Pradesh
to Nuristan in Afghanistan
.
_i2_img_3258.jpg)
The Russet Sparrow is found in parts of eastern Asia and in the Himalayas. It is not known whether its distribution is continuous between these two areas, since the political sensitivity of the Brahmaputra River
's valley near the China-India border makes the area less accessible to ornithologists. In the Himalayas the Russet Sparrow breeds from the far northeast of India through southeastern Tibet
, Bhutan
, Sikkim
, Nepal
, Uttarakhand
, and Himachal Pradesh
to Kashmir
and Nuristan in Afghanistan. Here, the Russet Sparrow makes short movements to lower altitudes between November and April in many areas. In eastern Asia, the Russet Sparrow is found in Sakhalin
, the Kuril Islands
, a small part of mainland Russia
, Japan, southern Korea
, and part of northern China, where it is mostly migratory. It is distributed through southern China and Taiwan
, and the mountainous parts of Burma, southern Northeast India, Laos
, and Vietnam
, where it is mostly resident. The Russet Sparrow also occurs as a winter visitor in southern Japan, the further south of China, and northern Thailand
. In eastern Asia, the autumn migration occurs between August and November.
The Russet Sparow appears to be abundant in most habitats across most of its very large range, and in the some areas it is among the most common birds. In Southeast Asia, its range has contracted at lower elevations due to global warming
, but it has also moved higher at high elevations and it remains common. Although its global population has not been quantified, it is assessed for the IUCN Red List
as Least Concern
for global extinction.
Breeding takes place in mountain
s and uplands
across most of the range. This preference for high altitudes is influenced by latitude: in the farthest south of its range it never breeds below 2500 metres (8,202.1 ft) above mean sea level
, but in the northernmost part of its range it often breeds by the sea. In eastern Asia, the Russet Sparrow prefers light woodland
, but it is sometimes found in towns and agricultural areas. In Sakhalin, it breeds mostly in riparian forest
. In Hokkaidō
, the Russet Sparrow finds a greater food supply for its young in more remote forests, and has greater reproductive success. In the Himalayas, it is strongly associated with terrace cultivation
, and it probably only spread to the Himalayas when these agricultural practices arrived 3000 to 4000 years ago. In towns where it occurs alongside the House or Tree Sparrow, it is found in gardens and less built up areas. In those hill station
s in India where both the House and the Russet Sparrow occur, the House Sparrow breeds around more-built up areas and bazaar
s, whereas the Russet Sparrow is "rather more up market at the larger houses with gardens and open spaces". In towns where it is the only sparrow, it is not dependent on trees, breeding around houses and eating scraps in streets. In the winter, migratory birds occur in open cultivated land and riverine grassland
s, but are never far from shrubs or trees.
_i_img_7407.jpg)
In many aspects of its behaviour, the Russet Sparrow is similar to the House and Eurasian Tree sparrows. Like them, it feeds on the ground, but spends most of its time perching on branches. Unlike those species, it prefers open, exposed branches for perching. The Russet Sparrow is described as shy and wary by some observers, but J. Denis Summers-Smith found it approachable in Indian hill stations. Flocking Russet Sparrows feed close to the ground, moving forward as birds from the rear of a flock move to the front, in what is called "roller feeding". Outside its breeding season, the Russet Sparrow is gregarious and forms flocks to find food, though it infrequently associates with other birds. Wintering flocks tend to keep away from human habitation. The Russet Sparrow is also social at night during the winter, and it forms large communal roosts in trees and bushes. In the breeding season, the female roosts in the nests and the male nests in foliage nearby. The adult Russet Sparrow is mostly a seed-eater, eating the seeds of herbs and weeds as well as rice
, barley
, and other grains
. Berries
, such as those of the kingore (certain Berberis
spp.), are also eaten when available. Nestlings are fed mostly on insect
s, especially caterpillar
s and larva
l beetle
s obtained on trees and flying insects caught by aerial pursuit. During the breeding season adults also consume insects. Mortality rates in the Russet Sparrow have not been studied, but it is known that many young birds die from Isospora
infections, to which the bird has little resistance. Other recorded parasites of the Russet Sparrow include Protocalliphora
blowflies, and Menacanthus
chewing lice
.
is short, lasting about three months. The Himalayan subspecies cinnamomeus has been recorded breeding from April to August, the nominate subspecies breeds from May to July, and the subspecies intensior is believed to breed in March. During its breeding season, the Russet Sparrow is not gregarious, and its nests
are dispersed uniformly rather than clustered. Its nests are most frequently built in tree cavities, often disused woodpecker
nests. The Russet Sparrow has been recorded breeding alongside the Eurasian Tree Sparrow and White Wagtail
in Black Kite
nests, taking advantage of the territorial defence of the kites to avoid nest predation. Other nest locations include the eaves of thatched roofs, stone walls and embankments, and electric junction boxes. In Bhutan
, it nests in holes in the outer walls of monasteries, often alongside the Eurasian Tree Sparrow. In Sakhalin, it will sometimes build free-standing nests in bushes. The Russet Sparrow also uses the disused nests of the Red-rumped Swallow
, and a pair of Russet Sparrows has been recorded attempting to oust a pair of Black-crested Tit
s from their nest.
The male chooses the nest site, and uses it for his courtship display
, spending much time calling nearby. When a female comes near a male at his nest the male begins to display by raising his head, drooping his wings, pushing his chest forward, and lowering his tail. He then bows up and down in front of the female, who will lunge and then fly away if unreceptive. Both sexes take part in building the nest, which consists of a loose, untidy bunch of dry grass which fills the nesting cavity, lined with fur and feathers for warmth. Eggs
are elongated ovals, with a fine texture and a slight gloss. They are whitish in overall colour with a grey tinge and brown spots, streaks, or blotches. The average size of the egg is 19.2×14.2 millimetres (0.75×0.55 in). Eggs are similar to those of the Eurasian Tree Sparrow, differing in a duller colour and more narrow shape, though they cannot be separated from those of the other sparrows with certainty. Two clutches
of four or sometimes five or six eggs are laid in a year. In Hokkaidō, clutches are laid between early May and early July, with two peaks in laying around mid May and late June. Both sexes incubate and feed the young, with the male often being more active in feeding the nestlings. In Hokkaidō, nestlings hatch weighing about 2 to 5 g (0.0705479242102239 to 0.17636981052556 oz), and fledge fourteen or fifteen days after hatching, weighing 15 to 55 g (0.529109431576679 to 1.9 oz). The Common Cuckoo
has been recorded in old literature as a brood parasite
of the Russet Sparrow.
and kang-che-go-ma in Tibetan
. The Japanese artist Hokusai
portrayed the Russet Sparrow, and due to this, it has appeared on postage stamp
s featuring Japanese art in Japan, The Gambia
, and Guyana
.
Passerine
A passerine is a bird of the order Passeriformes, which includes more than half of all bird species. Sometimes known as perching birds or, less accurately, as songbirds, the passerines form one of the most diverse terrestrial vertebrate orders: with over 5,000 identified species, it has roughly...
bird of the sparrow
Sparrow
The sparrows are a family of small passerine birds, Passeridae. They are also known as true sparrows, or Old World sparrows, names also used for a genus of the family, Passer...
family
Family (biology)
In biological classification, family is* a taxonomic rank. Other well-known ranks are life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, genus, and species, with family fitting between order and genus. As for the other well-known ranks, there is the option of an immediately lower rank, indicated by the...
Passeridae. A chunky little seed-eating bird with a thick bill
Beak
The beak, bill or rostrum is an external anatomical structure of birds which is used for eating and for grooming, manipulating objects, killing prey, fighting, probing for food, courtship and feeding young...
, it has a body length of 14 to 15 cm (5.5 to 5.9 in). Its plumage
Plumage
Plumage refers both to the layer of feathers that cover a bird and the pattern, colour, and arrangement of those feathers. The pattern and colours of plumage vary between species and subspecies and can also vary between different age classes, sexes, and season. Within species there can also be a...
is mainly warm rufous
Rufous
Rufous is a colour that may be described as reddish-brown or brownish-red, as of rust or oxidised iron.The first recorded use of rufous as a colour name in English was in the year 1782....
above and grey
Grey
Grey or gray is an achromatic or neutral color.Complementary colors are defined to mix to grey, either additively or subtractively, and many color models place complements opposite each other in a color wheel. To produce grey in RGB displays, the R, G, and B primary light sources are combined in...
below. It exhibits sexual dimorphism
Sexual dimorphism
Sexual dimorphism is a phenotypic difference between males and females of the same species. Examples of such differences include differences in morphology, ornamentation, and behavior.-Examples:-Ornamentation / coloration:...
, with the plumage of both sexes patterned similarly to that of the corresponding sex of House Sparrow
House Sparrow
The House Sparrow is a bird of the sparrow family Passeridae, found in most parts of the world. One of about 25 species in the genus Passer, the House Sparrow occurs naturally in most of Europe, the Mediterranean region, and much of Asia...
. Its vocalisations are sweet and musical chirps, which when strung together form a song.
Three subspecies
Subspecies
Subspecies in biological classification, is either a taxonomic rank subordinate to species, ora taxonomic unit in that rank . A subspecies cannot be recognized in isolation: a species will either be recognized as having no subspecies at all or two or more, never just one...
are recognised, differing chiefly in the yellowness of their underparts. The subspecies rutilans and intensior breed in parts of eastern Asia
East Asia
East Asia or Eastern Asia is a subregion of Asia that can be defined in either geographical or cultural terms...
, where they are usually found in light woodland, and the subspecies cinnamomeus breeds in the Himalayas
Himalayas
The Himalaya Range or Himalaya Mountains Sanskrit: Devanagari: हिमालय, literally "abode of snow"), usually called the Himalayas or Himalaya for short, is a mountain range in Asia, separating the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau...
, where it is usually associated with terrace cultivation
Terrace (agriculture)
Terraces are used in farming to cultivate sloped land. Graduated terrace steps are commonly used to farm on hilly or mountainous terrain. Terraced fields decrease erosion and surface runoff, and are effective for growing crops requiring much water, such as rice...
. The Russet Sparrow is the typical sparrow of human habitations in towns where the House and Eurasian Tree sparrows are absent. In the southern part of its range, the Russet Sparrow prefers higher altitudes, but in the north it breeds by the sea. The Russet Sparrow is known well enough in the Himalayas to have a distinct name in some languages, and is depicted in Japanese art.
This sparrow feeds mainly on the seed
Seed
A seed is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with some stored food. It is the product of the ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which occurs after fertilization and some growth within the mother plant...
s of herb
Herb
Except in botanical usage, an herb is "any plant with leaves, seeds, or flowers used for flavoring, food, medicine, or perfume" or "a part of such a plant as used in cooking"...
s and grain
Cereal
Cereals are grasses cultivated for the edible components of their grain , composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran...
s, but it also eats berries
Berry
The botanical definition of a berry is a fleshy fruit produced from a single ovary. Grapes are an example. The berry is the most common type of fleshy fruit in which the entire ovary wall ripens into an edible pericarp. They may have one or more carpels with a thin covering and fleshy interiors....
and insect
Insect
Insects are a class of living creatures within the arthropods that have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body , three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes, and two antennae...
s, particularly during the breeding season. This diet makes it a minor pest in agricultural areas, but also a predator of insect pests. While breeding, it is not social, as its nests are dispersed. It forms flocks when not breeding, although it associates with other bird species infrequently. In some parts of its range, the Russet Sparrow migrates, at least to lower altitudes. Its nest is located in a tree cavity, or a hole in a cliff or building. The male chooses the nest site before finding a mate and uses the nest for courtship display
Courtship display
Courtship display is a special, sometimes ritualised, set of behaviours which some animals perform as part of courtship. Courtship behaviours can include special calls, postures, and movements, and may involve special plumage, bright colours or other ornamentation. A good example is the 'dancing'...
. The typical clutch
Clutch (eggs)
A clutch of eggs refers to all the eggs produced by birds or reptiles, often at a single time, particularly those laid in a nest.In birds, destruction of a clutch by predators, , results in double-clutching...
contains five or six whitish eggs
Egg (biology)
An egg is an organic vessel in which an embryo first begins to develop. In most birds, reptiles, insects, molluscs, fish, and monotremes, an egg is the zygote, resulting from fertilization of the ovum, which is expelled from the body and permitted to develop outside the body until the developing...
. Both sexes incubate and feed the young.
Description
Plumage
Plumage refers both to the layer of feathers that cover a bird and the pattern, colour, and arrangement of those feathers. The pattern and colours of plumage vary between species and subspecies and can also vary between different age classes, sexes, and season. Within species there can also be a...
warm rufous
Rufous
Rufous is a colour that may be described as reddish-brown or brownish-red, as of rust or oxidised iron.The first recorded use of rufous as a colour name in English was in the year 1782....
in overall colour. It is a medium-sized sparrow at 14 to 15 cm (5.5 to 5.9 in) and 18 to 22.5 g (0.634931317892015 to 0.793664147365019 oz). It has a thick bill
Beak
The beak, bill or rostrum is an external anatomical structure of birds which is used for eating and for grooming, manipulating objects, killing prey, fighting, probing for food, courtship and feeding young...
suited to eating seeds, which is black on the breeding male, horn-coloured on the non-breeding male, and yellowish with a dark tip on the female. Wingspans for males range between 6.8 to 8.2 cm (2.7 to 3.2 in) and those for females from 6.7 to 7.7 cm (2.6 to 3 in). Tail, bill, and tarsus
Tarsus (skeleton)
In tetrapods, the tarsus is a cluster of articulating bones in each foot situated between the lower end of tibia and fibula of the lower leg and the metatarsus. In the foot the tarsus articulates with the bones of the metatarsus, which in turn articulate with the bones of the individual toes...
lengths are 4.3 to 5.1 cm (1.7 to 2 in), 1.1 to 1.3 cm (0.433070866141732 to 0.511811023622047 in), and 1.6 to 1.8 cm (0.62992125984252 to 0.708661417322835 in), respectively. Measurements for the Russet Sparrow vary geographically, between the three subspecies
Subspecies
Subspecies in biological classification, is either a taxonomic rank subordinate to species, ora taxonomic unit in that rank . A subspecies cannot be recognized in isolation: a species will either be recognized as having no subspecies at all or two or more, never just one...
, and also within the Himalayan subspecies cinnamomeus. The subspecies cinnamomeus is generally larger than the others, and within this form there is a tendency for birds at higher altitudes to be larger, and a clinal variation in size with the smallest birds in the west of the range and the largest in the east. The iris
Iris (anatomy)
The iris is a thin, circular structure in the eye, responsible for controlling the diameter and size of the pupils and thus the amount of light reaching the retina. "Eye color" is the color of the iris, which can be green, blue, or brown. In some cases it can be hazel , grey, violet, or even pink...
is chestnut
Chestnut (color)
Chestnut, also known as Indian red, is a color, a medium brownish shade of red, and is named after the nut of the chestnut tree.As Indian red, it is named after the red laterite soil found in India. It is thus an earth tone as well as a red. It is composed of naturally occurring iron oxides. Other...
in colour. The legs of both sexes are pale brown to pinkish-brown. The flight of all sparrows is swift, and that of the Russet Sparrow is described as swifter and more direct than that of the Eurasian Tree Sparrow.
The sexes differ, or are dimorphic
Sexual dimorphism
Sexual dimorphism is a phenotypic difference between males and females of the same species. Examples of such differences include differences in morphology, ornamentation, and behavior.-Examples:-Ornamentation / coloration:...
, in their plumage, and have a similar pattern to that in the corresponding sex of House Sparrow
House Sparrow
The House Sparrow is a bird of the sparrow family Passeridae, found in most parts of the world. One of about 25 species in the genus Passer, the House Sparrow occurs naturally in most of Europe, the Mediterranean region, and much of Asia...
. There is some variation between the three subspecies, especially in the colouration of the underparts. Birds of the subspecies rutilans are off-white on their cheeks and the sides of their necks, and have pale grey underparts. Birds of the subspecies intensior have a pale yellow wash on their underparts and cheeks, as well as darker upperparts, while those of the subspecies cinnamomeus have a heavy yellow tinge to their underparts. Moult is poorly recorded, the only records coming from Sakhalin
Sakhalin
Sakhalin or Saghalien, is a large island in the North Pacific, lying between 45°50' and 54°24' N.It is part of Russia, and is Russia's largest island, and is administered as part of Sakhalin Oblast...
and Himachal Pradesh
Himachal Pradesh
Himachal Pradesh is a state in Northern India. It is spread over , and is bordered by the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir on the north, Punjab on the west and south-west, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh on the south, Uttarakhand on the south-east and by the Tibet Autonomous Region on the east...
. In Sakhalin, moult occurs in August and September, between the breeding season and migration. In Himachal Pradesh, aviculturalist G. A. Perreau observed captive and wild birds and reported that they were yellow from December to spring and whitish during the remainder of the year, a pattern which may be atypical.
The breeding male is bright russet
Russet (color)
Russet is a dark brown color with a reddish-orange tinge.The first recorded use of russet as a color name in English was in 1562.The source of this color is the ISCC-NBS Dictionary of Color Names --Color dictionary used by stamp collectors to identify the colors of stampsThe name of the color...
or cinnamon red on its upperparts from its crown
Crown (anatomy)
A crown is the top of the head.The following birds and other animals are said to have a crown on their head:* Cranes** Grey-crowned Crane** Red-crowned Crane** Black-crowned Crane* Crowned eagle* Gray-crowned Rosy Finch* Yellow-crowned Gonolek...
to its rump
Rump (animal)
The rump or croup, in the external morphology of an animal, is the portion of the posterior dorsum that is posterior to the loins and anterior to the tail. Anatomically, the rump corresponds to the sacrum....
, with a black streaking on its mantle. It has a small black bib and black around its eye, separated from the russet of its crown by a very thin white supercilium
Supercilium
The supercilium is a plumage feature found on the heads of some bird species. It is a stripe which runs from the base of the bird's beak above its eye, finishing somewhere towards the rear of the bird's head. Also known as an "eyebrow", it is distinct from the eyestripe, which is a line which runs...
, a stripe running from the bill to the rear of the head. The side of its neck and cheek are off-white, and its underparts are pale grey or washed with yellow, varying geographically. Shoulders and greater coverts
Covert (feather)
A covert feather on a bird is one of a set of feathers, called coverts, which as the name implies, cover other feathers. The coverts help to smooth airflow over the wings and tail.- Wing-coverts :...
are chestnut, and its median coverts are black at the base with white at the tips. The rest of the wing is light brown with black tinges. Its tail is blackish brown, edged with ashy brown. The non-breeding male differs little from the breeding male, being paler with more orange upperparts. The only species with which the male is easily confused is the Eurasian Tree Sparrow, which differs in its black cheek spot and brown back. The female has mostly pale brown upperparts, and pale grey underparts, so it resembles the female House Sparrow. It differs from the House Sparrow in its slightly darker, russet-tinged plumage. It has a conspicuous cream supercilium from above its eye nearly around its head, and a bold dark brown stripe through its eye. It has mostly greyish brown wings and a back streaked with black and buff
Buff (colour)
Buff is a pale yellow-brown colour that got its name from the colour of buff leather.Displayed on the right is the colour buff.EtymologyAccording to the Oxford English Dictionary, buff as a descriptor of a colour was first used in the London Gazette of 1686, describing a uniform to be "A Red Coat...
. The juvenile is similar to the female, though more pale and sandy. As the male reaches its first winter, it resembles the adult, differing in less bold chestnut and a dusky bib.
Voice
The Russet Sparrow's vocalisations are described by most sources as "the sweetest and most musical" of any sparrow. Its basic call is a cheep or chilp, similar to that of other sparrows. This call is monosyllabic, unlike the House Sparrow's chirrup call, and is softer than that of the other sparrows. This call is given as a flight call, or by displaying males. Recorded variations include a chweep given by males at the nest and a trilled cheeep. Sometimes the male strings calls together and sings them in a strident tone, to create a sort of short song, transcribed as cheep chirrup cheeweep or chreet-chreet-chreet. The song is interspersed with sibilant chu-swik notes similar to those of the White WagtailWhite Wagtail
"Pied Wagtail" redirects here. For the related African bird, see African Pied Wagtail.The White Wagtail is a small passerine bird in the wagtail family Motacillidae, which also includes the pipits and longclaws. This species breeds in much of Europe and Asia and parts of north Africa...
. A thin swee swee vocalisation not unlike that of an Indian Robin
Indian Robin
The Indian Robin The Indian Robin The Indian Robin (Saxicoloides fulicatusRasmussen & Anderton emend the species epithet from fulicata to fulicatus since Saxicola is masculine and the -oides ending is always masculine according to ICZN Code 30.1.4.4....
has been reported, but the context of this call is unrecorded. During territorial disputes, males give a rapid chit-chit-chit call.
Taxonomy
The Russet Sparrow was first scientifically described, as Fringilla rutilans, by the Dutch zoologist Coenraad Jacob TemminckCoenraad Jacob Temminck
Coenraad Jacob Temminck was a Dutch aristocrat and zoologist.Temminck was the first director of the National Natural History Museum at Leiden from 1820 until his death. His Manuel d'ornithologie, ou Tableau systematique des oiseaux qui se trouvent en Europe was the standard work on European birds...
in 1835, from a specimen collected in Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
. Its specific name comes from the Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
rutilus, "of a glowing or auburn red". It has usually been placed in the genus
Genus
In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia...
Passer
Passer
Passer is a genus of Old World sparrows. These sparrows are plump little brown or greyish birds often with black, yellow or white markings. Typically 10–20 cm long, they have short tails and stubby conical beaks...
, and within this genus it is seen as a part of the "Palearctic black-bibbed sparrow" group, which includes the Eurasian Tree Sparrow as well as the House Sparrow. It has generally been seen as a close relation of the House Sparrow, and Richard Meinertzhagen
Richard Meinertzhagen
Colonel Richard Henry Meinertzhagen CBE DSO was a British soldier, intelligence officer and ornithologist.- Background and youth :Meinertzhagen was born into a socially connected, wealthy British family...
even considered it to be the same species as the Somali Sparrow
Somali Sparrow
The Somali Sparrow is a sparrow found in northern Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia and Kenya....
, one of the House Sparrow's closest relatives. However, studies of mitochondrial DNA
Mitochondrial DNA
Mitochondrial DNA is the DNA located in organelles called mitochondria, structures within eukaryotic cells that convert the chemical energy from food into a form that cells can use, adenosine triphosphate...
indicate that the Russet Sparrow is an early offshoot or basal
Basal (phylogenetics)
In phylogenetics, a basal clade is the earliest clade to branch in a larger clade; it appears at the base of a cladogram.A basal group forms an outgroup to the rest of the clade, such as in the following example:...
species among the Palearctic black-bibbed sparrows. While mitochrondrial DNA suggest speciation
Speciation
Speciation is the evolutionary process by which new biological species arise. The biologist Orator F. Cook seems to have been the first to coin the term 'speciation' for the splitting of lineages or 'cladogenesis,' as opposed to 'anagenesis' or 'phyletic evolution' occurring within lineages...
in Passer occurred during the Miocene
Miocene
The Miocene is a geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about . The Miocene was named by Sir Charles Lyell. Its name comes from the Greek words and and means "less recent" because it has 18% fewer modern sea invertebrates than the Pliocene. The Miocene follows the Oligocene...
and Pliocene
Pliocene
The Pliocene Epoch is the period in the geologic timescale that extends from 5.332 million to 2.588 million years before present. It is the second and youngest epoch of the Neogene Period in the Cenozoic Era. The Pliocene follows the Miocene Epoch and is followed by the Pleistocene Epoch...
, British ornithologist J. Denis Summers-Smith
J. Denis Summers-Smith
James Denis Summers-Smith is a British ornithologist and mechanical engineer, a specialist both in sparrows and industrial tribology....
considers the Russet Sparrow to have separated from the other Palearctic black-bibbed sparrows about 25,000 to 15,000 years ago, during the last glacial period. During this time, sparrows would have only been found in isolated ice-free refugia, such as the lower Yangtze
Yangtze River
The Yangtze, Yangzi or Cháng Jiāng is the longest river in Asia, and the third-longest in the world. It flows for from the glaciers on the Tibetan Plateau in Qinghai eastward across southwest, central and eastern China before emptying into the East China Sea at Shanghai. It is also one of the...
valley, which Summers-Smith considers the most likely centre of evolution for the Russet Sparrow.
Thirteen subspecies
Subspecies
Subspecies in biological classification, is either a taxonomic rank subordinate to species, ora taxonomic unit in that rank . A subspecies cannot be recognized in isolation: a species will either be recognized as having no subspecies at all or two or more, never just one...
have been described, but only three are widely recognised, these differing largely in the colour of their underparts. The nominate subspecies
Subspecies
Subspecies in biological classification, is either a taxonomic rank subordinate to species, ora taxonomic unit in that rank . A subspecies cannot be recognized in isolation: a species will either be recognized as having no subspecies at all or two or more, never just one...
Passer rutilans rutilans breeds in Japan, Korea
Korea
Korea ) is an East Asian geographic region that is currently divided into two separate sovereign states — North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by the People's Republic of China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the...
, Taiwan
Taiwan
Taiwan , also known, especially in the past, as Formosa , is the largest island of the same-named island group of East Asia in the western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. The island forms over 99% of the current territory of the Republic of China following...
, and southeastern and central China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
. The subspecies intensior, described in 1922 by Walter Rothschild
Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild
Lionel Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild, Baron de Rothschild FRS , a scion of the Rothschild family, was a British banker, politician, and zoologist.-Biography:...
from Yunnan
Yunnan
Yunnan is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the far southwest of the country spanning approximately and with a population of 45.7 million . The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders Burma, Laos, and Vietnam.Yunnan is situated in a mountainous area, with...
, breeds in southwest China and parts of India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
, Burma, Laos
Laos
Laos Lao: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxon Lao, officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic, is a landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma and China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the south and Thailand to the west...
, and Vietnam
Vietnam
Vietnam – sometimes spelled Viet Nam , officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam – is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea –...
. In a large part of Sichuan
Sichuan
' , known formerly in the West by its postal map spellings of Szechwan or Szechuan is a province in Southwest China with its capital in Chengdu...
intensior intergrades
Intergradation
In zoology, intergradation is the way in which two distinct subspecies are connected via areas where populations are found that have the characteristics of both...
with the nominate subspecies, and a number of subspecies names have been proposed for the intergrades. The subspecies cinnamomeus, described in 1836 by John Gould
John Gould
John Gould was an English ornithologist and bird artist. The Gould League in Australia was named after him. His identification of the birds now nicknamed "Darwin's finches" played a role in the inception of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection...
from the northwestern Himalayas, breeds from northern Arunachal Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh
Arunachal Pradesh is a state of India, located in the far northeast. It borders the states of Assam and Nagaland to the south, and shares international borders with Burma in the east, Bhutan in the west, and the People's Republic of China in the north. The majority of the territory is claimed by...
to Nuristan in Afghanistan
Afghanistan
Afghanistan , officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located in the centre of Asia, forming South Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East. With a population of about 29 million, it has an area of , making it the 42nd most populous and 41st largest nation in the world...
.
Distribution and habitat
Brahmaputra River
The Brahmaputra , also called Tsangpo-Brahmaputra, is a trans-boundary river and one of the major rivers of Asia. It is the only Indian river that is attributed the masculine gender and thus referred to as a in Indo-Aryan languages and languages with Indo-Aryan influence...
's valley near the China-India border makes the area less accessible to ornithologists. In the Himalayas the Russet Sparrow breeds from the far northeast of India through southeastern Tibet
Tibet
Tibet is a plateau region in Asia, north-east of the Himalayas. It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people as well as some other ethnic groups such as Monpas, Qiang, and Lhobas, and is now also inhabited by considerable numbers of Han and Hui people...
, Bhutan
Bhutan
Bhutan , officially the Kingdom of Bhutan, is a landlocked state in South Asia, located at the eastern end of the Himalayas and bordered to the south, east and west by the Republic of India and to the north by the People's Republic of China...
, Sikkim
Sikkim
Sikkim is a landlocked Indian state nestled in the Himalayan mountains...
, Nepal
Nepal
Nepal , officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked sovereign state located in South Asia. It is located in the Himalayas and bordered to the north by the People's Republic of China, and to the south, east, and west by the Republic of India...
, Uttarakhand
Uttarakhand
Uttarakhand , formerly Uttaranchal, is a state in the northern part of India. It is often referred to as the Land of Gods due to the many holy Hindu temples and cities found throughout the state, some of which are among Hinduism's most spiritual and auspicious places of pilgrimage and worship...
, and Himachal Pradesh
Himachal Pradesh
Himachal Pradesh is a state in Northern India. It is spread over , and is bordered by the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir on the north, Punjab on the west and south-west, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh on the south, Uttarakhand on the south-east and by the Tibet Autonomous Region on the east...
to Kashmir
Kashmir
Kashmir is the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term Kashmir geographically denoted only the valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal mountain range...
and Nuristan in Afghanistan. Here, the Russet Sparrow makes short movements to lower altitudes between November and April in many areas. In eastern Asia, the Russet Sparrow is found in Sakhalin
Sakhalin
Sakhalin or Saghalien, is a large island in the North Pacific, lying between 45°50' and 54°24' N.It is part of Russia, and is Russia's largest island, and is administered as part of Sakhalin Oblast...
, the Kuril Islands
Kuril Islands
The Kuril Islands , in Russia's Sakhalin Oblast region, form a volcanic archipelago that stretches approximately northeast from Hokkaidō, Japan, to Kamchatka, Russia, separating the Sea of Okhotsk from the North Pacific Ocean. There are 56 islands and many more minor rocks. It consists of Greater...
, a small part of mainland Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
, Japan, southern Korea
Korea
Korea ) is an East Asian geographic region that is currently divided into two separate sovereign states — North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by the People's Republic of China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the...
, and part of northern China, where it is mostly migratory. It is distributed through southern China and Taiwan
Taiwan
Taiwan , also known, especially in the past, as Formosa , is the largest island of the same-named island group of East Asia in the western Pacific Ocean and located off the southeastern coast of mainland China. The island forms over 99% of the current territory of the Republic of China following...
, and the mountainous parts of Burma, southern Northeast India, Laos
Laos
Laos Lao: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxon Lao, officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic, is a landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma and China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the south and Thailand to the west...
, and Vietnam
Vietnam
Vietnam – sometimes spelled Viet Nam , officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam – is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea –...
, where it is mostly resident. The Russet Sparrow also occurs as a winter visitor in southern Japan, the further south of China, and northern Thailand
Thailand
Thailand , officially the Kingdom of Thailand , formerly known as Siam , is a country located at the centre of the Indochina peninsula and Southeast Asia. It is bordered to the north by Burma and Laos, to the east by Laos and Cambodia, to the south by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia, and to the...
. In eastern Asia, the autumn migration occurs between August and November.
The Russet Sparow appears to be abundant in most habitats across most of its very large range, and in the some areas it is among the most common birds. In Southeast Asia, its range has contracted at lower elevations due to global warming
Global warming
Global warming refers to the rising average temperature of Earth's atmosphere and oceans and its projected continuation. In the last 100 years, Earth's average surface temperature increased by about with about two thirds of the increase occurring over just the last three decades...
, but it has also moved higher at high elevations and it remains common. Although its global population has not been quantified, it is assessed for the IUCN Red List
IUCN Red List
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species , founded in 1963, is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of biological species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature is the world's main authority on the conservation status of species...
as Least Concern
Least Concern
Least Concern is an IUCN category assigned to extant taxon or lower taxa which have been evaluated but do not qualify for any other category. As such they do not qualify as threatened, Near Threatened, or Conservation Dependent...
for global extinction.
Breeding takes place in mountain
Mountain
Image:Himalaya_annotated.jpg|thumb|right|The Himalayan mountain range with Mount Everestrect 58 14 160 49 Chomo Lonzorect 200 28 335 52 Makalurect 378 24 566 45 Mount Everestrect 188 581 920 656 Tibetan Plateaurect 250 406 340 427 Rong River...
s and uplands
Highland (geography)
The term highland or upland is used to denote any mountainous region or elevated mountainous plateau. Generally speaking, the term upland tends to be used for ranges of hills, typically up to 500-600m, and highland for ranges of low mountains.The Scottish Highlands refers to the mountainous...
across most of the range. This preference for high altitudes is influenced by latitude: in the farthest south of its range it never breeds below 2500 metres (8,202.1 ft) above mean sea level
Above mean sea level
The term above mean sea level refers to the elevation or altitude of any object, relative to the average sea level datum. AMSL is used extensively in radio by engineers to determine the coverage area a station will be able to reach...
, but in the northernmost part of its range it often breeds by the sea. In eastern Asia, the Russet Sparrow prefers light woodland
Woodland
Ecologically, a woodland is a low-density forest forming open habitats with plenty of sunlight and limited shade. Woodlands may support an understory of shrubs and herbaceous plants including grasses. Woodland may form a transition to shrubland under drier conditions or during early stages of...
, but it is sometimes found in towns and agricultural areas. In Sakhalin, it breeds mostly in riparian forest
Riparian forest
A riparian forest is a forested area of land adjacent to a body of water such as a river, stream, pond, lake, marshland, estuary, canal, sink or reservoir. -Etymology:...
. In Hokkaidō
Hokkaido
, formerly known as Ezo, Yezo, Yeso, or Yesso, is Japan's second largest island; it is also the largest and northernmost of Japan's 47 prefectural-level subdivisions. The Tsugaru Strait separates Hokkaido from Honshu, although the two islands are connected by the underwater railway Seikan Tunnel...
, the Russet Sparrow finds a greater food supply for its young in more remote forests, and has greater reproductive success. In the Himalayas, it is strongly associated with terrace cultivation
Terrace (agriculture)
Terraces are used in farming to cultivate sloped land. Graduated terrace steps are commonly used to farm on hilly or mountainous terrain. Terraced fields decrease erosion and surface runoff, and are effective for growing crops requiring much water, such as rice...
, and it probably only spread to the Himalayas when these agricultural practices arrived 3000 to 4000 years ago. In towns where it occurs alongside the House or Tree Sparrow, it is found in gardens and less built up areas. In those hill station
Hill station
A hill station is a town located at a higher elevation than the nearby plain or valley. The term was used mostly in colonial Asia , but also in Africa , for towns founded by European colonial rulers as refuges from the summer heat, up where temperatures are cooler...
s in India where both the House and the Russet Sparrow occur, the House Sparrow breeds around more-built up areas and bazaar
Bazaar
A bazaar , Cypriot Greek: pantopoula) is a permanent merchandising area, marketplace, or street of shops where goods and services are exchanged or sold. The term is sometimes also used to refer to the "network of merchants, bankers and craftsmen" who work that area...
s, whereas the Russet Sparrow is "rather more up market at the larger houses with gardens and open spaces". In towns where it is the only sparrow, it is not dependent on trees, breeding around houses and eating scraps in streets. In the winter, migratory birds occur in open cultivated land and riverine grassland
Grassland
Grasslands are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses and other herbaceous plants . However, sedge and rush families can also be found. Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except Antarctica...
s, but are never far from shrubs or trees.
Behaviour
Rice
Rice is the seed of the monocot plants Oryza sativa or Oryza glaberrima . As a cereal grain, it is the most important staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and the West Indies...
, barley
Barley
Barley is a major cereal grain, a member of the grass family. It serves as a major animal fodder, as a base malt for beer and certain distilled beverages, and as a component of various health foods...
, and other grains
Cereal
Cereals are grasses cultivated for the edible components of their grain , composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran...
. Berries
Berry
The botanical definition of a berry is a fleshy fruit produced from a single ovary. Grapes are an example. The berry is the most common type of fleshy fruit in which the entire ovary wall ripens into an edible pericarp. They may have one or more carpels with a thin covering and fleshy interiors....
, such as those of the kingore (certain Berberis
Berberis
Berberis , the barberries or pepperidge bushes, is a genus of about 450-500 species of deciduous and evergreen shrubs from 1-5 m tall with thorny shoots, native to the temperate and subtropical regions of Europe, Asia, Africa, North America and South America. They are closely related to the genus...
spp.), are also eaten when available. Nestlings are fed mostly on insect
Insect
Insects are a class of living creatures within the arthropods that have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body , three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes, and two antennae...
s, especially caterpillar
Caterpillar
Caterpillars are the larval form of members of the order Lepidoptera . They are mostly herbivorous in food habit, although some species are insectivorous. Caterpillars are voracious feeders and many of them are considered to be pests in agriculture...
s and larva
Larva
A larva is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle...
l beetle
Beetle
Coleoptera is an order of insects commonly called beetles. The word "coleoptera" is from the Greek , koleos, "sheath"; and , pteron, "wing", thus "sheathed wing". Coleoptera contains more species than any other order, constituting almost 25% of all known life-forms...
s obtained on trees and flying insects caught by aerial pursuit. During the breeding season adults also consume insects. Mortality rates in the Russet Sparrow have not been studied, but it is known that many young birds die from Isospora
Isospora
Isospora is a genus of internal parasites classified under Coccidia.It is responsible for the condition isosporiasis.At least 248 species have been described in this genus, but most of them are little studied and it is doubtful whether all should be recognized as distinct species...
infections, to which the bird has little resistance. Other recorded parasites of the Russet Sparrow include Protocalliphora
Protocalliphora
Protocalliphora or bird blowflies are a blow fly genus containing many species which are obligate parasites of birds. The larvae suck the blood of nestlings and are found in the nests of birds...
blowflies, and Menacanthus
Menacanthus
Menacanthus is a genus of chewing lice which parasitise birds. The taxonomy of this genus is highly uncertain. Most taxonomies have given this genus as having over a hundred species, but recent studies have synonymised dozens of species and found other names to be invalid. Some Menacanthus species...
chewing lice
Chewing louse
Mallophaga is a suborder of lice, known as chewing lice, biting lice or bird lice, containing more than 3000 species. They have paurometabolis or incomplete metamorphosis....
.
Breeding
The Russet Sparrow's breeding seasonBreeding season
The breeding season is the most suitable season, usually with favourable conditions and abundant food and water, for breeding among some wild animals and birds . Species with a breeding season have naturally evolved to have sexual intercourse during a certain time of year in order to achieve the...
is short, lasting about three months. The Himalayan subspecies cinnamomeus has been recorded breeding from April to August, the nominate subspecies breeds from May to July, and the subspecies intensior is believed to breed in March. During its breeding season, the Russet Sparrow is not gregarious, and its nests
Bird nest
A bird nest is the spot in which a bird lays and incubates its eggs and raises its young. Although the term popularly refers to a specific structure made by the bird itself—such as the grassy cup nest of the American Robin or Eurasian Blackbird, or the elaborately woven hanging nest of the...
are dispersed uniformly rather than clustered. Its nests are most frequently built in tree cavities, often disused woodpecker
Woodpecker
Woodpeckers are near passerine birds of the order Piciformes. They are one subfamily in the family Picidae, which also includes the piculets and wrynecks. They are found worldwide and include about 180 species....
nests. The Russet Sparrow has been recorded breeding alongside the Eurasian Tree Sparrow and White Wagtail
White Wagtail
"Pied Wagtail" redirects here. For the related African bird, see African Pied Wagtail.The White Wagtail is a small passerine bird in the wagtail family Motacillidae, which also includes the pipits and longclaws. This species breeds in much of Europe and Asia and parts of north Africa...
in Black Kite
Black Kite
The Black Kite is a medium-sized bird of prey in the family Accipitridae, which also includes many other diurnal raptors. Unlike others of the group, they are opportunistic hunters and are more likely to scavenge. They spend a lot of time soaring and gliding in thermals in search of food. Their...
nests, taking advantage of the territorial defence of the kites to avoid nest predation. Other nest locations include the eaves of thatched roofs, stone walls and embankments, and electric junction boxes. In Bhutan
Bhutan
Bhutan , officially the Kingdom of Bhutan, is a landlocked state in South Asia, located at the eastern end of the Himalayas and bordered to the south, east and west by the Republic of India and to the north by the People's Republic of China...
, it nests in holes in the outer walls of monasteries, often alongside the Eurasian Tree Sparrow. In Sakhalin, it will sometimes build free-standing nests in bushes. The Russet Sparrow also uses the disused nests of the Red-rumped Swallow
Red-rumped Swallow
The Red-rumped Swallow is a small passerine bird in the swallow family. It breeds in open hilly country of temperate southern Europe and Asia from Portugal and Spain to Japan, India and tropical Africa. The Indian and African birds are resident, but European and other Asian birds are migratory...
, and a pair of Russet Sparrows has been recorded attempting to oust a pair of Black-crested Tit
Black-crested Tit
The Black-crested Tit , also known as the Spot-winged Tit, is a species of bird in the Paridae family.-Distribution and habitat:...
s from their nest.
The male chooses the nest site, and uses it for his courtship display
Courtship display
Courtship display is a special, sometimes ritualised, set of behaviours which some animals perform as part of courtship. Courtship behaviours can include special calls, postures, and movements, and may involve special plumage, bright colours or other ornamentation. A good example is the 'dancing'...
, spending much time calling nearby. When a female comes near a male at his nest the male begins to display by raising his head, drooping his wings, pushing his chest forward, and lowering his tail. He then bows up and down in front of the female, who will lunge and then fly away if unreceptive. Both sexes take part in building the nest, which consists of a loose, untidy bunch of dry grass which fills the nesting cavity, lined with fur and feathers for warmth. Eggs
Egg (biology)
An egg is an organic vessel in which an embryo first begins to develop. In most birds, reptiles, insects, molluscs, fish, and monotremes, an egg is the zygote, resulting from fertilization of the ovum, which is expelled from the body and permitted to develop outside the body until the developing...
are elongated ovals, with a fine texture and a slight gloss. They are whitish in overall colour with a grey tinge and brown spots, streaks, or blotches. The average size of the egg is 19.2×14.2 millimetres (0.75×0.55 in). Eggs are similar to those of the Eurasian Tree Sparrow, differing in a duller colour and more narrow shape, though they cannot be separated from those of the other sparrows with certainty. Two clutches
Clutch (eggs)
A clutch of eggs refers to all the eggs produced by birds or reptiles, often at a single time, particularly those laid in a nest.In birds, destruction of a clutch by predators, , results in double-clutching...
of four or sometimes five or six eggs are laid in a year. In Hokkaidō, clutches are laid between early May and early July, with two peaks in laying around mid May and late June. Both sexes incubate and feed the young, with the male often being more active in feeding the nestlings. In Hokkaidō, nestlings hatch weighing about 2 to 5 g (0.0705479242102239 to 0.17636981052556 oz), and fledge fourteen or fifteen days after hatching, weighing 15 to 55 g (0.529109431576679 to 1.9 oz). The Common Cuckoo
Common Cuckoo
The Common Cuckoo is a member of the cuckoo order of birds, Cuculiformes, which includes the roadrunners, the anis and the coucals....
has been recorded in old literature as a brood parasite
Brood parasite
Brood parasites are organisms that use the strategy of brood parasitism, a kind of kleptoparasitism found among birds, fish or insects, involving the manipulation and use of host individuals either of the same or different species to raise the young of the brood-parasite...
of the Russet Sparrow.
Relationships with humans
In parts of the range, the Russet Sparrow inhabits towns, and in most of its range, it occurs near cultivation, and is a minor pest of agriculture. Though it damages crops, it also feeds its nestlings largely on insect pests. In China, the Russet Sparrow has been recorded as a captive bird, kept with the Eurasian Tree Sparrow. In Japan it was eaten in the 1870s and sold in the Yokohama game market. The Russet Sparrow is known well enough in the Himalayas that in most languages it has a different vernacular name from the Eurasian Tree Sparrow. Examples of these vernacular names include lal gouriya in HindiHindi
Standard Hindi, or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi, also known as Manak Hindi , High Hindi, Nagari Hindi, and Literary Hindi, is a standardized and sanskritized register of the Hindustani language derived from the Khariboli dialect of Delhi...
and kang-che-go-ma in Tibetan
Tibetan language
The Tibetan languages are a cluster of mutually-unintelligible Tibeto-Burman languages spoken primarily by Tibetan peoples who live across a wide area of eastern Central Asia bordering the Indian subcontinent, including the Tibetan Plateau and the northern Indian subcontinent in Baltistan, Ladakh,...
. The Japanese artist Hokusai
Hokusai
was a Japanese artist, ukiyo-e painter and printmaker of the Edo period. He was influenced by such painters as Sesshu, and other styles of Chinese painting...
portrayed the Russet Sparrow, and due to this, it has appeared on postage stamp
Postage stamp
A postage stamp is a small piece of paper that is purchased and displayed on an item of mail as evidence of payment of postage. Typically, stamps are made from special paper, with a national designation and denomination on the face, and a gum adhesive on the reverse side...
s featuring Japanese art in Japan, The Gambia
The Gambia
The Republic of The Gambia, commonly referred to as The Gambia, or Gambia , is a country in West Africa. Gambia is the smallest country on mainland Africa, surrounded by Senegal except for a short coastline on the Atlantic Ocean in the west....
, and Guyana
Guyana
Guyana , officially the Co-operative Republic of Guyana, previously the colony of British Guiana, is a sovereign state on the northern coast of South America that is culturally part of the Anglophone Caribbean. Guyana was a former colony of the Dutch and of the British...
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External links
- Russet Sparrow at the Internet Bird Collection
- Recording of the Russet Sparrow's calls