Foreign relations of Pope Pius XII
Encyclopedia
Pope Pius XII
The Venerable Pope Pius XII , born Eugenio Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Pacelli , reigned as Pope, head of the Catholic Church and sovereign of Vatican City State, from 2 March 1939 until his death in 1958....
was pope from 1939 to 1958, during World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
and the beginning of the Cold War
Cold War
The Cold War was the continuing state from roughly 1946 to 1991 of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the Communist World—primarily the Soviet Union and its satellite states and allies—and the powers of the Western world, primarily the United States...
.
Background
Between the loss of the Papal StatesPapal States
The Papal State, State of the Church, or Pontifical States were among the major historical states of Italy from roughly the 6th century until the Italian peninsula was unified in 1861 by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia .The Papal States comprised territories under...
in 1870 and the signing of the Lateran Treaty in 1929, the diplomatic recognition of the papacy had actually increased, with eighteen accredited members of the Vatican diplomatic corps in 1890, fourteen in 1914, and twenty-four in 1921. This did not represent international support for the papal position in the Roman Question
Roman Question
thumb|300px|The breach of [[Porta Pia]], on the right, in a contemporaneous photograph.The Roman Question was a political dispute between the Italian Government and the Papacy from 1861 to 1929....
, however, as these nations also recognized the unified Kingdom of Italy, whose diplomatic corps in Rome developed over a similar trajectory.
In 1936 (three years before Pius XII became pope), there were thirty-four ambassadors, ministers, or chargé d'affaires
Chargé d'affaires
In diplomacy, chargé d’affaires , often shortened to simply chargé, is the title of two classes of diplomatic agents who head a diplomatic mission, either on a temporary basis or when no more senior diplomat has been accredited.-Chargés d’affaires:Chargés d’affaires , who were...
to the Holy See. However, several of these diplomats spent much of their time in other European capitals—either for personal reasons or because they served multiple embassies (Argentina, Estonian, Latvia, Liberia, Peru, and Salvador), were merely sinecure
Sinecure
A sinecure means an office that requires or involves little or no responsibility, labour, or active service...
s (Belgium), or were unpaid (Honduras). Others represented micronations that "hardly counted" (Monaco
Monaco
Monaco , officially the Principality of Monaco , is a sovereign city state on the French Riviera. It is bordered on three sides by its neighbour, France, and its centre is about from Italy. Its area is with a population of 35,986 as of 2011 and is the most densely populated country in the...
, San Marino
San Marino
San Marino, officially the Republic of San Marino , is a state situated on the Italian Peninsula on the eastern side of the Apennine Mountains. It is an enclave surrounded by Italy. Its size is just over with an estimated population of over 30,000. Its capital is the City of San Marino...
, and the Order of Malta). The Spanish ambassador was driven out by a "tragi-comic siege" in the Piazza di Spagna
Spanish Steps
The Spanish Steps are a set of steps in Rome, Italy, climbing a steep slope between the Piazza di Spagna at the base and Piazza Trinità dei Monti, dominated by the Trinità dei Monti church at the top. The Scalinata is the widest staircase in Europe...
. Nicaragua's ambassador was senile, and Panama's ambassador had not been seen since 1929.
In March 1939, Pius XII inherited thirty-eight diplomatic missions to the Vatican: thirteen at the "ambassadorial level", and the rest at the ministerial level; there were also papal representatives in thirty-eight countries, but the exchanges were not always mutual. At the time there were also twenty-three Vatican envoys without diplomatic status in their host state.
In contrast to the various sinecures, Diego von Bergen
Diego von Bergen
Dr. Carl-Ludwig Diego von Bergen was the ambassador to the Holy See from the Kingdom of Prussia , the Weimar Republic , and Nazi Germany , most notably during the negotiation of the Reichskonkordat and during World War II.From 1930 to 1943, by virtue of seniority, von Bergen was also the doyen of...
was a high ranking member of the German diplomatic service, who twice turned down the office of Foreign Secretary to remain in Rome. According to Morley, "when Pius XII became Pope, there were papal nuncios in, among other capitals, Belgrade, Berlin, Berne, Brussels, Bucharest, Budapest, the Hague, Paris, Prague, Rome, and Warsaw. The circumstances of war reduced this number and changed the location and level of some of the diplomatic representatives. The end-result of these modifications was that during the years 1939-1943, the Secretariat of State was in diplomatic contact with its emissaries in Berlin, Rome, Vichy, Berne, Bratislava, Zagreb, Bucharest, and Budapest. In addition, active communications were maintained with the apostolic delegates in London, Washington, and Ankara".
List of diplomats
A list of diplomats accredited to the Vatican published in December 1940 lists Diego von BergenDiego von Bergen
Dr. Carl-Ludwig Diego von Bergen was the ambassador to the Holy See from the Kingdom of Prussia , the Weimar Republic , and Nazi Germany , most notably during the negotiation of the Reichskonkordat and during World War II.From 1930 to 1943, by virtue of seniority, von Bergen was also the doyen of...
as the dean of the diplomatic corps
Diplomatic corps
The diplomatic corps or corps diplomatique is the collective body of foreign diplomats accredited to a particular country or body.The diplomatic corps may, in certain contexts, refer to the collection of accredited heads of mission who represent their countries in another state or country...
, followed by thirteen Ambassadors and twenty three Ministers, with Myron Charles Taylor
Myron Charles Taylor
Myron Charles Taylor was one of the major figures in American life during the first half of the twentieth century...
conspicuously in last place. "Nuncios" and "Ambassadors" were only exchanged between the Holy See
Holy See
The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Catholic Church in Rome, in which its Bishop is commonly known as the Pope. It is the preeminent episcopal see of the Catholic Church, forming the central government of the Church. As such, diplomatically, and in other spheres the Holy See acts and...
and countries where the pope's representative ex officio was granted the title of dean of the diplomatic corps. In other countries, Pius XII was represented by an apostolic delegate or a chargé d'affaires
Chargé d'affaires
In diplomacy, chargé d’affaires , often shortened to simply chargé, is the title of two classes of diplomatic agents who head a diplomatic mission, either on a temporary basis or when no more senior diplomat has been accredited.-Chargés d’affaires:Chargés d’affaires , who were...
, constituting a lower level of diplomatic recognition (representing the ecclesiastical hierarchy of a country, not the government). An apostolic delegate was neither accredited to a host government, nor required their approval.
A special 1948 Christmas Eve
Christmas Eve
Christmas Eve refers to the evening or entire day preceding Christmas Day, a widely celebrated festival commemorating the birth of Jesus of Nazareth that takes place on December 25...
midnight mass
Midnight Mass
Midnight Mass is a Christmas Eve liturgical tradition in the Roman Catholic church.Midnight Mass may also refer to:* Midnight, Mass., a Vertigo comics series* Midnight Mass, a 2004 novel by F...
for diplomats celebrated by Pius XII was attended by 300 diplomatic personnel. In February 1949, there were thirty-nine accredited members of the Vatican diplomatic corps. A New Years Day 1951 audience with the "entire diplomatic corps" included thirty-six accredited representatives, including eighteen full ambassadors, sixteen ministers, and two chargés d'affaires (China and Finland).
Nuncios
| Country | Nuncio Nuncio Nuncio is an ecclesiastical diplomatic title, derived from the ancient Latin word, Nuntius, meaning "envoy." This article addresses this title as well as derived similar titles, all within the structure of the Roman Catholic Church... |
Nunciature | Ambassador | Rank |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Argentina | Giuseppe Fietta Giuseppe Fietta Giuseppe Fietta was an Italian prelate of the Roman Catholic Church who served as Apostolic Nuncio to Italy from 1953 to 1958, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1958.-Biography:... (1936–1953) Mario Zanin Mario Zanin Mario Zanin is an Italian cyclist and Olympic Champion. He won gold medal at the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, on the Individual Road Race.-References:... (1953–1958) |
Carlos Brebbia (1943–1947) | Ambassador | |
| Austria | Maurilio Silvani (1946–1947) Giovanni Battista Dellepiane (1949–1961) |
Apostolic Nuncio to Austria Apostolic Nuncio to Austria The Apostolic Nuncio to the Austria is an ecclesiastical office of the Roman Catholic Church in Austria. It is a diplomatic post of the Holy See, whose representative is called the Apostolic Nuncio with the rank of an ambassador.... |
Adolf Kohlruss (1946) | Ambassador |
| Belgium | Clemente Micara Clemente Micara Clemente Micara was an Italian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Vicar General of Rome from 1951 until his death, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1946.-Biography:... (1923–1946) Fernando Cento Fernando Cento Fernando Cento was a Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church who served as Major Penitentiary of Apostolic Penitentiary.... (1946–1953) Efrem Forni Efrem Forni Efrem Forni was an Italian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Nuncio to Belgium and Internuncio to Luxembourg from 1953 to 1962, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1962.-Biography:... (1953–1962) |
Apostolic Nuncio to Belgium Apostolic Nuncio to Belgium The Apostolic Nuncio to Belgium is the holder of a diplomatic position within the Catholic Church, who acts as Ambassador of the Holy See to the Belgium.-History:Diplomatic relations between the Belgian state and the Holy See began in 1835... |
Adrien Nieuwenhuys | Ambassador Belgian Ambassador to the Holy See The following is the list of Belgian Ambassadors to the Holy See, past and present. A Belgian Ambassador serves as that country's official representative to the Holy See since formal diplomatic relations began in 1832... |
| Bolivia | Giuseppe Burzio (1946–1950) Sergio Pignedoli (1950–1954) Umberto Mozzoni Umberto Mozzoni Umberto Mozzoni was an Argentine Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Nuncio to Brazil from 1969 to 1973, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1973.-Biography:... (1954–1958) |
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| Brazil | Benedetto Aloisi Masella Benedetto Aloisi Masella Benedetto Aloisi Masella was an Italian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church who served as Prefect of the Discipline of the Sacraments from 1954 to 1968, and as Chamberlain of the Roman Church from 1958 until his death... (1927–1946) Carlo Chiarlo Carlo Chiarlo Carlo Chiarlo was an Italian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as nuncio to several countries, mostly Latin American, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1958.-Biography:... (1946–1954) Armando Lombardi (1954–1964) |
Apostolic Nuncio to Brazil Apostolic Nuncio to Brazil The Apostolic Nunciature to the Republic of Brazil is an ecclesiastical office of the Roman Catholic Church in Brazil. It is a diplomatic post of the Holy See, whose representative is called the Apostolic Nuncio with the rank of an ambassador.... |
Ildebrando Accioly Mauricio Nabuco (ante 1948) |
Ambassador |
| Chile | Aldo Laghi (1938–1942) Mario Zanin Mario Zanin Mario Zanin is an Italian cyclist and Olympic Champion. He won gold medal at the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, on the Individual Road Race.-References:... (1947–1953) Sebastiano Baggio (1953–1959) |
(1939-?) | Ambassador | |
| Columbia | Giuseppe Beltrami Giuseppe Beltrami Giuseppe Beltrami was an Italian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church who served as Internuncio to the Netherlands from 1959 to 1967, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1967.-Biography:... (1945–1950) Antonio Samoré (1950–1953) Paolo Bertoli Paolo Bertoli Paolo Bertoli S.T.D. JUD was a Roman Catholic Cardinal and Prefect of the Congregation for the Causes of Saints.... (1953–1959) |
Carlos Arango Velez (1944-post 1949) | Ambassador | |
| Czechoslovakia | Sanverio "Xavier" Ritter (1946–1953) | Apostolic Nuncio to Czechoslovakia | M. Maixner (circa 1947) | |
| Ecuador | Efrem Forni Efrem Forni Efrem Forni was an Italian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Nuncio to Belgium and Internuncio to Luxembourg from 1953 to 1962, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1962.-Biography:... (1937–1953) Opilio Rossi Opilio Rossi Opilio Rossi was a Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church and was former President of the Pontifical Council for the Laity.He was born in New York, United States as the son of Angelo Rossi and Davidina Ciappa... (1953–1959) |
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| France | Valerio Valeri Valerio Valeri Valerio Valeri was an Italian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Prefect of the Sacred Congregation for Religious in the Roman Curia from 1953 until his death, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1953 by Pope Pius XII.President Charles de Gaulle insisted that Valeri be removed... (1936–1944) Angelo Roncalli Pope John XXIII -Papal election:Following the death of Pope Pius XII in 1958, Roncalli was elected Pope, to his great surprise. He had even arrived in the Vatican with a return train ticket to Venice. Many had considered Giovanni Battista Montini, Archbishop of Milan, a possible candidate, but, although archbishop... (1944–1953) Paolo Marella Paolo Marella Paolo Marella was an Italian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served in the Roman Curia following a career as a delegate of the Holy See, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1959.-Biography:... (1953–1959) |
Apostolic Nuncio to France Apostolic Nuncio to France The Apostolic Nunciature to the French Republic is an ecclesiastical office of the Catholic Church in France. It is a diplomatic post of the Holy See, whose representative is called the Apostolic Nuncio with the rank of an ambassador.... |
François Charles-Roux (1932–1940) Wladimir d'Ormesson Wladimir d'Ormesson Wladimir d'Ormesson was a French essayist, novelist, journalist and diplomat.He was successively ambassador in Vatican city, Buenos Aires and Santiago, and wrote many essays and some novels... (1940) Léon Bérard Léon Bérard Léon Bérard was a French politician and lawyer.He was Minister of Public Instruction in 1919 and from 1921 to 1924, and Minister of Justice from 1931 to 1932 and was elected to the Académie française in 1934.Bérard was the Ambassador from Vichy France to the Holy See from 1940 to 1945.-Léon Bérard... (1940–1945) Jacques Maritain Jacques Maritain Jacques Maritain was a French Catholic philosopher. Raised as a Protestant, he converted to Catholicism in 1906. An author of more than 60 books, he helped to revive St. Thomas Aquinas for modern times and is a prominent drafter of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights... (1945–1948) |
Ambassador |
| Germany | Cesare Orsenigo Cesare Orsenigo Cesare Vincenzo Orsenigo was Apostolic Nuncio to Germany from 1930 to 1945, during the rise of Nazi Germany and World War II... (1930–1945) Aloisius Joseph Muench Aloisius Joseph Muench Aloisius Joseph Muench was an American prelate of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Bishop of Fargo from 1935 to 1959, and as Apostolic Nuncio to Germany from 1951 to 1959... (1951–1959)Muench served as apostolic visitor Apostolic visitor In the Catholic Church, an apostolic visitor is a papal representative with a transient mission to perform a canonical visitation of relatively short duration... from 1946. |
Apostolic Nuncio to Germany | Diego von Bergen Diego von Bergen Dr. Carl-Ludwig Diego von Bergen was the ambassador to the Holy See from the Kingdom of Prussia , the Weimar Republic , and Nazi Germany , most notably during the negotiation of the Reichskonkordat and during World War II.From 1930 to 1943, by virtue of seniority, von Bergen was also the doyen of... (1915–1943) Ernst von Weizsäcker Ernst von Weizsäcker Ernst Freiherr von Weizsäcker was a German diplomat and politician. He served as State Secretary at the Foreign Office from 1938 to 1943, and as German Ambassador to the Holy See from 1943 to 1945... (1943–1945) |
Ambassador |
| Hungary | Angelo Rotta Angelo Rotta Angelo Rotta , originally from Milan, Italy, was the Apostolic Nuncio in Budapest at the end of World War II.During his previous diplomatic activity in Bulgaria, he already saved many Bulgarian Jews by issuing them baptismal certificates and safe conducts for the trip to Palestine.In 1944 - 1945 he... (1930–1957)Previously an internuncio. |
György Barcza | Ambassador | |
| Ireland | Paschal Charles Robinson (1929–1948) Ettore Felici Ettore Felici Ettore Felici was the second Apostolic Nuncio to Ireland.... (1949–1951) Gerald P. O'Hara (1951–1954) Albert Levame Albert Levame The Most Rev. Albert Levame was the fourth Apostolic Nuncio to Ireland.-Life and times:The following obituary from The Times gives a short summation of his life:... (1954–1958) |
Apostolic Nuncio to Ireland Apostolic Nuncio to Ireland The Holy See, as the central government of the Catholic Church , has full diplomatic ties with Ireland as well as many other countries worldwide. The current Apostolic Nuncio to Ireland is Archbishop-elect Monsignor Charles John Brown... |
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| Italy | Francesco Borgongini Duca Francesco Borgongini Duca Francesco Borgongini Duca was an Italian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church who served as Apostolic Nuncio to Italy from 1929 to 1953, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1953 by Pope Pius XII.-Biography:... (1929–1953) Giuseppe Fietta Giuseppe Fietta Giuseppe Fietta was an Italian prelate of the Roman Catholic Church who served as Apostolic Nuncio to Italy from 1953 to 1958, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1958.-Biography:... (1953–1958) |
Apostolic Nuncio to Italy | Dino Alfieri Dino Alfieri Edoardo Alfieri was an Italian fascist politician.Alfieri was born in Bologna. In 1911 he finished law studies and soon after joined the nationalist group formed by Enrico Corradini... (1939–1940) Bernardo Attolico (1940–1943) Galeazzo Ciano Galeazzo Ciano Gian Galeazzo Ciano, 2nd Count of Cortellazzo and Buccari was an Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs and Benito Mussolini's son-in-law. In early 1944 Count Ciano was shot by firing squad at the behest of his father-in-law, Mussolini under pressure from Nazi Germany.-Early life:Ciano was born in... (1943) |
Ambassador |
| Luxembourg | Clemente Micara Clemente Micara Clemente Micara was an Italian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Vicar General of Rome from 1951 until his death, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1946.-Biography:... (1923–1946) Fernando Cento Fernando Cento Fernando Cento was a Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church who served as Major Penitentiary of Apostolic Penitentiary.... (1946–1953) Efrem Forni Efrem Forni Efrem Forni was an Italian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Nuncio to Belgium and Internuncio to Luxembourg from 1953 to 1962, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1962.-Biography:... (1953–1962) |
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| Netherlands | Paolo Giobbe Paolo Giobbe Paolo Giobbe was an Italian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church who served as Papal Datary in the Roman Curia from 1959 to 1968, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1958.-Biography:... (1935–1959) |
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| Paraguay | Liberato Tosti (1946–1948) Federico Lunardi (1949–1954) Luigi Punzolo (1954–1957) Carlo Martini (1958–1963) |
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| Peru | Fernando Cento Fernando Cento Fernando Cento was a Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church who served as Major Penitentiary of Apostolic Penitentiary.... (1936–1946) Giovanni Panico Giovanni Panico Giovanni Panico was an Italian Cardinal of the Catholic Church. He served as Nuncio to Portugal from 1959 to 1962, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1962.-Biography:... (1948–1953) Francesco Lardone (1953–1959) |
Apostolic Nuncio to Peru Apostolic Nuncio to Peru The Apostolic Nunciature to the Republic of Peru is an ecclesiastical office of the Roman Catholic Church in Peru. It is a diplomatic post of the Holy See, whose representative is called the Apostolic Nuncio with the rank of an ambassador.... |
Diomedei Arias Schreider | Ambassador |
| Poland | Filippo Cortesi Filippo Cortesi Filippo Cortesi was the Apostolic Nuncio to Poland from December 24, 1936 to February 1, 1947. Cortesi earlier served as nuncio to Paraguay in the interim. Cortesi was the only nuncio to Poland never to become a cardinal.... (1936–1947)Cortesi was previously nuncio to Poland from 1921 to 1926. Cortesi fled Warsaw on September 5, 1939. He followed the Polish government-in-exile to Bucharest Bucharest Bucharest is the capital municipality, cultural, industrial, and financial centre of Romania. It is the largest city in Romania, located in the southeast of the country, at , and lies on the banks of the Dâmbovița River.... , but not Paris Paris Paris is the capital and largest city in France, situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region... or London London London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its... . Cesare Orsenigo, the nuncio to German, acted as de facto nuncio to Poland and had his authority officially extended on November 1. Alfredo Pacini Alfredo Pacini Alfredo Pacini was an Italian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Nuncio to Switzerland from 1960 to 1967, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1967.- Biography :... was appointed as chargé d'affaires Chargé d'affaires In diplomacy, chargé d’affaires , often shortened to simply chargé, is the title of two classes of diplomatic agents who head a diplomatic mission, either on a temporary basis or when no more senior diplomat has been accredited.-Chargés d’affaires:Chargés d’affaires , who were... while the government-in-exile remained in Paris, and William Godfrey became the chargé d'affaires when the government-in-exile fled to London in 1940. |
Apostolic Nuncio to Poland Apostolic Nuncio to Poland The Apostolic Nuncio to Poland is one of the oldest nuncios, appointed by the Pope as apostolic representative to the Roman Catholic Church in Poland. Three nuncios to Poland went on to be elected pope... |
Kazimierz Papée Kazimierz Papée Dr. Kazimierz Papée was the ambassador from Poland to the Holy See from 1939 to 1958, during and after World War II... (1939–1958) |
Ambassador |
| Portugal | Pietro Ciriaci Pietro Ciriaci Pietro Ciriaci was an Italian Cardinal of the Catholic Church who served as prefect of the Sacred Congregation of the Council in the Roman Curia from 1954 until his death, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1953 by Pope Pius XII.-Biography:Ciriaci was born in Rome to Giuseppe Ciriaci and his... (1934–1954) Fernando Cento Fernando Cento Fernando Cento was a Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church who served as Major Penitentiary of Apostolic Penitentiary.... (1954–1958) |
Apostolic Nuncio to Portugal Apostolic Nuncio to Portugal The Apostolic Nunciature to the Republic of Portugal is an ecclesiastical office of the Catholic Church in Portugal. It is a diplomatic post of the Holy See, whose representative is called the Apostolic Nuncio with the rank of an ambassador... |
Carneiro Pacheco Tovar de Lemos (?-1950) Jose Nasolini (1950-?) |
Ambassador |
| Romania | Andrea Cassulo Andrea Cassulo Andrea Cassulo was an archbishop of the Roman Catholic Church and a representative of the Holy See in Egypt, Canada, Romania and Turkey from 1921 to 1952.-Early life and ordination:... (1936–1947) |
Nicolae Petrescu-Comnen Nicolae Petrescu-Comnen Nicolae Petrescu-Comnen was a Romanian diplomat, politician, and humanitarian, noted for his role in interwar European politics and his support for the League of Nations... (circa 1940) Daniel Papp (circa 1942) Basilio Grigorcea (circa 1944) |
Ambassador | |
| Spain | Gaetano Cicognani Gaetano Cicognani Gaetano Cicognani was an Italian Cardinal of the Catholic Church. He served as Prefect of the Apostolic Signatura from 1954 until his death, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1953 by Pope Pius XII.-Biography:... (1938–1953) Ildebrando Antoniutti Ildebrando Antoniutti Ildebrando Antoniutti was an Italian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Prefect of the Congregation for Religious from 1963 to 1973, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1962.-Biography:... (1953–1963) |
Apostolic Nuncio to Spain Apostolic Nuncio to Spain The Apostolic Nunciature to the Kingdom of Spain is an ecclesiastical office of the Catholic Church in Spain. It is a diplomatic post of the Holy See, whose representative is called the Apostolic Nuncio with the rank of an ambassador. For much of the 19th and 20th Centuries the holders of the... |
Viscount Santa Clara de Avedillo (circa 1940) Domingo de las Barcenas (circa 1943) Pablo de Churruca y Dotres (1946–1948) Joaquin Ruiz Jimenez (1948-?) |
Ambassador |
| Switzerland | Felipe Bernardini (1935–1953) Gustavo Testa Gustavo Testa Gustavo Testa was an Italian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Prefect of the Congregation for Oriental Churches from 1967 to 1968, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1959.- Biography :... (1953–1959) |
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| Uruguay | Albert Levame Albert Levame The Most Rev. Albert Levame was the fourth Apostolic Nuncio to Ireland.-Life and times:The following obituary from The Times gives a short summation of his life:... (1939–1949) Alfredo Pacini Alfredo Pacini Alfredo Pacini was an Italian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Nuncio to Switzerland from 1960 to 1967, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1967.- Biography :... (1949–1960) |
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| Venezuela | Luigi Centoz (1936–1940) Giuseppe Misuraca (1941–1950) Armando Lombardi (1950–1954) Sergio Pignedoli (1954–1955) Raffaele Forni (1955–1960) |
M. A. Pulido Mendez (?-1952) | Ambassador |
Apostolic delegates
| Country | Apostolic delegate | Minister | Rank |
|---|---|---|---|
| Albania | Leone Nigris (ante 1945)Denied entry into Albania in 1945 by partisans; represented thereafter by regent Franco Gjini | ||
| Bulgaria | Giuseppe Mazzoli (?-1946)Died in office in 1946. Replaced by a regent, Francesco Galloni, not another apostolic delegate. | ||
| Canada | Ildebrando Antoniutti Ildebrando Antoniutti Ildebrando Antoniutti was an Italian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Prefect of the Congregation for Religious from 1963 to 1973, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1962.-Biography:... (1938–1953) Giovanni Panico Giovanni Panico Giovanni Panico was an Italian Cardinal of the Catholic Church. He served as Nuncio to Portugal from 1959 to 1962, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1962.-Biography:... (1953–1959) |
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| China | Mario Zanin Mario Zanin Mario Zanin is an Italian cyclist and Olympic Champion. He won gold medal at the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, on the Individual Road Race.-References:... |
C. K. Sie John Ching Hsiung Wu John Ching Hsiung Wu John Ching Hsiung Wu was a Chinese poet, lawyer, and writer. He wrote works in Chinese, English, French, and German on Christian spirituality, Chinese literature and on legal topics. He was the principal author of the constitution of the Republic of China... |
Envoy |
| Cuba | Alfonso Forcade (1946-?) | Legate, then ambassador | |
| Dominican Republic | Pedo Tronscoso Sanchez (1949-?) | Ambassador | |
| Greece | Angelo Roncalli Pope John XXIII -Papal election:Following the death of Pope Pius XII in 1958, Roncalli was elected Pope, to his great surprise. He had even arrived in the Vatican with a return train ticket to Venice. Many had considered Giovanni Battista Montini, Archbishop of Milan, a possible candidate, but, although archbishop... (1935–1944) |
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| India | N. Raghavan | Ambassador | |
| Japan | Paolo Marella Paolo Marella Paolo Marella was an Italian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served in the Roman Curia following a career as a delegate of the Holy See, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1959.-Biography:... (1933–1948)Given "full diplomatic privileges" in 1942 when Pius XII de facto recognized Japan. |
Ken Harada Ken Harada (diplomat) was a chargé d'affaires to Vichy France and a diplomat to the Holy See from Japan. He was appointed as a special envoy to the Vatican, and served in this capacity from 1942 to 1945... (1942–1945) |
Ambassador |
| Kenya | Antonio Riberi Antonio Riberi Antonio Riberi was a Monacan Cardinal of the Catholic Church. He served as the fifth Apostolic Nuncio to Ireland and later as Nuncio to Spain from 1962 until his death... |
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| United Kingdom | William Godfrey (1938–1954)Also apostolic delegate to Gibraltar Gibraltar Gibraltar is a British overseas territory located on the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula at the entrance of the Mediterranean. A peninsula with an area of , it has a northern border with Andalusia, Spain. The Rock of Gibraltar is the major landmark of the region... and Malta Malta Malta , officially known as the Republic of Malta , is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, south of Sicily, east of Tunisia and north of Libya, with Gibraltar to the west and Alexandria to the east.Malta covers just over in... . Gerald P. O'Hara (1954-?) |
D'Arcy Osborne (1936–1947) | Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary |
| United States | Amleto Giovanni Cicognani (1933–1958) | Myron Charles Taylor Myron Charles Taylor Myron Charles Taylor was one of the major figures in American life during the first half of the twentieth century... (1939–1950) |
"Peace Ambassador" United States Ambassador to the Holy See A U.S. Ambassador serves as that country's official representative to the Holy See since formal diplomatic relations began in 1984. Before the establishment of official relations, Myron Taylor served during World War II as an emissary for President Franklin D. Roosevelt. In 1951, President Harry S.... and "personal envoy" |
| Turkey | Angelo Roncalli Pope John XXIII -Papal election:Following the death of Pope Pius XII in 1958, Roncalli was elected Pope, to his great surprise. He had even arrived in the Vatican with a return train ticket to Venice. Many had considered Giovanni Battista Montini, Archbishop of Milan, a possible candidate, but, although archbishop... (1933–1944) |
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| Yugoslavia | Regent Joseph Patrick Hurley Joseph Patrick Hurley Joseph Patrick Hurley was an American prelate of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Bishop of St. Augustine from 1940 until his death in 1967. He also held diplomatic posts in Europe and Asia.... (1946–1950) |
Niko Mirosevich Peter Benzon (circa 1949) |
Minister chargé d'affaires |
Apostolic visitor
| Territory | Apostolic visitor Apostolic visitor In the Catholic Church, an apostolic visitor is a papal representative with a transient mission to perform a canonical visitation of relatively short duration... |
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| Independent State of Croatia Independent State of Croatia The Independent State of Croatia was a World War II puppet state of Nazi Germany, established on a part of Axis-occupied Yugoslavia. The NDH was founded on 10 April 1941, after the invasion of Yugoslavia by the Axis powers. All of Bosnia and Herzegovina was annexed to NDH, together with some parts... |
Giuseppe Marcone |
chargé d'affaires
| Territory | chargé d'affaires Chargé d'affaires In diplomacy, chargé d’affaires , often shortened to simply chargé, is the title of two classes of diplomatic agents who head a diplomatic mission, either on a temporary basis or when no more senior diplomat has been accredited.-Chargés d’affaires:Chargés d’affaires , who were... |
|---|---|
| Slovak Republic | Giuseppe Burzio |
World War II
Some of Pius XII's nuncios in occupied Europe were forced to flee their nunciatures, including Clemente MicaraClemente Micara
Clemente Micara was an Italian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Vicar General of Rome from 1951 until his death, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1946.-Biography:...
in Belgium, internuncio Paolo Giobbe
Paolo Giobbe
Paolo Giobbe was an Italian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church who served as Papal Datary in the Roman Curia from 1959 to 1968, and was elevated to the cardinalate in 1958.-Biography:...
in The Netheralnds, and Casimir Papée in Poland. The nuncio to Luxembourg was similarly "overrun by German troops". Micara and Giobbe eventually found their ways to Rome. The Yugoslav and Romanian ambassadors also ended up in Rome but were told in 1944 to be ready to return at a moment's notice. The Baltic nuncios in Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania were forced out by Russian troops. Although the nuncios de jure retained their titles, their role was either terminated or de facto taken up by Cesare Orsenigo
Cesare Orsenigo
Cesare Vincenzo Orsenigo was Apostolic Nuncio to Germany from 1930 to 1945, during the rise of Nazi Germany and World War II...
, the nuncio to Germany.
Thus, Pius XIi maintained only eight wartime nunciatures to European nations, in: France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Portugal, Romania, Spain, and Switzerland. These were supplemented by apostolic delegates in Albania, Bulgaria, Great Britain, Turkey, and the United States. A chargé d'affaires
Chargé d'affaires
In diplomacy, chargé d’affaires , often shortened to simply chargé, is the title of two classes of diplomatic agents who head a diplomatic mission, either on a temporary basis or when no more senior diplomat has been accredited.-Chargés d’affaires:Chargés d’affaires , who were...
was created during the war to represent the newly created Slovak Republic, and an apostolic visitor
Apostolic visitor
In the Catholic Church, an apostolic visitor is a papal representative with a transient mission to perform a canonical visitation of relatively short duration...
was sent to the Nazi puppet state of Croatia
Independent State of Croatia
The Independent State of Croatia was a World War II puppet state of Nazi Germany, established on a part of Axis-occupied Yugoslavia. The NDH was founded on 10 April 1941, after the invasion of Yugoslavia by the Axis powers. All of Bosnia and Herzegovina was annexed to NDH, together with some parts...
.
By June 15, 1940 there were no longer any Allied ambassadors residing in Italian territory (the norm for ambassadors to the Vatican): the Polish, French, and British ambassadors entered Vatican City
Vatican City
Vatican City , or Vatican City State, in Italian officially Stato della Città del Vaticano , which translates literally as State of the City of the Vatican, is a landlocked sovereign city-state whose territory consists of a walled enclave within the city of Rome, Italy. It has an area of...
proper; Nieuwenhuys initially declined Vatican protection on June 16 to flee to Switzerland
Switzerland
Switzerland name of one of the Swiss cantons. ; ; ; or ), in its full name the Swiss Confederation , is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in Western Europe,Or Central Europe depending on the definition....
with along with the Belgian ambassador to Italy, but decided to stay on June 18. Italy was at war with France, Britain, South Africa, Canada, and New Zealand, and had severed diplomatic relations with Belgium, Norway, the Netherlands, and Poland; of those, only France, Britain, Belgium, and Poland had resident ambassadors at the Vatican.
The same protection was not extended to Niko Mirosevich, the Yugoslav Minister, when he was ousted by Italy in July 1941. However, the ambassadors in the city-state were joined by Harold J. Tittmann, Jr., who remained as chargé d'affaires
Chargé d'affaires
In diplomacy, chargé d’affaires , often shortened to simply chargé, is the title of two classes of diplomatic agents who head a diplomatic mission, either on a temporary basis or when no more senior diplomat has been accredited.-Chargés d’affaires:Chargés d’affaires , who were...
after Taylor's departure, after he was required to move into Vatican City by Italy on December 13, 1941.
After the Allied occupation of Rome, the Allied ambassadors moved out of Vatican City and the Japanese, German, Hungarian, Romanian, and Slovak delegations moved into the city-state, escorted by US troops. High-ranking Nazi Ernst von Weizsäcker
Ernst von Weizsäcker
Ernst Freiherr von Weizsäcker was a German diplomat and politician. He served as State Secretary at the Foreign Office from 1938 to 1943, and as German Ambassador to the Holy See from 1943 to 1945...
and Mussolini's son-in-law Galeazzo Ciano
Galeazzo Ciano
Gian Galeazzo Ciano, 2nd Count of Cortellazzo and Buccari was an Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs and Benito Mussolini's son-in-law. In early 1944 Count Ciano was shot by firing squad at the behest of his father-in-law, Mussolini under pressure from Nazi Germany.-Early life:Ciano was born in...
both became ambassadors to the Vatican in 1943; it was believed that von Weizsäcker's main job was to keep an eye on Ciano lest the pope assist Italy in negotiating a separate peace with the Allies.
The Holocaust
Morley's Vatican Diplomacy and the Jews during the Holocaust (1980) is a comprehensive country-by-country study of Vatican diplomacy, using primary sources from the nuncios themselves up to the Cardinal Secretary of State and Pius XII himself. Morley's study draws heavily on the ADSS vols. 1-9, supplemented by documents from the Centre de Documentation Juive Contemporaine (Paris), British Foreign Office, Public Records Office (London), Institute for Jewish Affairs (London), the Nuremberg TrialsNuremberg Trials
The Nuremberg Trials were a series of military tribunals, held by the victorious Allied forces of World War II, most notable for the prosecution of prominent members of the political, military, and economic leadership of the defeated Nazi Germany....
, the World Jewish Congress
World Jewish Congress
The World Jewish Congress was founded in Geneva, Switzerland, in August 1936 as an international federation of Jewish communities and organizations...
archives (New York), and Yad Vashem
Yad Vashem
Yad Vashem is Israel's official memorial to the Jewish victims of the Holocaust, established in 1953 through the Yad Vashem Law passed by the Knesset, Israel's parliament....
(Jerusalem). The central conclusion of Morley is as follows:
- "This study of the Vatican and Jewish sources has revealed little evidence that the nuncios manifested any consistent humanitarian concern about the sufferings of the Jews during the years 1939 to 1943. This research has indicated that the Vatican diplomats only rarely acted on behalf of the Jews as Jews, and this usually only for specific individuals. They sometimes had words of sympathy for the Jews, but little action followed from these words".
However, Morley does find a multitude of examples of Vatican diplomats protesting against the effects of racial laws on Jews who converted to Catholicism before and during the Holocaust
Conversion of Jews to Catholicism during the Holocaust
The conversion of Jews to Catholicism during the Holocaust is one of the most controversial aspects of the record of Pope Pius XII during The Holocaust....
, as well as numerous interventions on their behalf.
After World War II
Ernst von Weizsäcker
Ernst Freiherr von Weizsäcker was a German diplomat and politician. He served as State Secretary at the Foreign Office from 1938 to 1943, and as German Ambassador to the Holy See from 1943 to 1945...
, the former Nazi ambassador to remain in Rome as a "guest" after Nazi Germany ceased to exist and he lost his status as an ambassador. Similar status was accorded to former Vichy France
Vichy France
Vichy France, Vichy Regime, or Vichy Government, are common terms used to describe the government of France that collaborated with the Axis powers from July 1940 to August 1944. This government succeeded the Third Republic and preceded the Provisional Government of the French Republic...
ambassador Léon Bérard
Léon Bérard
Léon Bérard was a French politician and lawyer.He was Minister of Public Instruction in 1919 and from 1921 to 1924, and Minister of Justice from 1931 to 1932 and was elected to the Académie française in 1934.Bérard was the Ambassador from Vichy France to the Holy See from 1940 to 1945.-Léon Bérard...
, even after Pius XII received Jacques Maritain
Jacques Maritain
Jacques Maritain was a French Catholic philosopher. Raised as a Protestant, he converted to Catholicism in 1906. An author of more than 60 books, he helped to revive St. Thomas Aquinas for modern times and is a prominent drafter of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights...
as French ambassador in 1945. von Weizsäcker was given political asylum for a time, although the Allied wished to charge him with war crimes (he would eventually be convicted at Nuremberg).
Ken Harada
Ken Harada (diplomat)
was a chargé d'affaires to Vichy France and a diplomat to the Holy See from Japan. He was appointed as a special envoy to the Vatican, and served in this capacity from 1942 to 1945...
, the Japanese ambassador, remained in the Vatican "on much the same basis", while the Holy See protested that it had not yet received "official notification" from Gen. Douglas MacArthur
Douglas MacArthur
General of the Army Douglas MacArthur was an American general and field marshal of the Philippine Army. He was a Chief of Staff of the United States Army during the 1930s and played a prominent role in the Pacific theater during World War II. He received the Medal of Honor for his service in the...
that it should sever relations. As he was no longer accredited to the Vatican, Harada was not allowed to participate in a New Years Day 1946 event, although Pius XII granted him a separate audience a few days later. Harada was received in a final farewell audience on January 25, 1946 before being repatriated, following MacArthur's order discontinuing Japan's diplomatic service.
After World War II relations were strained or cut with several Communist Eastern European nations. For example, there was no Apostolic Nuncio to Poland
Apostolic Nuncio to Poland
The Apostolic Nuncio to Poland is one of the oldest nuncios, appointed by the Pope as apostolic representative to the Roman Catholic Church in Poland. Three nuncios to Poland went on to be elected pope...
between 1947 and 1989.
After the resignation of US presidential envoy Myron Charles Taylor
Myron Charles Taylor
Myron Charles Taylor was one of the major figures in American life during the first half of the twentieth century...
in 1950, Truman struggled to replace Taylor. American Protestant leaders opposed the continuation of the mission (including Truman's own pastor, Edward Pruden), and the Vatican wanted a full ambassador, not another "personal envoy". The appointment of General Mark Wayne Clark
Mark Wayne Clark
Mark Wayne Clark was an American general during World War II and the Korean War and was the youngest lieutenant general in the U.S. Army...
as United States Ambassador to the Holy See
United States Ambassador to the Holy See
A U.S. Ambassador serves as that country's official representative to the Holy See since formal diplomatic relations began in 1984. Before the establishment of official relations, Myron Taylor served during World War II as an emissary for President Franklin D. Roosevelt. In 1951, President Harry S....
was withdrawn after a prolonged Senate fight. Clark had been the Allied Commander in Italy, known for the bombing of the historic abbey of Monte Cassino
Monte Cassino
Monte Cassino is a rocky hill about southeast of Rome, Italy, c. to the west of the town of Cassino and altitude. St. Benedict of Nursia established his first monastery, the source of the Benedictine Order, here around 529. It was the site of Battle of Monte Cassino in 1944...
but also his triumphant entry into Rome in 1944.
Primary sources
As of 2002, no complete set of diplomatic papers has been published by any country with diplomatic relations with the Holy See during Pius XII's pontificate, although partial sets have been published in various works. However, the outrage over Rolf HochhuthRolf Hochhuth
Rolf Hochhuth is a German author and playwright. He is best known for his 1963 drama The Deputy and remains a controversial figure for his plays and other public comments, such as his insinuation of Pope Pius XII's sympathies for Hitler's extermination of the Jews in the 1963 play The Deputy and...
's 1963 play The Deputy
The Deputy
The Deputy, a Christian tragedy , also known as The Representative, is a controversial 1963 play by Rolf Hochhuth which indicts Pope Pius XII for his failure to take action or speak out against The Holocaust. It has been translated into more than twenty languages...
prompted Pope Paul VI
Pope Paul VI
Paul VI , born Giovanni Battista Enrico Antonio Maria Montini , reigned as Pope of the Catholic Church from 21 June 1963 until his death on 6 August 1978. Succeeding Pope John XXIII, who had convened the Second Vatican Council, he decided to continue it...
in 1964 to authorize the opening of Pius XII's diplomatic papers prior to the usual seventy-five year rule. Four Jesuit Priests were allowed into the archives and eleven volumes, Actes et documents du Saint Siège relatifs à la Seconde Guerre Mondiale
Actes et Documents du Saint Siège relatifs à la Seconde Guerre Mondiale
Actes et Documents du Saint Siège relatifs à la Seconde Guerre Mondiale , often abbreviated Actes or ADSS, is an eleven-volume collection of documents from the Vatican historical archives, related to the papacy of Pope Pius XII during World War II.The collection was compiled by four...
(ADSS), were published between 1965 and 1981, covering only the wartime years.
Several diplomats at the Vatican wrote memoirs covering the period of Pius XII's pontificate, including the Free French ambassadors François Charles-Roux and Wladimir d'Ormesson
Wladimir d'Ormesson
Wladimir d'Ormesson was a French essayist, novelist, journalist and diplomat.He was successively ambassador in Vatican city, Buenos Aires and Santiago, and wrote many essays and some novels...
and Polish ambassador Casimir Papée. Others have had their wartime papers published, including German ambassador Ernst von Weizsäcker
Ernst von Weizsäcker
Ernst Freiherr von Weizsäcker was a German diplomat and politician. He served as State Secretary at the Foreign Office from 1938 to 1943, and as German Ambassador to the Holy See from 1943 to 1945...
and British Minister D'Arcy Osborne. Osborne's papers formed the basis of Owen Chadwick
Owen Chadwick
William Owen Chadwick, OM, KBE, FBA, FRSE is a British professor, writer and prominent historian of Christianity. He was also a rugby union player.-Early life and education:Chadwick was born in Bromley in 1916...
's Britain and the Vatican during the Second World War (1988). Wartime Correspondence Between President Roosevelt and Pope Pius XII was published in 2005 with a foreword and notes by Myron Charles Taylor
Myron Charles Taylor
Myron Charles Taylor was one of the major figures in American life during the first half of the twentieth century...
.
The post-war papers of Aloisius Joseph Muench
Aloisius Joseph Muench
Aloisius Joseph Muench was an American prelate of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Bishop of Fargo from 1935 to 1959, and as Apostolic Nuncio to Germany from 1951 to 1959...
were also extensively preserved, and indexed at the Catholic University of America since 1976. The documents are the subject of a 2006 monograph
Monograph
A monograph is a work of writing upon a single subject, usually by a single author.It is often a scholarly essay or learned treatise, and may be released in the manner of a book or journal article. It is by definition a single document that forms a complete text in itself...
by Dr. Suzanne Brown-Fleming, a fellow at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum is the United States' official memorial to the Holocaust. Adjacent to the National Mall in Washington, D.C., the USHMM provides for the documentation, study, and interpretation of Holocaust history...
's Center for Advanced Holocaust Studies.