Dassault Rafale
Encyclopedia
The Dassault Rafale (ʁafal, squall
) is a French twin-engine
delta-wing multi-role jet fighter aircraft
designed and built by Dassault Aviation
. Introduced in 2000, the Rafale is being produced both for land-based use with the French Air Force
and for carrier-based
operations with the French Navy
. It has also been marketed for export to several countries but has not yet received orders.
In the late 1970s, the Air Force and Navy were seeking replacements for its aircraft. To save development costs, France agreed with four other nations to produce an air dominance fighter, but subsequent disagreements led to a split. To satisfy stringent criteria formulated by the Ministry of Defense, Dassault built a technology demonstrator to prove the viability of its new product. Further development led to the current Rafale variants, which embody innovative avionics and aerodynamics, optimised for air supremacy
operations.
(Armée de l'Air) and Navy
(Marine nationale) had requirements for a new generation of fighters to replace those in or about to enter service. Because their requirements were similar, and to reduce cost, both departments issued a common request for proposal. Meanwhile, Italy, Spain, West Germany
, France and the United Kingdom agreed to jointly develop a new fighter, although the latter three had their own aircraft developments. A number of factors led to the eventual split between France and the four countries. It wanted Dassault to lead the grouping; moreover, France demanded a swing-role fighter that was lighter than a design desired by the other four nations. For these reasons, France and the other nations split in 1985, after which France committed to its own design. These nations would develop what would later be named the Eurofighter Typhoon
.
Back in France, the government proceed with its own programme. The French Ministry of Defense required an aircraft capable of air-to-air and air-to-ground, all-day
and adverse weather operations. It would perform roles previously filled by an assortment of dedicated platforms, including the Jaguar
, F-8P Crusader, Mirage F1C/R/T
, Mirage 2000/N, Etendard IVPM and Super Etendard. In June 1982, Dassault announced it was developing a successor to the Mirage 2000. On 13 April 1983, France awarded Dassault a contract for two Avion de Combat eXpérimental (ACX) demonstrators, later revised down to one. The resultant Rafale A technology demonstrator was a large-delta wing
ed fighter, with all-moving foreplanes, embodying fly-by-wire
(FBW) flight control system. The technology demonstrator was rolled out in December 1985 in Saint-Cloud
, before made its maiden flight
on 4 July 1986 from Istres. It was initially powered by General Electric F404-GE-400 afterburning
turbofans found on the F-18 Hornet, instead of the Snecma M88
, to reduce the risk that often come with a first flight, and since the M88 was not considered sufficiently mature for the initial trials programme. It was not until May 1990 when it replaced the port F404 in the demonstrator, thereafter it reached Mach 1.4 and demonstrated supercruise
. After 865 sorties, Rafale A was retired in January 1994.
With the fall of the Berlin Wall
and the subsequent collapse of the Soviet Union, signalling the end of the Cold War
, the French government considerably cut the defense budget. This resulted in the reorganisation of the Air Force, the phasing out of the Mirage 5F and the decision to upgrade 55 Mirage F1Cs to tactical fighter configuration, the Mirage F1CT. Budgets that would otherwise have been spent on the Rafale program were instead diverted elsewhere.
, test the M88-2 engines and, later, man/machine interface and weapons. Due to budget constraints, the second single-single-seat prototype was never built. The C01 differed significantly from the Rafale A. Although superficially identical to the technology demonstrator, it was smaller and more stealthy through the coating the canopy with gold, re-designing the fuselage-fin joint, and the addition of radar-absorbent materials (RAM). This aircraft also saw extensive application of composite
and other materials, which both reduce the radar cross-section (RCS) and weight. Moreover, Dassault opted for the absence of variable engine inlets and a dedicated air brake
, which lessens maintenance loads and saves weight.
The B01, the only prototype of the two-seat B variant, made its maiden flight on 30 April 1993. It is 350 kilograms (771.6 lb) heavier than the single-seater, but carries 400 litres (105.7 US gal) less fuel. The craft was used for weapon-system testing. Later it saw validation roles regarding weapon separation and, specifically, the carriage of heavy-loads. The aircraft normally flies with 2000 litre external tanks, two Apache/Scalp cruise missile
s, in addition to four air-to-air missile
s
The Navy, meanwhile, sought a carrier-based aircraft
to supersede its fleet of ageing Etendard IPVMs, F-8P Crusaders and Super Etendard Modernises. Faced with no funds with which to develop a suitable fighter, the Navy was forced into modernising the Crusaders. Eventually, the requirement was met with the Rafale M, with M standing for Marine. The prototype (M01) first flew on 12 December 1991, followed by the second on 8 November 1993. It features greatly reinforced undercarriage
to cope with the phenomenal stress on landing, an arrestor hook
, and "jump strut" nosewheel, which only extends as the aircraft takes-off during a catapult
launch. It also features a built-in ladder, carrier-based microwave landing system, and the new fin-tip Telemir system which enables its inertial navigation system
to communicate with the aircraft carrier. Altogether, the modifications and additions makes it 500 kilograms (1,102.3 lb) heavier than the other variants. Nevertheless, Rafale M still retains high commonality with the Air Force's variants, although this means inability of its multi-spar wings to be folded (a vital asset with carrier-borne operations). However, this coincided with the then latest nuclear-powered carrier to enter service, the Charles de Gaulle, which was larger than the FS Foch and Clemenceau.
Catapult trials were initially carried out between during July–August 1992 at NAS Lakehurst
in New Jersey
, and early the following year, as France had no land-based catapult test facility. The aircraft then undertook trials aboard the carrier FS Foch in April 1993. At the controls of Dassault's chief test pilot, Yves Kerhervé, M02 made its maiden flight in November that year, while the first prototype undergoes the third round of testing at Lakehurst in November and December.
and Kosovo War
showed that a second crew member is invaluable on strike and reconnaissance missions, and therefore more Rafale Bs were ordered, replacing some Rafale Cs. In 1991, the Air Force switched its preferences towards the two-seater, announcing that 60% of the Rafale fleet would be made up of the variant. The AdA originally envisaged taking delivery of 250 Rafales, but this was revised downwards to 234 aircraft, made up of 95 "A" and 139 "B" models"; this was further reduced to 212 aircraft. The Navy, meanwhile, had 60 Rafales on order, down from 86 due to budget cuts. Of the 60, 25 would be M single-seaters and two-seat 35 Ns.
Production of the first aircraft formally started in December 1992, but was suspended in November 1995 due to political and economic uncertainty. Production only resumed in January 1997 after the Ministry of Defense and Dassault agreed on 48-aircraft (28 firm and 20 options) production run with delivery between 2002 and 2007. It was not until 1999 that a production Rafale M flew. A combined 180 Rafales have been ordered as of 2011.
The marine version has a high priority since it replaces the older F-8E(FN) Crusader. Service deliveries began in 2001 and the type entered service on 4 December 2000, though the first squadron, Flotille 12, did not actually reform until 18 May 2001. The unit embarked on the Charles de Gaulle in 2002, becoming fully operational on 25 June 2004, following an extended operational evaluation that included flying limited escort and tanker missions in support of Operation Enduring Freedom over Afghanistan.
The Armée de l'Air received its first three Rafale Bs (to F2 standards) in late December 2004. They went to the Centre d'Expériences Aériennes Militaires (CEAM) at Mont-de-Marsan
for operational evaluation and associated pilot conversion training.
The total programme cost, as of 2010, is around €40.690 billion, which translates to a unit programme cost of approximately €142.3 million. The unit flyaway price
as of 2010 is €101.1 million for the F3+ version.
combined with active integrated (close-coupled) canard
to maximize maneuverability, while withstanding 9 g or −3 g) and maintaining stability in flight. The canard also reduces landing speed to 115 knots (62.6 m/s). According to internal sources (Les essais en vol du Rafale) low speed limit is 100 knots (54.4 m/s) but 80 knots (43.6 m/s) is sometimes demonstrated during airshows by pilots willing to underline low speed qualities of the aircraft." "A minimum of 15 kt have been reached during simulated combat vs a Mirage 2000 by an aggressive pilot." The aircraft can operate from 400 metres (1,312.3 ft) runways.
Built as an air supremacy fighter, the Rafale features an advanced avionics suite designed to provide its pilots with excellent situational awareness. It sports an integrated electronic survival system named "SPECTRA
", which embodies a software-based virtual stealth technology
. The SPECTRA electronic warfare system
protects the aircraft against airborne and ground threats. The real-time data link allows communication with other aircraft and fixed and mobile command and control centres. The Rafale will also eventually use the Damoclès
electro-optical/laser designation pod that brings full day and night LGB capability, though the Armée de l'Airs current plans call for Rafale to use stand off weapons, and for the LGB role to be handled by Dassault Mirage 2000s. The most important sensor is the Thales
RBE2
passive electronically scanned multi-mode radar
. Thales claims to have achieved unprecedented levels of situational awareness through the earlier detection and tracking of multiple air targets for close combat and long-range interception, as well as real time generation of three-dimensional maps for terrain-following and the real time generation of high resolution ground maps for navigation and targeting.
SPECTRA's capabilities were trusted to the extent that French pilots began operations against Libya without the need for SEAD support aircraft or cruise missile bombardment.
In circumstances when signature management is required, the Rafale can use several passive sensor systems. The front-sector electro-optical system or Optronique Secteur Frontal (OSF)
, developed by Thales, is completely integrated within the aircraft and can operate both in the visible and infrared wavelengths.
The Rafale core systems employ an Integrated Modular Avionics
(IMA), called MDPU (Modular Data Processing Unit). This architecture hosts all the core functions of the aircraft as Flight management system
, Data Fusion, Fire Control, Man-Machine Interface
, etc. The total value of the radar, electronic communications and self-protection equipment is about 30% of the cost of the entire aircraft.
The Rafale's ground attack capability has been limited by the lack of an advanced targeting pod, but this is being rectified with the addition of Thales Optronique's Reco NG/Areos reconnaissance and Damocles targeting pods
on the F-3 standard.
The new Thales RBE2 AA Active Electronically Scanned Array
(AESA) radar is planned to replace the existing passively scanned array of the RBE2. Thales will begin deliveries of the new radar in August 2010 for use on the fourth tranche of Rafale aircraft. A total of 60 tranche four aircraft have been ordered to date. The first AESA-equipped squadron of aircraft is expected to become operational in 2012. Thales also claims that the AESA radar will improve the operational capabilities of the aircraft in terms of range, interception, tracking ability and countermeasures. Rafale's attempts at export sales have been hindered by a lack of AESA capability, "a baseline requirement for a 21st-century aircraft.”
Mark 16F "zero-zero” ejection seat, i.e., capable of being used at zero speed and zero altitude. The seat is inclined 29° to improve G-force
tolerance. The canopy hinges open to the right. An on-board oxygen generating system developed by Air Liquide
is provided to eliminate the need for multiple oxygen canisters.
The cockpit includes a wide-angle holographic head-up display
(HUD), two head-down flat-panel colour multi-function display
s (MFDs) and a center collimated display. Display interaction is by means of touch input for which the pilot wears silk-lined leather gloves. In addition, in full development, the pilot will have a head-mounted display
(HMD).
The pilot flies the aircraft with a side-stick
controller mounted on his right and a throttle on his left. These incorporate multiple hands-on-throttle-and-stick (HOTAS
) controls. The Rafale cockpit is also planned to include Direct Voice Input
(DVI), allowing for pilot action by voice commands.
, the Rafale, according to Dassault, has a reduced radar cross-section. While most of the stealth design features remain classified, extensive use of composite materials and serrated patterns on the trailing edges of the wings and canards help to reduce the radar cross-section.
as the Aviation Navale's carrier-based fighter, but not equipped or armed for air-to-ground operations. Actual deliveries (to Flotille 11 some time after 2007) are to the "F2" standard, giving air-to-ground capability, and replacing the Dassault-Breguet Super Étendard in the ground attack role and the Dassault Étendard IVP in the reconnaissance role. This will leave the Rafale M as the only fixed-wing combat aircraft flown by the Aviation Navale, and plans are to upgrade all airframes to the "F3" standard, with terrain-following 3D radar and nuclear capability, from early in the decade following 2010. This upgrade has been brought forwards to 2010 for the first 10 French Navy Rafale F-1s.
The first Rafale C delivered to the Armée de l'Air, in June 2005, was to the "F2" standard, and it is anticipated that upgrades similar to those of the navy will take place in the future. The Rafale replaces the SEPECAT Jaguar, Mirage F1 and the Mirage 2000 in the Armée de l'Air.
engine in the Rafale develops 50 kN (11,250 lbf) of dry thrust and 75 kN (16,900 lbf) with afterburners. They allow it to supercruise with four missiles and a 1,250-liter belly drop tank. The naval version (Rafale M) can supercruise up to Mach 1.4 while carrying six air-to-air missile
s (MBDA MICA
).
The Rafale is now in service in the trials and training role with the French Air Force (CEAM/EC 5/330). EC 1/7 at Saint-Dizier was expected to receive a nucleus of 8–10 Rafale F2s during the summer of 2006, and was set to enter full operational service (with robust air-to-air and stand off air-to-ground precision attack capabilities) during mid-2007 (when EC 1/7 will have about 20 aircraft, 15 two-seaters and 5 single-seaters). The aircraft is already in limited operational service with the French Navy (Flotille 12F) in the air-to-air role, and has undertaken a great deal of air-to-ground trials and evaluation work.
The Rafale M is fully compatible with US Navy aircraft carriers and some French Navy pilots have qualified to fly the aircraft from US Navy flight decks. The first Rafale deployed in a combat zone were those of the French Navy during "Mission Héraclès
", the French participation in "Operation Enduring Freedom". They flew from the Charles de Gaulle over Afghanistan as early as 2002, but the F1 standard precluded air-to-ground missions and the Rafale did not see any action. In June 2002, while Charles de Gaulle was in the Arabian Sea, Rafale conducted several patrols near the India-Pakistan border.
In 2007, after a "crash program" enhancement six Rafales were given the ability to drop laser-guided bombs, in view of engaging them in Afghanistan. Three of these aircraft belonging to the Air Force were deployed to Dushanbe
in Tajikistan, while the three others were Rafale Marines of the Navy on board the Charles De Gaulle. The first mission occurred on 12 March 2007, and the first GBU-12 was launched on 28 March in support of embattled Dutch troops in Southern Afghanistan, marking the operational début of the Rafale.
The Rafale is planned to be the French Air Force's primary combat aircraft until 2040 or later. In November 2009 the French government ordered an additional 60 aircraft to take the total order for the French Air Force and Navy to 180. On 4 June 2010, a French Rafale became the first jet fighter of a foreign navy to have its jet engine changed on board an American aircraft carrier, during an exercise on the USS Harry S. Truman (CVN-75)
. In February 2011, Rafales flew demonstrations in India, including air-to-air combat against Su-30s.
On 19 March 2011, French Rafale jets conducted reconnaissance and strike missions over Libya in Opération Harmattan
, in support of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973
, being the first to attack and destroy heavy artillery units that had reached the outskirts of Benghazi
. On 24 March 2011 it was reported that a Rafale shot down a Libyan Air Force
G-2/Galeb
light ground attack/trainer jet. A few hours later an armed forces spokesman specified that the aircraft was destroyed on the runway with an AASM
air-to-ground missile just after it had landed. By 14 August 2011, the 10 Rafale of the French Navy aboard the carrier Charles de Gaulle had flown 840 attack sorties (with Super Etendard), 390 reconnaissance sorties (Rafale only), and 240 refueling sorties (with Super Etendard) on buddy-buddy refueling missions.
for 126 multi-role fighters. In April 2009, media reports surfaced stating that the Indian Air Force (IAF) had disqualified Rafale from the competition for not meeting minimum performance requirements of the IAF. However, India's Defence Ministry dismissed these media reports and said that the Rafale was still in the race for the contract. In April 2011, the IAF shortlisted Dassault Rafale and Eurofighter Typhoon
for the $12 billion contract.
In January 2006, the French newspaper Journal du Dimanche reported that Libya wanted to order 13–18 Rafales "in a deal worth as much as $3.24 billion". In December 2007, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi openly declared the Libyan interest in the Rafale. Greece has also expressed an interest in the French fighter, possibly in exchange for its fleet of Mirages. Libya did not order any Rafales; ironically, less than three years later during the Libyan uprising of 2011, French Rafales were dispatched over Libya as a part of the 2011 military intervention in Libya; missiles such as SCALP EG were deployed from carrier-based Rafales. During 2006, the British Royal Navy considered the Rafale as an alternative to the F-35 JSF
, but decided to proceed with the F-35. However the aircraft carriers will be modified in order to operate CATOBAR
aircraft such as Rafales.
In February 2007, it was reported that Switzerland was considering the Rafale and other fighters to replace its F-5 Tiger IIs. The one month evaluation started in October 2008 at Emmen Airforce Base consisting of approx. 30 evaluation flights. The Rafale along with the Gripen and the Eurofighter were to be evaluated. In September, La Tribune
reported that a sale to Morocco had fallen through, the government selecting the F-16 instead. In October 2007, La Tribunes earlier report appeared to have been confirmed that the Rafale would not be bought.
In January 2008, O Estado de S. Paulo
reported that the Brazilian Defence Minister visited France to discuss the possibility of acquiring Rafale fighters for the F-X2 program. In June 2008, the Brazilian Air Force
divulged a Request For Information to the following companies and their aircraft: F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and F-35 Lightning II, Dassault Rafale, Su-35
, Gripen NG and Eurofighter Typhoon. In October 2008, it was reported that Brazilian Air Force had selected three finalists for F-X2; Dassault Rafale, Gripen NG and Boeing F/A-18E/F. On 7 September 2009, during a visit by French President Nicolas Sarkozy, Brazil announced a pact with France and that the nations are in contract negotiations to buy 36 Rafales. The crash of two Rafales in the Mediterranean off Perpignan on 24 September 2009 after a midair collision, comes at a delicate time for the Brazil-France negotiations. On 5 January 2010, media reports stated that the final evaluation report by the Brazilian Air Force placed the Gripen ahead of the other two contenders. The decisive factor was apparently the overall cost of the new fighters, both in terms of unit cost, and operating and maintenance costs. Some sources say that Rafale was chosen by the Defense Ministry, but there has been no confirmation on this. In February, 2011, the press announced that the new president of Brazil, Dilma Rousseff
, had decided in favor of the American F-18 fighter. On 28 February 2011, the Minister of Finance, Guido Mantega, said the issue would not be resolved in the current year, citing "lack of resources", due to budgetary constraints for the new fiscal year.
In February 2009, French President Nicolas Sarkozy
announced that Kuwait was considering buying up to 28 Rafales, but with no firm order then. The same month, France offered Rafales to Oman to replace its ageing fleet of SEPECAT Jaguar
s. But in 2010, Oman prefers to order the Typhoon.
The United Arab Emirates Air Force
was interested in an upgraded version of the Rafale with more powerful engines and radar, and advanced air to air missiles. They have now started to explore a purchase of the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet or Eurofighter Typhoon. This is reported to be because France's Defense Minister Hervé Morin has asked the UAE to pay 2 billion euros of the total cost to upgrade the Rafale. Deputy Supreme Commander of the UAE Armed Forces, Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan
has called the French offer "uncompetitive and unworkable".
Leaked United States State Department cables have said that "French representatives have tried to spin the Rafale's dismal performance in the global market to be the result of U.S. government political pressure rather than the aircraft's shortcomings".
Rafale D: Dassault used this designation (D for discret or stealthy) in the early 1990s for the production versions for the Armée de l'Air, to emphasise the new semi-stealthy features they had added to the design.
Rafale B:This is the two-seater version for the Armée de l'Air; delivered to ECE 05.330 in 2004.
Rafale C:This is the single-seat version for the Armée de l'Air; delivered to ECE 05.330 in June 2004.
Rafale M:This is the carrier-borne version for the Aéronavale, which entered service in 2002. The Rafale M weighs about 500 kg (1,100 lb) more than the Rafale C. Very similar to the Rafale C in appearance, the M differs in the following respects:
Rafale N:The Rafale N, originally called the Rafale BM, was planned to be a two-seater version for the Aéronavale. Budget constraints and the cost of training extra crew members have been cited as the grounds for its cancellation.
Squall
A squall is a sudden, sharp increase in wind speed which is usually associated with active weather, such as rain showers, thunderstorms, or heavy snow. Squalls refer to an increase in the sustained winds over a short time interval, as there may be higher gusts during a squall event...
) is a French twin-engine
Twinjet
A twinjet or twin jet is a jet aircraft powered by two engines. Such configuration of an aircraft is the most popular today for commercial airliners, for fighters, and many other kinds, because while offering safety from a single engine failure, it is also acceptably fuel-efficient.-Aircraft...
delta-wing multi-role jet fighter aircraft
Fighter aircraft
A fighter aircraft is a military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat with other aircraft, as opposed to a bomber, which is designed primarily to attack ground targets...
designed and built by Dassault Aviation
Dassault Aviation
Dassault Aviation is a French aircraft manufacturer of military, regional and business jets, a subsidiary of Dassault Group.It was founded in 1930 by Marcel Bloch as Société des Avions Marcel Bloch or "MB". After World War II, Marcel Bloch changed his name to Marcel Dassault, and the name of the...
. Introduced in 2000, the Rafale is being produced both for land-based use with the French Air Force
French Air Force
The French Air Force , literally Army of the Air) is the air force of the French Armed Forces. It was formed in 1909 as the Service Aéronautique, a service arm of the French Army, then was made an independent military arm in 1933...
and for carrier-based
Carrier-based aircraft
Carrier-based aircraft are military aircraft designed specifically for operations from aircraft carriers. The term is generally applied only to fixed-wing aircraft, as naval helicopters are able to operate from a wider variety of aviation-capable ships. Carrier-based aircraft must be relatively...
operations with the French Navy
French Navy
The French Navy, officially the Marine nationale and often called La Royale is the maritime arm of the French military. It includes a full range of fighting vessels, from patrol boats to a nuclear powered aircraft carrier and 10 nuclear-powered submarines, four of which are capable of launching...
. It has also been marketed for export to several countries but has not yet received orders.
In the late 1970s, the Air Force and Navy were seeking replacements for its aircraft. To save development costs, France agreed with four other nations to produce an air dominance fighter, but subsequent disagreements led to a split. To satisfy stringent criteria formulated by the Ministry of Defense, Dassault built a technology demonstrator to prove the viability of its new product. Further development led to the current Rafale variants, which embody innovative avionics and aerodynamics, optimised for air supremacy
Air supremacy
Air supremacy is the complete dominance of the air power of one side's air forces over the other side's, during a military campaign. It is the most favorable state of control of the air...
operations.
Development
Requirements
In the mid-1970s, both the French Air ForceFrench Air Force
The French Air Force , literally Army of the Air) is the air force of the French Armed Forces. It was formed in 1909 as the Service Aéronautique, a service arm of the French Army, then was made an independent military arm in 1933...
(Armée de l'Air) and Navy
French Navy
The French Navy, officially the Marine nationale and often called La Royale is the maritime arm of the French military. It includes a full range of fighting vessels, from patrol boats to a nuclear powered aircraft carrier and 10 nuclear-powered submarines, four of which are capable of launching...
(Marine nationale) had requirements for a new generation of fighters to replace those in or about to enter service. Because their requirements were similar, and to reduce cost, both departments issued a common request for proposal. Meanwhile, Italy, Spain, West Germany
West Germany
West Germany is the common English, but not official, name for the Federal Republic of Germany or FRG in the period between its creation in May 1949 to German reunification on 3 October 1990....
, France and the United Kingdom agreed to jointly develop a new fighter, although the latter three had their own aircraft developments. A number of factors led to the eventual split between France and the four countries. It wanted Dassault to lead the grouping; moreover, France demanded a swing-role fighter that was lighter than a design desired by the other four nations. For these reasons, France and the other nations split in 1985, after which France committed to its own design. These nations would develop what would later be named the Eurofighter Typhoon
Eurofighter Typhoon
The Eurofighter Typhoon is a twin-engine, canard-delta wing, multirole combat aircraft, designed and built by a consortium of three companies: EADS, Alenia Aeronautica and BAE Systems; working through a holding company, Eurofighter GmbH, which was formed in 1986...
.
Technology demonstrator
Night fighter
A night fighter is a fighter aircraft adapted for use at night or in other times of bad visibility...
and adverse weather operations. It would perform roles previously filled by an assortment of dedicated platforms, including the Jaguar
SEPECAT Jaguar
The SEPECAT Jaguar is an Anglo-French jet ground attack aircraft, originally used by the British Royal Air Force and the French Armée de l'Air in the close air support and nuclear strike role, and still in service with several export customers, notably the Indian Air Force and the Royal Air Force...
, F-8P Crusader, Mirage F1C/R/T
Dassault Mirage F1
The Dassault Mirage F1 is a French air-superiority fighter and attack aircraft designed and built by Dassault Aviation as a successor of the Mirage III family. The Mirage F1 entered service in the French Air Force in the early seventies...
, Mirage 2000/N, Etendard IVPM and Super Etendard. In June 1982, Dassault announced it was developing a successor to the Mirage 2000. On 13 April 1983, France awarded Dassault a contract for two Avion de Combat eXpérimental (ACX) demonstrators, later revised down to one. The resultant Rafale A technology demonstrator was a large-delta wing
Delta wing
The delta wing is a wing planform in the form of a triangle. It is named for its similarity in shape to the Greek uppercase letter delta .-Delta-shaped stabilizers:...
ed fighter, with all-moving foreplanes, embodying fly-by-wire
Fly-by-wire
Fly-by-wire is a system that replaces the conventional manual flight controls of an aircraft with an electronic interface. The movements of flight controls are converted to electronic signals transmitted by wires , and flight control computers determine how to move the actuators at each control...
(FBW) flight control system. The technology demonstrator was rolled out in December 1985 in Saint-Cloud
Saint-Cloud
Saint-Cloud is a commune in the western suburbs of Paris, France. It is located from the centre of Paris.Like other communes of the Hauts-de-Seine such as Marnes-la-Coquette, Neuilly-sur-Seine or Vaucresson, Saint-Cloud is one of the wealthiest cities in France, ranked 22nd out of the 36500 in...
, before made its maiden flight
Maiden flight
The maiden flight of an aircraft is the first occasion on which an aircraft leaves the ground of its own accord. This is similar to a ship's maiden voyage....
on 4 July 1986 from Istres. It was initially powered by General Electric F404-GE-400 afterburning
AfterBurner
The AfterBurner is a lighting solution for the Game Boy Advance system that was created by Triton-Labs.Originally, portablemonopoly.net was a website created to petition Nintendo to put some kind of light in their Game Boy Advance system...
turbofans found on the F-18 Hornet, instead of the Snecma M88
SNECMA M88
|-See also:-External links:* * Snecma M88's pdf* *...
, to reduce the risk that often come with a first flight, and since the M88 was not considered sufficiently mature for the initial trials programme. It was not until May 1990 when it replaced the port F404 in the demonstrator, thereafter it reached Mach 1.4 and demonstrated supercruise
Supercruise
Supercruise is sustained supersonic flight of an aircraft with a useful cargo, passenger, or weapons load performed efficiently and without the use of afterburners ....
. After 865 sorties, Rafale A was retired in January 1994.
With the fall of the Berlin Wall
Berlin Wall
The Berlin Wall was a barrier constructed by the German Democratic Republic starting on 13 August 1961, that completely cut off West Berlin from surrounding East Germany and from East Berlin...
and the subsequent collapse of the Soviet Union, signalling the end of the Cold War
Cold War
The Cold War was the continuing state from roughly 1946 to 1991 of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the Communist World—primarily the Soviet Union and its satellite states and allies—and the powers of the Western world, primarily the United States...
, the French government considerably cut the defense budget. This resulted in the reorganisation of the Air Force, the phasing out of the Mirage 5F and the decision to upgrade 55 Mirage F1Cs to tactical fighter configuration, the Mirage F1CT. Budgets that would otherwise have been spent on the Rafale program were instead diverted elsewhere.
Testing
To meet various roles expected to be performed by the new platform, the Air Force required two variants – the single-seat "Rafale C", with C standing for chasseur (fighter), and the "Rafale B" , with B standing for biplace (two-seater). The prototype of the C model (designated C01) completed its first flight on 19 May 1991, signalling the start of a test programme which primarily aims to expand the flight envelopeFlight envelope
In aerodynamics, the flight envelope or performance envelope of an aircraft refers to the capabilities of a design in terms of airspeed and load factor or altitude. The term is somewhat loosely applied, and can also refer to other measurements such as maneuverability...
, test the M88-2 engines and, later, man/machine interface and weapons. Due to budget constraints, the second single-single-seat prototype was never built. The C01 differed significantly from the Rafale A. Although superficially identical to the technology demonstrator, it was smaller and more stealthy through the coating the canopy with gold, re-designing the fuselage-fin joint, and the addition of radar-absorbent materials (RAM). This aircraft also saw extensive application of composite
Composite material
Composite materials, often shortened to composites or called composition materials, are engineered or naturally occurring materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical properties which remain separate and distinct at the macroscopic or...
and other materials, which both reduce the radar cross-section (RCS) and weight. Moreover, Dassault opted for the absence of variable engine inlets and a dedicated air brake
Air brake (aircraft)
In aeronautics, air brakes or speedbrakes are a type of flight control surface used on an aircraft to increase drag or increase the angle of approach during landing....
, which lessens maintenance loads and saves weight.
The B01, the only prototype of the two-seat B variant, made its maiden flight on 30 April 1993. It is 350 kilograms (771.6 lb) heavier than the single-seater, but carries 400 litres (105.7 US gal) less fuel. The craft was used for weapon-system testing. Later it saw validation roles regarding weapon separation and, specifically, the carriage of heavy-loads. The aircraft normally flies with 2000 litre external tanks, two Apache/Scalp cruise missile
Cruise missile
A cruise missile is a guided missile that carries an explosive payload and is propelled, usually by a jet engine, towards a land-based or sea-based target. Cruise missiles are designed to deliver a large warhead over long distances with high accuracy...
s, in addition to four air-to-air missile
Air-to-air missile
An air-to-air missile is a missile fired from an aircraft for the purpose of destroying another aircraft. AAMs are typically powered by one or more rocket motors, usually solid fuelled but sometimes liquid fuelled...
s
Carrier-based aircraft
Carrier-based aircraft are military aircraft designed specifically for operations from aircraft carriers. The term is generally applied only to fixed-wing aircraft, as naval helicopters are able to operate from a wider variety of aviation-capable ships. Carrier-based aircraft must be relatively...
to supersede its fleet of ageing Etendard IPVMs, F-8P Crusaders and Super Etendard Modernises. Faced with no funds with which to develop a suitable fighter, the Navy was forced into modernising the Crusaders. Eventually, the requirement was met with the Rafale M, with M standing for Marine. The prototype (M01) first flew on 12 December 1991, followed by the second on 8 November 1993. It features greatly reinforced undercarriage
Undercarriage
The undercarriage or landing gear in aviation, is the structure that supports an aircraft on the ground and allows it to taxi, takeoff and land...
to cope with the phenomenal stress on landing, an arrestor hook
Tailhook
A tailhook, also arresting hook or arrester hook, is a device attached to the empennage of some military fixed wing aircraft...
, and "jump strut" nosewheel, which only extends as the aircraft takes-off during a catapult
Aircraft catapult
An aircraft catapult is a device used to launch aircraft from ships—in particular aircraft carriers—as a form of assisted take off. It consists of a track built into the flight deck, below which is a large piston or shuttle that is attached through the track to the nose gear of the aircraft, or in...
launch. It also features a built-in ladder, carrier-based microwave landing system, and the new fin-tip Telemir system which enables its inertial navigation system
Inertial navigation system
An inertial navigation system is a navigation aid that uses a computer, motion sensors and rotation sensors to continuously calculate via dead reckoning the position, orientation, and velocity of a moving object without the need for external references...
to communicate with the aircraft carrier. Altogether, the modifications and additions makes it 500 kilograms (1,102.3 lb) heavier than the other variants. Nevertheless, Rafale M still retains high commonality with the Air Force's variants, although this means inability of its multi-spar wings to be folded (a vital asset with carrier-borne operations). However, this coincided with the then latest nuclear-powered carrier to enter service, the Charles de Gaulle, which was larger than the FS Foch and Clemenceau.
Catapult trials were initially carried out between during July–August 1992 at NAS Lakehurst
Naval Air Engineering Station Lakehurst
JB MDL Lakehurst is a United States Navy base located approximately south-southeast of Trenton, New Jersey. Lakehurst is under the jurisdiction of the Naval Air Systems Command...
in New Jersey
New Jersey
New Jersey is a state in the Northeastern and Middle Atlantic regions of the United States. , its population was 8,791,894. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York, on the southeast and south by the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Pennsylvania and on the southwest by Delaware...
, and early the following year, as France had no land-based catapult test facility. The aircraft then undertook trials aboard the carrier FS Foch in April 1993. At the controls of Dassault's chief test pilot, Yves Kerhervé, M02 made its maiden flight in November that year, while the first prototype undergoes the third round of testing at Lakehurst in November and December.
Procurement and production
Initially, the Rafale B was to be just a trainer, but the Gulf WarGulf War
The Persian Gulf War , commonly referred to as simply the Gulf War, was a war waged by a U.N.-authorized coalition force from 34 nations led by the United States, against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion and annexation of Kuwait.The war is also known under other names, such as the First Gulf...
and Kosovo War
Kosovo War
The term Kosovo War or Kosovo conflict was two sequential, and at times parallel, armed conflicts in Kosovo province, then part of FR Yugoslav Republic of Serbia; from early 1998 to 1999, there was an armed conflict initiated by the ethnic Albanian "Kosovo Liberation Army" , who sought independence...
showed that a second crew member is invaluable on strike and reconnaissance missions, and therefore more Rafale Bs were ordered, replacing some Rafale Cs. In 1991, the Air Force switched its preferences towards the two-seater, announcing that 60% of the Rafale fleet would be made up of the variant. The AdA originally envisaged taking delivery of 250 Rafales, but this was revised downwards to 234 aircraft, made up of 95 "A" and 139 "B" models"; this was further reduced to 212 aircraft. The Navy, meanwhile, had 60 Rafales on order, down from 86 due to budget cuts. Of the 60, 25 would be M single-seaters and two-seat 35 Ns.
Production of the first aircraft formally started in December 1992, but was suspended in November 1995 due to political and economic uncertainty. Production only resumed in January 1997 after the Ministry of Defense and Dassault agreed on 48-aircraft (28 firm and 20 options) production run with delivery between 2002 and 2007. It was not until 1999 that a production Rafale M flew. A combined 180 Rafales have been ordered as of 2011.
The marine version has a high priority since it replaces the older F-8E(FN) Crusader. Service deliveries began in 2001 and the type entered service on 4 December 2000, though the first squadron, Flotille 12, did not actually reform until 18 May 2001. The unit embarked on the Charles de Gaulle in 2002, becoming fully operational on 25 June 2004, following an extended operational evaluation that included flying limited escort and tanker missions in support of Operation Enduring Freedom over Afghanistan.
The Armée de l'Air received its first three Rafale Bs (to F2 standards) in late December 2004. They went to the Centre d'Expériences Aériennes Militaires (CEAM) at Mont-de-Marsan
Mont-de-Marsan
Mont-de-Marsan is a commune and capital of the Landes department in Aquitaine in southwestern France.Mont-de-Marsan airbase « Constantin Rozanoff » is a major installation of the French Air Force. The base includes CEAM , an air defense radar command reporting centre, and an air defence control...
for operational evaluation and associated pilot conversion training.
The total programme cost, as of 2010, is around €40.690 billion, which translates to a unit programme cost of approximately €142.3 million. The unit flyaway price
Flyaway cost
Flyaway cost is one measure of the cost of an aircraft. It values the aircraft at its marginal cost, including only the cost of production and production tools immediately accruing to the building of a single unit...
as of 2010 is €101.1 million for the F3+ version.
Aerodynamics
The Rafale features a delta wingDelta wing
The delta wing is a wing planform in the form of a triangle. It is named for its similarity in shape to the Greek uppercase letter delta .-Delta-shaped stabilizers:...
combined with active integrated (close-coupled) canard
Canard (aeronautics)
In aeronautics, canard is an airframe configuration of fixed-wing aircraft in which the forward surface is smaller than the rearward, the former being known as the "canard", while the latter is the main wing...
to maximize maneuverability, while withstanding 9 g or −3 g) and maintaining stability in flight. The canard also reduces landing speed to 115 knots (62.6 m/s). According to internal sources (Les essais en vol du Rafale) low speed limit is 100 knots (54.4 m/s) but 80 knots (43.6 m/s) is sometimes demonstrated during airshows by pilots willing to underline low speed qualities of the aircraft." "A minimum of 15 kt have been reached during simulated combat vs a Mirage 2000 by an aggressive pilot." The aircraft can operate from 400 metres (1,312.3 ft) runways.
Sensors and avionics
Thales Spectra
The Thales SPECTRA is an integrated defensive aids suite developed by Thales Group for the Dassault Rafale series of fighter aircraft.All elements of the Thales SPECTRA system are built into the airframe, and have high levels of automation and system...
", which embodies a software-based virtual stealth technology
Stealth technology
Stealth technology also termed LO technology is a sub-discipline of military tactics and passive electronic countermeasures, which cover a range of techniques used with personnel, aircraft, ships, submarines, and missiles, to make them less visible to radar, infrared, sonar and other detection...
. The SPECTRA electronic warfare system
Thales Spectra
The Thales SPECTRA is an integrated defensive aids suite developed by Thales Group for the Dassault Rafale series of fighter aircraft.All elements of the Thales SPECTRA system are built into the airframe, and have high levels of automation and system...
protects the aircraft against airborne and ground threats. The real-time data link allows communication with other aircraft and fixed and mobile command and control centres. The Rafale will also eventually use the Damoclès
Thales Damocles
The Damocles is a 3rd generation targeting pod for military aircraft made by Thales Group produced in Elancourt France. It is a modular, eye-safe laser, high performance pod selected by the French Air Force for its attack fighter aircraft fleet. It features a long-range laser designator, an...
electro-optical/laser designation pod that brings full day and night LGB capability, though the Armée de l'Airs current plans call for Rafale to use stand off weapons, and for the LGB role to be handled by Dassault Mirage 2000s. The most important sensor is the Thales
Thales Group
The Thales Group is a French electronics company delivering information systems and services for the aerospace, defense, transportation and security markets...
RBE2
RBE2
The RBE2 is a multirole radar developed during the 90s for the French Rafale combat aircraft.The RBE2 uses a passive electronically scanned array ....
passive electronically scanned multi-mode radar
Passive electronically scanned array
A passive electronically scanned array , contrary to its active counterpart AESA, is a phased array which has a central radiofrequency source , sending energy into phase shift modules, which then send energy into the various emitting elements in the front of the antenna...
. Thales claims to have achieved unprecedented levels of situational awareness through the earlier detection and tracking of multiple air targets for close combat and long-range interception, as well as real time generation of three-dimensional maps for terrain-following and the real time generation of high resolution ground maps for navigation and targeting.
SPECTRA's capabilities were trusted to the extent that French pilots began operations against Libya without the need for SEAD support aircraft or cruise missile bombardment.
In circumstances when signature management is required, the Rafale can use several passive sensor systems. The front-sector electro-optical system or Optronique Secteur Frontal (OSF)
Optronique secteur frontal
The OSF is a long range video system developed during the 90s for the French Rafale combat aircraft.It has two kinds of sensors: one is an IR detector...
, developed by Thales, is completely integrated within the aircraft and can operate both in the visible and infrared wavelengths.
The Rafale core systems employ an Integrated Modular Avionics
Integrated Modular Avionics
Integrated modular avionics represent real-time computer network airborne systems. This network consists of a number of computing modules capable of supporting numerous applications of differing criticality levels....
(IMA), called MDPU (Modular Data Processing Unit). This architecture hosts all the core functions of the aircraft as Flight management system
Flight management system
A flight management system is a fundamental part of a modern airliner's avionics. An FMS is a specialized computer system that automates a wide variety of in-flight tasks, reducing the workload on the flight crew to the point that modern aircraft no longer carry flight engineers or navigators. A...
, Data Fusion, Fire Control, Man-Machine Interface
User interface
The user interface, in the industrial design field of human–machine interaction, is the space where interaction between humans and machines occurs. The goal of interaction between a human and a machine at the user interface is effective operation and control of the machine, and feedback from the...
, etc. The total value of the radar, electronic communications and self-protection equipment is about 30% of the cost of the entire aircraft.
The Rafale's ground attack capability has been limited by the lack of an advanced targeting pod, but this is being rectified with the addition of Thales Optronique's Reco NG/Areos reconnaissance and Damocles targeting pods
Thales Damocles
The Damocles is a 3rd generation targeting pod for military aircraft made by Thales Group produced in Elancourt France. It is a modular, eye-safe laser, high performance pod selected by the French Air Force for its attack fighter aircraft fleet. It features a long-range laser designator, an...
on the F-3 standard.
The new Thales RBE2 AA Active Electronically Scanned Array
Active Electronically Scanned Array
An Active Electronically Scanned Array , also known as active phased array radar is a type of phased array radar whose transmitter and receiver functions are composed of numerous small solid-state transmit/receive modules . AESAs aim their "beam" by broadcasting radio energy that interfere...
(AESA) radar is planned to replace the existing passively scanned array of the RBE2. Thales will begin deliveries of the new radar in August 2010 for use on the fourth tranche of Rafale aircraft. A total of 60 tranche four aircraft have been ordered to date. The first AESA-equipped squadron of aircraft is expected to become operational in 2012. Thales also claims that the AESA radar will improve the operational capabilities of the aircraft in terms of range, interception, tracking ability and countermeasures. Rafale's attempts at export sales have been hindered by a lack of AESA capability, "a baseline requirement for a 21st-century aircraft.”
Cockpit
The cockpit uses a Martin-BakerMartin-Baker
Martin-Baker Aircraft Co. Ltd. is a manufacturer of ejection seats and safety related equipment for aviation. The company origins were as an aircraft manufacturer before becoming a pioneer in the field of ejection seats...
Mark 16F "zero-zero” ejection seat, i.e., capable of being used at zero speed and zero altitude. The seat is inclined 29° to improve G-force
G-force
The g-force associated with an object is its acceleration relative to free-fall. This acceleration experienced by an object is due to the vector sum of non-gravitational forces acting on an object free to move. The accelerations that are not produced by gravity are termed proper accelerations, and...
tolerance. The canopy hinges open to the right. An on-board oxygen generating system developed by Air Liquide
Air Liquide
L'Air Liquide S.A., or Air Liquide , is a major French company supplying industrial gases and services to various industries including medical, chemical and electronic manufacturers. Founded in 1902, it is first in the world market in its field, now operating in over 80 countries. It is...
is provided to eliminate the need for multiple oxygen canisters.
The cockpit includes a wide-angle holographic head-up display
Head-Up Display
A head-up display or heads-up display is any transparent display that presents data without requiring users to look away from their usual viewpoints...
(HUD), two head-down flat-panel colour multi-function display
Multi-function display
A Multi-function display is a small screen in an aircraft surrounded by multiple buttons that can be used to display information to the pilot in numerous configurable ways. Often an MFD will be used in concert with a Primary Flight Display. MFDs are part of the digital era of modern planes or...
s (MFDs) and a center collimated display. Display interaction is by means of touch input for which the pilot wears silk-lined leather gloves. In addition, in full development, the pilot will have a head-mounted display
Head-mounted display
A head-mounted display or helmet mounted display, both abbreviated HMD, is a display device, worn on the head or as part of a helmet, that has a small display optic in front of one or each eye .- Overview :...
(HMD).
The pilot flies the aircraft with a side-stick
Side-stick
A side-stick or sidestick controller is an aircraft control column that is located on the side console of the pilot, usually on the righthand side, or outboard on a two-seat flightdeck...
controller mounted on his right and a throttle on his left. These incorporate multiple hands-on-throttle-and-stick (HOTAS
HOTAS
HOTAS, an abbreviation for Hands On Throttle-And-Stick, is the name given to the concept of placing buttons and switches on the throttle stick and flight control stick in an aircraft's cockpit, allowing the pilot to access vital cockpit functions and fly the aircraft without having to remove his...
) controls. The Rafale cockpit is also planned to include Direct Voice Input
Direct Voice Input
Direct Voice Input is a style of Human-Machine Interaction "HMI" in which the user makes voice commands to issue instructions to the machine...
(DVI), allowing for pilot action by voice commands.
Radar signature reduction features
Although not a true stealth aircraftStealth aircraft
Stealth aircraft are aircraft that use stealth technology to avoid detection by employing a combination of features to interfere with radar as well as reduce visibility in the infrared, visual, audio, and radio frequency spectrum. Development of stealth technology likely began in Germany during...
, the Rafale, according to Dassault, has a reduced radar cross-section. While most of the stealth design features remain classified, extensive use of composite materials and serrated patterns on the trailing edges of the wings and canards help to reduce the radar cross-section.
Standards
Initial deliveries of the Rafale M were to the F1 ("France 1") standard. This meant that the aircraft was suitable for air-to-air combat, replacing the F-8 CrusaderF-8 Crusader
The Vought F-8 Crusader was a single-engine, supersonic, carrier-based air superiority jet aircraft built by Vought for the United States Navy and the U.S. Marine Corps, replacing the Vought F7U Cutlass...
as the Aviation Navale's carrier-based fighter, but not equipped or armed for air-to-ground operations. Actual deliveries (to Flotille 11 some time after 2007) are to the "F2" standard, giving air-to-ground capability, and replacing the Dassault-Breguet Super Étendard in the ground attack role and the Dassault Étendard IVP in the reconnaissance role. This will leave the Rafale M as the only fixed-wing combat aircraft flown by the Aviation Navale, and plans are to upgrade all airframes to the "F3" standard, with terrain-following 3D radar and nuclear capability, from early in the decade following 2010. This upgrade has been brought forwards to 2010 for the first 10 French Navy Rafale F-1s.
The first Rafale C delivered to the Armée de l'Air, in June 2005, was to the "F2" standard, and it is anticipated that upgrades similar to those of the navy will take place in the future. The Rafale replaces the SEPECAT Jaguar, Mirage F1 and the Mirage 2000 in the Armée de l'Air.
Engines
The Snecma M88SNECMA M88
|-See also:-External links:* * Snecma M88's pdf* *...
engine in the Rafale develops 50 kN (11,250 lbf) of dry thrust and 75 kN (16,900 lbf) with afterburners. They allow it to supercruise with four missiles and a 1,250-liter belly drop tank. The naval version (Rafale M) can supercruise up to Mach 1.4 while carrying six air-to-air missile
Air-to-air missile
An air-to-air missile is a missile fired from an aircraft for the purpose of destroying another aircraft. AAMs are typically powered by one or more rocket motors, usually solid fuelled but sometimes liquid fuelled...
s (MBDA MICA
MBDA MICA
The MBDA MICA is an anti-air multi-target, all weather, fire-and-forget short and medium-range missile system. It is intended for use both by air platforms as individual missiles as well as ground units and ships, which can be equipped with the rapid fire MICA Vertical Launch System...
).
France
The Rafale M is fully compatible with US Navy aircraft carriers and some French Navy pilots have qualified to fly the aircraft from US Navy flight decks. The first Rafale deployed in a combat zone were those of the French Navy during "Mission Héraclès
Mission Héraclès
Mission Héraclès was a 2001 operation of the French Navy, in support of the War in Afghanistan against the Taliban.On 21 November 2001, France decided to send the aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle to the Indian Ocean in support of Operation Enduring Freedom against Taliban-controlled Afghanistan...
", the French participation in "Operation Enduring Freedom". They flew from the Charles de Gaulle over Afghanistan as early as 2002, but the F1 standard precluded air-to-ground missions and the Rafale did not see any action. In June 2002, while Charles de Gaulle was in the Arabian Sea, Rafale conducted several patrols near the India-Pakistan border.
In 2007, after a "crash program" enhancement six Rafales were given the ability to drop laser-guided bombs, in view of engaging them in Afghanistan. Three of these aircraft belonging to the Air Force were deployed to Dushanbe
Dushanbe
-Economy:Coal, lead, and arsenic are mined nearby in the cities of Nurek and Kulob allowing for the industrialization of Dushanbe. The Nurek Dam, the world's highest as of 2008, generates 95% of Tajikistan's electricity, and another dam, the Roghun Dam, is planned on the Vakhsh River...
in Tajikistan, while the three others were Rafale Marines of the Navy on board the Charles De Gaulle. The first mission occurred on 12 March 2007, and the first GBU-12 was launched on 28 March in support of embattled Dutch troops in Southern Afghanistan, marking the operational début of the Rafale.
The Rafale is planned to be the French Air Force's primary combat aircraft until 2040 or later. In November 2009 the French government ordered an additional 60 aircraft to take the total order for the French Air Force and Navy to 180. On 4 June 2010, a French Rafale became the first jet fighter of a foreign navy to have its jet engine changed on board an American aircraft carrier, during an exercise on the USS Harry S. Truman (CVN-75)
USS Harry S. Truman (CVN-75)
USS Harry S. Truman is the eighth Nimitz-class supercarrier of the United States Navy, named after the 33rd President of the United States, Harry S. Truman. HSTs callsign is Lone Warrior and is currently homeported at Naval Station Norfolk, Virginia.Harry S...
. In February 2011, Rafales flew demonstrations in India, including air-to-air combat against Su-30s.
On 19 March 2011, French Rafale jets conducted reconnaissance and strike missions over Libya in Opération Harmattan
Opération Harmattan
Opération Harmattan is the codename for the French participation in the 2011 military intervention in Libya. It is named for the Harmattan, which are hot dry winds that blow over the Sahara, mostly between November and March. The United States' counterpart to this is Operation Odyssey Dawn, the...
, in support of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973
United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, on the situation in Libya, is a measure that was adopted on 17 March 2011. The Security Council resolution was proposed by France, Lebanon, and the United Kingdom....
, being the first to attack and destroy heavy artillery units that had reached the outskirts of Benghazi
Benghazi
Benghazi is the second largest city in Libya, the main city of the Cyrenaica region , and the former provisional capital of the National Transitional Council. The wider metropolitan area is also a district of Libya...
. On 24 March 2011 it was reported that a Rafale shot down a Libyan Air Force
Libyan Air Force
The Libyan Air Force is the branch of the Libyan Armed Forces responsible for aerial warfare. In 2010, before the 2011 Libyan civil war, the Libyan Air Force personnel strength was estimated at 18,000, with an inventory of 374 combat capable aircraft operating from 13 military airbases in...
G-2/Galeb
Soko G-2
The SOKO G-2 Galeb is a two-seat, single engine, jet trainer and ground-attack aircraft developed in Yugoslavia.-Design and development:Yugoslavia's VTI began design work on the airplane, named Galeb, in 1957...
light ground attack/trainer jet. A few hours later an armed forces spokesman specified that the aircraft was destroyed on the runway with an AASM
AASM
The Armement Air-Sol Modulaire is a French Precision-Guided Munition developed by Sagem Défense Sécurité. AASM comprises a frontal guidance kit and a rear-mounted range extension kit matched to a dumb bomb. The weapon is modular because it can integrate different types of guidance units and...
air-to-ground missile just after it had landed. By 14 August 2011, the 10 Rafale of the French Navy aboard the carrier Charles de Gaulle had flown 840 attack sorties (with Super Etendard), 390 reconnaissance sorties (Rafale only), and 240 refueling sorties (with Super Etendard) on buddy-buddy refueling missions.
Potential customers
The Rafale is one of the six fighter jets competing for India's tenderIndian MRCA Competition
The Indian Air Force Medium Multi-Role Combat Aircraft Competition, also known as the MRCA tender, is an ongoing competition to supply 126 multi-role combat aircraft to the Indian Air Force . The Defence Ministry has allocated for the purchase of these aircraft, making it India's single largest...
for 126 multi-role fighters. In April 2009, media reports surfaced stating that the Indian Air Force (IAF) had disqualified Rafale from the competition for not meeting minimum performance requirements of the IAF. However, India's Defence Ministry dismissed these media reports and said that the Rafale was still in the race for the contract. In April 2011, the IAF shortlisted Dassault Rafale and Eurofighter Typhoon
Eurofighter Typhoon
The Eurofighter Typhoon is a twin-engine, canard-delta wing, multirole combat aircraft, designed and built by a consortium of three companies: EADS, Alenia Aeronautica and BAE Systems; working through a holding company, Eurofighter GmbH, which was formed in 1986...
for the $12 billion contract.
In January 2006, the French newspaper Journal du Dimanche reported that Libya wanted to order 13–18 Rafales "in a deal worth as much as $3.24 billion". In December 2007, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi openly declared the Libyan interest in the Rafale. Greece has also expressed an interest in the French fighter, possibly in exchange for its fleet of Mirages. Libya did not order any Rafales; ironically, less than three years later during the Libyan uprising of 2011, French Rafales were dispatched over Libya as a part of the 2011 military intervention in Libya; missiles such as SCALP EG were deployed from carrier-based Rafales. During 2006, the British Royal Navy considered the Rafale as an alternative to the F-35 JSF
F-35 Lightning II
The Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II is a family of single-seat, single-engine, fifth generation multirole fighters under development to perform ground attack, reconnaissance, and air defense missions with stealth capability...
, but decided to proceed with the F-35. However the aircraft carriers will be modified in order to operate CATOBAR
CATOBAR
CATOBAR is a system used for the launch and recovery of aircraft from the deck of an aircraft carrier...
aircraft such as Rafales.
In February 2007, it was reported that Switzerland was considering the Rafale and other fighters to replace its F-5 Tiger IIs. The one month evaluation started in October 2008 at Emmen Airforce Base consisting of approx. 30 evaluation flights. The Rafale along with the Gripen and the Eurofighter were to be evaluated. In September, La Tribune
La Tribune
La Tribune is a French financial newspaper that was founded in 1985. The paper is in tabloid format and has a circulation of around 78,000.- External links :**...
reported that a sale to Morocco had fallen through, the government selecting the F-16 instead. In October 2007, La Tribunes earlier report appeared to have been confirmed that the Rafale would not be bought.
In January 2008, O Estado de S. Paulo
O Estado de S. Paulo
O Estado de S. Paulo is a daily newspaper published in the Metropolitan region of São Paulo, Brazil, and distributed mainly nationally. It is owned by Grupo Estado, a holding company which publishes the Jornal da Tarde and owns the radios Rádio Eldorado AM and FM and the Agência Estado, largest...
reported that the Brazilian Defence Minister visited France to discuss the possibility of acquiring Rafale fighters for the F-X2 program. In June 2008, the Brazilian Air Force
Brazilian Air Force
The Brazilian Air Force is the air branch of the Brazilian Armed Forces and one of the three national uniformed services. The FAB was formed when the Army and Navy air branch were merged into a single military force initially called "National Air Forces"...
divulged a Request For Information to the following companies and their aircraft: F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and F-35 Lightning II, Dassault Rafale, Su-35
Sukhoi Su-35
The Sukhoi Su-35 is a single-seat, twin-engined supermaneuverability multirole fighter. It is a derivative of the Su-27 'Flanker', and was initially known as the Su-27M. More than a dozen of these were built with some used by the Russian Knights aerobatic demonstration team...
, Gripen NG and Eurofighter Typhoon. In October 2008, it was reported that Brazilian Air Force had selected three finalists for F-X2; Dassault Rafale, Gripen NG and Boeing F/A-18E/F. On 7 September 2009, during a visit by French President Nicolas Sarkozy, Brazil announced a pact with France and that the nations are in contract negotiations to buy 36 Rafales. The crash of two Rafales in the Mediterranean off Perpignan on 24 September 2009 after a midair collision, comes at a delicate time for the Brazil-France negotiations. On 5 January 2010, media reports stated that the final evaluation report by the Brazilian Air Force placed the Gripen ahead of the other two contenders. The decisive factor was apparently the overall cost of the new fighters, both in terms of unit cost, and operating and maintenance costs. Some sources say that Rafale was chosen by the Defense Ministry, but there has been no confirmation on this. In February, 2011, the press announced that the new president of Brazil, Dilma Rousseff
Dilma Rousseff
Dilma Vana Rousseff is the 36th and current President of Brazil. She is the first woman to hold the office. Prior to that, in 2005, she was also the first woman to become Chief of Staff of Brazil, appointed by then President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva....
, had decided in favor of the American F-18 fighter. On 28 February 2011, the Minister of Finance, Guido Mantega, said the issue would not be resolved in the current year, citing "lack of resources", due to budgetary constraints for the new fiscal year.
In February 2009, French President Nicolas Sarkozy
Nicolas Sarkozy
Nicolas Sarkozy is the 23rd and current President of the French Republic and ex officio Co-Prince of Andorra. He assumed the office on 16 May 2007 after defeating the Socialist Party candidate Ségolène Royal 10 days earlier....
announced that Kuwait was considering buying up to 28 Rafales, but with no firm order then. The same month, France offered Rafales to Oman to replace its ageing fleet of SEPECAT Jaguar
SEPECAT Jaguar
The SEPECAT Jaguar is an Anglo-French jet ground attack aircraft, originally used by the British Royal Air Force and the French Armée de l'Air in the close air support and nuclear strike role, and still in service with several export customers, notably the Indian Air Force and the Royal Air Force...
s. But in 2010, Oman prefers to order the Typhoon.
The United Arab Emirates Air Force
United Arab Emirates Air Force
The United Arab Emirates Air Force is the air force of the United Arab Emirates . Its predecessor was established in 1968, when the Emirates were still under British rule. Since then, it has undergone a continual reorganization and expansion in terms of both capability and numbers of aircraft...
was interested in an upgraded version of the Rafale with more powerful engines and radar, and advanced air to air missiles. They have now started to explore a purchase of the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet or Eurofighter Typhoon. This is reported to be because France's Defense Minister Hervé Morin has asked the UAE to pay 2 billion euros of the total cost to upgrade the Rafale. Deputy Supreme Commander of the UAE Armed Forces, Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan
Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan
Mohammed bin Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan is the Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi and Deputy Supreme Commander of the UAE Armed Forces .-Political and business career:...
has called the French offer "uncompetitive and unworkable".
Leaked United States State Department cables have said that "French representatives have tried to spin the Rafale's dismal performance in the global market to be the result of U.S. government political pressure rather than the aircraft's shortcomings".
Variants
Rafale A: A technology demonstrator that first flew in 1986. It has now been retired.Rafale D: Dassault used this designation (D for discret or stealthy) in the early 1990s for the production versions for the Armée de l'Air, to emphasise the new semi-stealthy features they had added to the design.
Rafale B:This is the two-seater version for the Armée de l'Air; delivered to ECE 05.330 in 2004.
Rafale C:This is the single-seat version for the Armée de l'Air; delivered to ECE 05.330 in June 2004.
Rafale M:This is the carrier-borne version for the Aéronavale, which entered service in 2002. The Rafale M weighs about 500 kg (1,100 lb) more than the Rafale C. Very similar to the Rafale C in appearance, the M differs in the following respects:
- Strengthened to withstand the rigors of carrier-based aviation
- Stronger landing gear
- Longer nose gear leg to provide a more nose-up attitude for catapult launches
- Deleted front centre pylon (to give space for the longer gear)
- Large stinger-type tailhookTailhookA tailhook, also arresting hook or arrester hook, is a device attached to the empennage of some military fixed wing aircraft...
between the engines - Built-in power operated boarding ladder
- Carrier microwave landing system
- "Telemir" inertial reference platform that can receive updates from the carrier systems.
Rafale N:The Rafale N, originally called the Rafale BM, was planned to be a two-seater version for the Aéronavale. Budget constraints and the cost of training extra crew members have been cited as the grounds for its cancellation.
Operators
: 180 ordered, 93 delivered- French Air ForceFrench Air ForceThe French Air Force , literally Army of the Air) is the air force of the French Armed Forces. It was formed in 1909 as the Service Aéronautique, a service arm of the French Army, then was made an independent military arm in 1933...
– 62 - French NavyFrench NavyThe French Navy, officially the Marine nationale and often called La Royale is the maritime arm of the French military. It includes a full range of fighting vessels, from patrol boats to a nuclear powered aircraft carrier and 10 nuclear-powered submarines, four of which are capable of launching...
– 31
Accidents
- On 6 December 2007, a French Air Force twin-seat Rafale crashed during a training flight. The pilot, who was the only person on board the fighter, was killed in the accident.
- On 24 September 2009, two French Navy Rafales returning to the Charles de Gaulle after unarmed test flights collided in mid-air about 30 kilometres (18.6 mi) from the town of PerpignanPerpignan-Sport:Perpignan is a rugby stronghold: their rugby union side, USA Perpignan, is a regular competitor in the Heineken Cup and seven times champion of the Top 14 , while their rugby league side plays in the engage Super League under the name Catalans Dragons.-Culture:Since 2004, every year in the...
in southwest France. One test pilot, identified as François Duflot was killed in the accident, while the other was successfully rescued. - On 28 November 2010, a Rafale from carrier Charles de Gaulle crashed in the Arabian Sea. This aircraft was supporting Allied operations in Afghanistan. The pilot ejected safely and was recovered by a SAR helicopter from the carrier. Later reports said the engine stopped after being starved of fuel due to confusion by the pilot over the operation of valves in the fuel tanks.
Specifications