Gender and religion
Encyclopedia
Gender and religion encompasses a range of topics related to gender
and religion
.
Some gender and religion issues can be classified as either "internal" or "external". Internal religious issues are studied from the perspective of a given religion, and might include religious beliefs and practices about the roles and rights of men and women in government, education and worship; beliefs about the sex or gender of deities and religious figures; and beliefs about the origin and meaning of human gender. External religious issues can be broadly defined as an examination of a given religion from an outsider's perspective, including possible clashes between religious leaders and laity; and the influence of, and differences between, religious perspectives on social issues. For example, various religious perspectives have either endorsed or condemned alternative family structures, homosexual relationships, and abortion. External religious issues can also be examined from the "lens of gender" perspective embraced by some in feminism
and/or critical theory
and its offshoots.
, involve deification of characteristics of the natural world. These spirits are typically, but not always, gendered. It has been proposed, since the 19th century, that polytheism
arose out of animism, as religious epic provided personalities to animist spirits in various parts of the world, notably in the development of ancient near east
ern and Indo-European
literature. Polytheistic gods are also typically gendered. The earliest evidence of monotheism
is the worship of the goddess Eurynome
, Aten
in Egypt, the teaching of Moses
in the Hebrew Bible
and Zoroastrianism
in Persia. Aten
, Yahweh
and Ahura Mazda
are all masculine deities, embodied only in metaphor, so masculine rather than reproductively male.
Some scholars suggest that ancient religious Goddesses have been reinterpreted to follow specific gender roles. For example, the Nordic goddess Freya first represented war and love, but after centuries, she was transformed into only representing love and a sexual behaviour. The Hindu goddess Kali is interesting because she breaks the typical gendered role of women representing love, sex, fertility and beauty because she is simultaneously the goddess of the life cycle as well as destructive war. An example of the typical female goddess is Aphrodite, who is shown as vain, simple, and beautiful.
Various 19th century scholars of comparative religion
proposed that prehistoric
animism worshipped nature viewed predominantly as matriarchal religion
, a feature notable also within neopaganism
. However, anthropological research of the early 20th century, among many pre-literate cultures, established a consensus against this theory.
In Christianity
, one entity of the Trinity, the Son, is believed to have become incarnate as a human male. Christians believe that the other two entities in the Trinity, the Father and the Holy Spirit, have never been incarnated, hence having masculine gender rather than male sex. Islam, on the other hand, has a tradition that the name Allah, like its referent, can be allocated neither grammatical nor natural gender. Masculine pronouns for Allah in the Qur'an
are interpreted as generic.
The gender or genderlessness of God is a controversial issue in monotheistic and some henotheistic
religions. While God has traditionally been portrayed as a masculine figure, this deity is also called Mother and there has been an increasing view that God is synominous for mother nature and more feminine.
In many stories, man and woman are created at the same time, with equal standing. Some scholars suggest that one such example is the creation story in Genesis 1: "And God created the man in his image. In the image of God he created him. Male and female he created them.". Some commentators interpret the parallelism to be deliberately stressing that mankind is, in some sense, a "unity in diversity" from a divine perspective (compare e pluribus unum
),
and that women
as well as men
are included in God's image. The first man, Adam, has been viewed as a spiritual being or an ideal who can be distinguished as both male and female; an androgynous being with no sex. Some argue that Genesis' gender-inclusive conception of humanity contrasts sharply with the views of gender found in older literature
from surrounding culture
s. Some go so far as to suggest a higher status
of women in western society due to Judæo-Christian influence, and based on this verse
. Some scholars, such as Philo, argue that the “sexes” were developed through an accidental division of the “true self” which existed prior to being assigned with gender.
In other accounts, man is created first, followed by woman. This is the case in the creation account of Genesis 2, where the first woman (Eve) is created from the rib
of the first man (Adam), as a companion and helper. This version is normally cited by Jewish authorities in support of patriarchy
, and likewise by Christian interpreters. A similar story appears in the Qur'an
. There is an interesting correlation between the two gender creation stories, both stories imagine the ideal of the unitary self. However, the unitary self is either androgynous or physically male; both of which are masculine in configuration. Thus male and female are to become one; meaning that she is to become male.
The second creation story of Adam and Eve became influential in regards to how women were viewed in Victorian society by means of the "Eva/Ave Palidrome" where Eva was woman in her weak and evil state, based on Eve in the Garden of Eden and Ave was Mary (as in Ave Maria), the new holy and pure ideal that was impossible for women to mimic. Historically, women have been placed into two categories; women and virgins. Women who become intimate with men are marked women, whereas those who do not participate in such acts and who are divinely inspired are considered virgins. Thus women can escape from being gendered as women if they participate in celibacy.
In Plato
's Symposium
, Aristophanes
provides an account to explain gender and romantic attraction.
There were originally three sexes: the all male, the all female, and the "androgynous," who was half man, half woman. As punishment for attacking the gods, each was split in half. The halves of the androgynous being became heterosexual men and women, while the halves of the all male and all female became gay
s and lesbian
s, respectively.
has been a controversial issue in some religions where either the rite of ordination
, or the role that an ordained person fulfills, has traditionally been restricted to men because of cultural or theological prohibitions.
Beginning in the 19th century, some Christian denominations have ordained women. Among those who do not, many believe it is forbidden by . Some of those denominations ordain women to the diaconate, believing this is encouraged by .
Some Islam
ic communities (mainly outside the Middle East) have recently appointed women as imams
, normally with ministries restricted to leading women in prayer and other charitable ministries.
. The identity of the Vedic
writers is not known, but the first hymn of the Rigveda
is addressed to the masculine deity Agni
, and the pantheon of the Vedas is dominated by masculine gods. The most prominent Avatar
s of Vishnu
are men.
The traditional religious leaders of Jainism
are all men.
Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha
) was a man, but the female Buddha Vajrayogini is very important in Buddhism
. Buddha stated that men and women are equally capable of attaining Nirvana, but some prominent Buddhist thinkers have expressed contrary opinions.
himself, Moses
, David
and Elijah are among the most significant leaders documented according to the traditions of the Hebrew Bible. John the Baptist
, Jesus
and his apostles, and Saul of Tarsus again give the New Testament
an impression of the founders and key figures of Christianity being male dominated. They were followed by a millennium of theologians known as the Church Fathers
. Islam
was founded by Muhammad
, and his successor, Abu Bakr
, was also a man. On the other hand, The Virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus of Nazareth
, is not associated with leadership or teaching, but is nonetheless a key figure in Catholicism. Fatimah
, daughter of Muhammad is regarded by Muslims as an exemplar for men and women.
The Bahá'í Faith
teaches that men and women are equal, and there have been a large number of prominent female teachers celebrated in Bahá'í history such as Bahiyyih Khánum
who was acting head of the faith for a period following the passing of `Abdu'l-Bahá
.
Nakayama Miki
was the founder of Tenrikyo
, which may be the largest religion to have a woman founder.
Ellen G. White
was instrumental to the founding of the Seventh-day Adventist Church
and is officially considered a prophet by Seventh-day Adventists.
In particular, White's biblical commentaries and other writings are often considered inspired
or even infallible.
Mary Baker Eddy
was the founder of the Christian Science
movement.
Many religions have traditionally practiced sex segregation
.
In traditional Jewish
synagogue
s, the women's section is separated from the men's' section by a wall or curtain called a mechitza
. Men are not permitted to pray in the presence of women, to prevent distraction. The mechitza shown in the picture on the right is one in a synagogue affiliated with the 'left wing' (more modern side) of Modern Orthodox Judaism
, which requires the mechitza to be of the height shown in the picture. More traditional or 'right wing' Modern Orthodox Judaism, and all forms of Haredi Judaism
, requires the mechitza to be of a type which absolutely prevents the men from seeing the women.
Enclosed religious orders are usually segregated by gender.
Sex segregation in Islam includes restrictions on interaction between men and women. Men and women also worship separately in mosque
s.
, and many religions also promote views on appropriate gender role
s within marriage.
Two notable views are Complementarianism and Christian Egalitarianism
.
In Genesis 3, Adam names his wife Eve ("life") because she "was the mother of all living."
, a woman's primary responsibility is usually interpreted as fulfilling her role as a wife and mother, whereas women still have the right and are free to work. A man’s role is to work and be able to protect and financially support his wife and family.
is considered to be immoral, the taking of God's gift of life to a child, for the sake of self-interest. The rationale for this view often also involves appeals to mothering responsibilities and privileges considered to be divine gifts to exclusively given to women.
rather than apodictic laws. As such, the rationale for such proscriptions is not clearly evident, though avoidance of procreation and contribution to society via establishing families are sometimes offered as pragmatic considerations.
) began to feel increasingly dissatisfied with the position of women in religion. There were two main aspects of traditional religious institutions that were problems for feminists in Christianity:
Feminism has engaged with Christians in three main ways:
In contrast, Christian writer and speaker Paul Coughlin argues that male influence in Christianity is overstated, and moreover that a substantial misandric
undercurrent has existed in American Protestantism for many decades:
and Judaism
, to reconsider the traditions, practices, scriptures, and theologies of their religion from a feminist perspective.
Likewise, those who practice feminist spirituality may adhere to a feminist re-interpretation of Western monotheistic traditions. In these cases, the notion of God
as having a male gender is rejected, and God is not referred to using male pronouns.
Pierre Chaunu
has argued that the influence of Christianity is the main factor leading to equality for women.
Priyamvada Gopal argues that increased gender equality is indeed a product of Judeo-Christian doctrine, but not exclusive to it. She expresses concern that gender equality is used by western countries as a rationale for "neocolonialism
".
Jamaine Abidogun argues another interesting perspective: that Judeo-Christian influence has indeed shaped gender roles in Nigeria (a strongly Christianised country), however, she doesn't consider feminism to be a product of Judeo-Christian doctrine, but rather a preferable form of "neocolonialism".
Gender
Gender is a range of characteristics used to distinguish between males and females, particularly in the cases of men and women and the masculine and feminine attributes assigned to them. Depending on the context, the discriminating characteristics vary from sex to social role to gender identity...
and religion
Religion
Religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and worldviews that establishes symbols that relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values. Many religions have narratives, symbols, traditions and sacred histories that are intended to give meaning to life or to...
.
Some gender and religion issues can be classified as either "internal" or "external". Internal religious issues are studied from the perspective of a given religion, and might include religious beliefs and practices about the roles and rights of men and women in government, education and worship; beliefs about the sex or gender of deities and religious figures; and beliefs about the origin and meaning of human gender. External religious issues can be broadly defined as an examination of a given religion from an outsider's perspective, including possible clashes between religious leaders and laity; and the influence of, and differences between, religious perspectives on social issues. For example, various religious perspectives have either endorsed or condemned alternative family structures, homosexual relationships, and abortion. External religious issues can also be examined from the "lens of gender" perspective embraced by some in feminism
Feminism
Feminism is a collection of movements aimed at defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and social rights and equal opportunities for women. Its concepts overlap with those of women's rights...
and/or critical theory
Critical theory
Critical theory is an examination and critique of society and culture, drawing from knowledge across the social sciences and humanities. The term has two different meanings with different origins and histories: one originating in sociology and the other in literary criticism...
and its offshoots.
Gender of deities
The earliest documented religions, and some contemporary animist religionsAnimism
Animism refers to the belief that non-human entities are spiritual beings, or at least embody some kind of life-principle....
, involve deification of characteristics of the natural world. These spirits are typically, but not always, gendered. It has been proposed, since the 19th century, that polytheism
Polytheism
Polytheism is the belief of multiple deities also usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own mythologies and rituals....
arose out of animism, as religious epic provided personalities to animist spirits in various parts of the world, notably in the development of ancient near east
Ancient Near East
The ancient Near East was the home of early civilizations within a region roughly corresponding to the modern Middle East: Mesopotamia , ancient Egypt, ancient Iran The ancient Near East was the home of early civilizations within a region roughly corresponding to the modern Middle East: Mesopotamia...
ern and Indo-European
Indo-European languages
The Indo-European languages are a family of several hundred related languages and dialects, including most major current languages of Europe, the Iranian plateau, and South Asia and also historically predominant in Anatolia...
literature. Polytheistic gods are also typically gendered. The earliest evidence of monotheism
Monotheism
Monotheism is the belief in the existence of one and only one god. Monotheism is characteristic of the Baha'i Faith, Christianity, Druzism, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, Samaritanism, Sikhism and Zoroastrianism.While they profess the existence of only one deity, monotheistic religions may still...
is the worship of the goddess Eurynome
Eurynome
Eurynomê was the Titan goddess of water-meadows and pasturelands, and one of the elder Oceanides, that is, a daughter of Oceanus and Tethys...
, Aten
Aten
Aten is the disk of the sun in ancient Egyptian mythology, and originally an aspect of Ra. The deified Aten is the focus of the monolatristic, henotheistic, or monotheistic religion of Atenism established by Amenhotep IV, who later took the name Akhenaten in worship in recognition of Aten...
in Egypt, the teaching of Moses
Moses
Moses was, according to the Hebrew Bible and Qur'an, a religious leader, lawgiver and prophet, to whom the authorship of the Torah is traditionally attributed...
in the Hebrew Bible
Hebrew Bible
The Hebrew Bible is a term used by biblical scholars outside of Judaism to refer to the Tanakh , a canonical collection of Jewish texts, and the common textual antecedent of the several canonical editions of the Christian Old Testament...
and Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism is a religion and philosophy based on the teachings of prophet Zoroaster and was formerly among the world's largest religions. It was probably founded some time before the 6th century BCE in Greater Iran.In Zoroastrianism, the Creator Ahura Mazda is all good, and no evil...
in Persia. Aten
Aten
Aten is the disk of the sun in ancient Egyptian mythology, and originally an aspect of Ra. The deified Aten is the focus of the monolatristic, henotheistic, or monotheistic religion of Atenism established by Amenhotep IV, who later took the name Akhenaten in worship in recognition of Aten...
, Yahweh
Yahweh
Yahweh is the name of God in the Bible, the God of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Jews and Christians.The word Yahweh is a modern scholarly convention for the Hebrew , transcribed into Roman letters as YHWH and known as the Tetragrammaton, for which the original pronunciation is unknown...
and Ahura Mazda
Ahura Mazda
Ahura Mazdā is the Avestan name for a divinity of the Old Iranian religion who was proclaimed the uncreated God by Zoroaster, the founder of Zoroastrianism...
are all masculine deities, embodied only in metaphor, so masculine rather than reproductively male.
Some scholars suggest that ancient religious Goddesses have been reinterpreted to follow specific gender roles. For example, the Nordic goddess Freya first represented war and love, but after centuries, she was transformed into only representing love and a sexual behaviour. The Hindu goddess Kali is interesting because she breaks the typical gendered role of women representing love, sex, fertility and beauty because she is simultaneously the goddess of the life cycle as well as destructive war. An example of the typical female goddess is Aphrodite, who is shown as vain, simple, and beautiful.
Various 19th century scholars of comparative religion
Comparative religion
Comparative religion is a field of religious studies that analyzes the similarities and differences of themes, myths, rituals and concepts among the world's religions...
proposed that prehistoric
Prehistory
Prehistory is the span of time before recorded history. Prehistory can refer to the period of human existence before the availability of those written records with which recorded history begins. More broadly, it refers to all the time preceding human existence and the invention of writing...
animism worshipped nature viewed predominantly as matriarchal religion
Matriarchal religion
The concept of a Matriarchal religion is a concept forwarded in second-wave feminism since the 1970s, based on the notion of a historical matriarchy first developed in the 19th century by J. J...
, a feature notable also within neopaganism
Neopaganism
Neopaganism is an umbrella term used to identify a wide variety of modern religious movements, particularly those influenced by or claiming to be derived from the various pagan beliefs of pre-modern Europe...
. However, anthropological research of the early 20th century, among many pre-literate cultures, established a consensus against this theory.
In Christianity
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
, one entity of the Trinity, the Son, is believed to have become incarnate as a human male. Christians believe that the other two entities in the Trinity, the Father and the Holy Spirit, have never been incarnated, hence having masculine gender rather than male sex. Islam, on the other hand, has a tradition that the name Allah, like its referent, can be allocated neither grammatical nor natural gender. Masculine pronouns for Allah in the Qur'an
Qur'an
The Quran , also transliterated Qur'an, Koran, Alcoran, Qur’ān, Coran, Kuran, and al-Qur’ān, is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God . It is regarded widely as the finest piece of literature in the Arabic language...
are interpreted as generic.
The gender or genderlessness of God is a controversial issue in monotheistic and some henotheistic
Henotheism
Henotheism is the belief and worship of a single god while accepting the existence or possible existence of other deities...
religions. While God has traditionally been portrayed as a masculine figure, this deity is also called Mother and there has been an increasing view that God is synominous for mother nature and more feminine.
Creation myths about human gender
The creation myths of many religions contain stories about how humans came to have gender.In many stories, man and woman are created at the same time, with equal standing. Some scholars suggest that one such example is the creation story in Genesis 1: "And God created the man in his image. In the image of God he created him. Male and female he created them.". Some commentators interpret the parallelism to be deliberately stressing that mankind is, in some sense, a "unity in diversity" from a divine perspective (compare e pluribus unum
E pluribus unum
E pluribus unum , Latin for "Out of many, one", is a phrase on the Seal of the United States, along with Annuit cœptis and Novus ordo seclorum, and adopted by an Act of Congress in 1782...
),
and that women
Woman
A woman , pl: women is a female human. The term woman is usually reserved for an adult, with the term girl being the usual term for a female child or adolescent...
as well as men
Man
The term man is used for an adult human male . However, man is sometimes used to refer to humanity as a whole...
are included in God's image. The first man, Adam, has been viewed as a spiritual being or an ideal who can be distinguished as both male and female; an androgynous being with no sex. Some argue that Genesis' gender-inclusive conception of humanity contrasts sharply with the views of gender found in older literature
Literature
Literature is the art of written works, and is not bound to published sources...
from surrounding culture
Culture
Culture is a term that has many different inter-related meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions...
s. Some go so far as to suggest a higher status
Social status
In sociology or anthropology, social status is the honor or prestige attached to one's position in society . It may also refer to a rank or position that one holds in a group, for example son or daughter, playmate, pupil, etc....
of women in western society due to Judæo-Christian influence, and based on this verse
Chapters and verses of the Bible
The Bible is a compilation of many shorter books written at different times and later assembled into the Biblical canon. All but the shortest of these books have been divided into chapters, generally a page or so in length, since the early 13th century. Since the mid-16th century, each chapter has...
. Some scholars, such as Philo, argue that the “sexes” were developed through an accidental division of the “true self” which existed prior to being assigned with gender.
In other accounts, man is created first, followed by woman. This is the case in the creation account of Genesis 2, where the first woman (Eve) is created from the rib
Rib
In vertebrate anatomy, ribs are the long curved bones which form the rib cage. In most vertebrates, ribs surround the chest, enabling the lungs to expand and thus facilitate breathing by expanding the chest cavity. They serve to protect the lungs, heart, and other internal organs of the thorax...
of the first man (Adam), as a companion and helper. This version is normally cited by Jewish authorities in support of patriarchy
Patriarchy
Patriarchy is a social system in which the role of the male as the primary authority figure is central to social organization, and where fathers hold authority over women, children, and property. It implies the institutions of male rule and privilege, and entails female subordination...
, and likewise by Christian interpreters. A similar story appears in the Qur'an
Qur'an
The Quran , also transliterated Qur'an, Koran, Alcoran, Qur’ān, Coran, Kuran, and al-Qur’ān, is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God . It is regarded widely as the finest piece of literature in the Arabic language...
. There is an interesting correlation between the two gender creation stories, both stories imagine the ideal of the unitary self. However, the unitary self is either androgynous or physically male; both of which are masculine in configuration. Thus male and female are to become one; meaning that she is to become male.
The second creation story of Adam and Eve became influential in regards to how women were viewed in Victorian society by means of the "Eva/Ave Palidrome" where Eva was woman in her weak and evil state, based on Eve in the Garden of Eden and Ave was Mary (as in Ave Maria), the new holy and pure ideal that was impossible for women to mimic. Historically, women have been placed into two categories; women and virgins. Women who become intimate with men are marked women, whereas those who do not participate in such acts and who are divinely inspired are considered virgins. Thus women can escape from being gendered as women if they participate in celibacy.
In Plato
Plato
Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...
's Symposium
Symposium (Plato)
The Symposium is a philosophical text by Plato dated c. 385–380 BCE. It concerns itself at one level with the genesis, purpose and nature of love....
, Aristophanes
Aristophanes
Aristophanes , son of Philippus, of the deme Cydathenaus, was a comic playwright of ancient Athens. Eleven of his forty plays survive virtually complete...
provides an account to explain gender and romantic attraction.
There were originally three sexes: the all male, the all female, and the "androgynous," who was half man, half woman. As punishment for attacking the gods, each was split in half. The halves of the androgynous being became heterosexual men and women, while the halves of the all male and all female became gay
Gay
Gay is a word that refers to a homosexual person, especially a homosexual male. For homosexual women the specific term is "lesbian"....
s and lesbian
Lesbian
Lesbian is a term most widely used in the English language to describe sexual and romantic desire between females. The word may be used as a noun, to refer to women who identify themselves or who are characterized by others as having the primary attribute of female homosexuality, or as an...
s, respectively.
Leadership roles
Some religions restrict leadership to men. The ordination of womenOrdination of women
Ordination in general religious usage is the process by which a person is consecrated . The ordination of women is a regular practice among some major religious groups, as it was of several religions of antiquity...
has been a controversial issue in some religions where either the rite of ordination
Ordination
In general religious use, ordination is the process by which individuals are consecrated, that is, set apart as clergy to perform various religious rites and ceremonies. The process and ceremonies of ordination itself varies by religion and denomination. One who is in preparation for, or who is...
, or the role that an ordained person fulfills, has traditionally been restricted to men because of cultural or theological prohibitions.
Beginning in the 19th century, some Christian denominations have ordained women. Among those who do not, many believe it is forbidden by . Some of those denominations ordain women to the diaconate, believing this is encouraged by .
Some Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
ic communities (mainly outside the Middle East) have recently appointed women as imams
Women as imams
There is a current controversy among Muslims regarding the circumstances in which women may act as imams—that is, lead a congregation in salah...
, normally with ministries restricted to leading women in prayer and other charitable ministries.
Indian religions
Both masculine and feminine deities feature prominently in HinduismHinduism
Hinduism is the predominant and indigenous religious tradition of the Indian Subcontinent. Hinduism is known to its followers as , amongst many other expressions...
. The identity of the Vedic
Vedic
Vedic may refer to:* the Vedas, the oldest preserved Indic texts** Vedic Sanskrit, the language of these texts** Vedic period, during which these texts were produced** Vedic pantheon of gods mentioned in Vedas/vedic period...
writers is not known, but the first hymn of the Rigveda
Rigveda
The Rigveda is an ancient Indian sacred collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns...
is addressed to the masculine deity Agni
Agni
Agni is a Hindu deity, one of the most important of the Vedic gods. He is the god of fire and the acceptor of sacrifices. The sacrifices made to Agni go to the deities because Agni is a messenger from and to the other gods...
, and the pantheon of the Vedas is dominated by masculine gods. The most prominent Avatar
Avatar
In Hinduism, an avatar is a deliberate descent of a deity to earth, or a descent of the Supreme Being and is mostly translated into English as "incarnation," but more accurately as "appearance" or "manifestation"....
s of Vishnu
Vishnu
Vishnu is the Supreme god in the Vaishnavite tradition of Hinduism. Smarta followers of Adi Shankara, among others, venerate Vishnu as one of the five primary forms of God....
are men.
The traditional religious leaders of Jainism
Jainism
Jainism is an Indian religion that prescribes a path of non-violence towards all living beings. Its philosophy and practice emphasize the necessity of self-effort to move the soul towards divine consciousness and liberation. Any soul that has conquered its own inner enemies and achieved the state...
are all men.
Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
) was a man, but the female Buddha Vajrayogini is very important in Buddhism
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
. Buddha stated that men and women are equally capable of attaining Nirvana, but some prominent Buddhist thinkers have expressed contrary opinions.
Abrahamic religions
In Abrahamic religions, AbrahamAbraham
Abraham , whose birth name was Abram, is the eponym of the Abrahamic religions, among which are Judaism, Christianity and Islam...
himself, Moses
Moses
Moses was, according to the Hebrew Bible and Qur'an, a religious leader, lawgiver and prophet, to whom the authorship of the Torah is traditionally attributed...
, David
David
David was the second king of the united Kingdom of Israel according to the Hebrew Bible and, according to the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, an ancestor of Jesus Christ through both Saint Joseph and Mary...
and Elijah are among the most significant leaders documented according to the traditions of the Hebrew Bible. John the Baptist
John the Baptist
John the Baptist was an itinerant preacher and a major religious figure mentioned in the Canonical gospels. He is described in the Gospel of Luke as a relative of Jesus, who led a movement of baptism at the Jordan River...
, Jesus
Jesus
Jesus of Nazareth , commonly referred to as Jesus Christ or simply as Jesus or Christ, is the central figure of Christianity...
and his apostles, and Saul of Tarsus again give the New Testament
New Testament
The New Testament is the second major division of the Christian biblical canon, the first such division being the much longer Old Testament....
an impression of the founders and key figures of Christianity being male dominated. They were followed by a millennium of theologians known as the Church Fathers
Church Fathers
The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, Christian Fathers, or Fathers of the Church were early and influential theologians, eminent Christian teachers and great bishops. Their scholarly works were used as a precedent for centuries to come...
. Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
was founded by Muhammad
Muhammad
Muhammad |ligature]] at U+FDF4 ;Arabic pronunciation varies regionally; the first vowel ranges from ~~; the second and the last vowel: ~~~. There are dialects which have no stress. In Egypt, it is pronounced not in religious contexts...
, and his successor, Abu Bakr
Abu Bakr
Abu Bakr was a senior companion and the father-in-law of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He ruled over the Rashidun Caliphate from 632-634 CE when he became the first Muslim Caliph following Muhammad's death...
, was also a man. On the other hand, The Virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus of Nazareth
Jesus
Jesus of Nazareth , commonly referred to as Jesus Christ or simply as Jesus or Christ, is the central figure of Christianity...
, is not associated with leadership or teaching, but is nonetheless a key figure in Catholicism. Fatimah
Fatimah
Fatimah was a daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad from his first wife Khadijah bint Khuwaylid. She is regarded by Muslims as an exemplar for men and women. She remained at her father's side through the difficulties suffered by him at the hands of the Quraysh of Mecca...
, daughter of Muhammad is regarded by Muslims as an exemplar for men and women.
The Bahá'í Faith
Bahá'í Faith
The Bahá'í Faith is a monotheistic religion founded by Bahá'u'lláh in 19th-century Persia, emphasizing the spiritual unity of all humankind. There are an estimated five to six million Bahá'ís around the world in more than 200 countries and territories....
teaches that men and women are equal, and there have been a large number of prominent female teachers celebrated in Bahá'í history such as Bahiyyih Khánum
Bahiyyih Khánum
Bahíyyih Khánum the only daughter of Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, and Ásíyih Khánum. She was born in 1846 with the given name Fatimih Sultan, and was entitled "Varaqiy-i-'Ulyá" or "Greatest Holy Leaf"...
who was acting head of the faith for a period following the passing of `Abdu'l-Bahá
`Abdu'l-Bahá
‘Abdu’l-Bahá , born ‘Abbás Effendí, was the eldest son of Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith. In 1892, `Abdu'l-Bahá was appointed in his father's will to be his successor and head of the Bahá'í Faith. `Abdu'l-Bahá was born in Tehran to an aristocratic family of the realm...
.
Nakayama Miki
Nakayama Miki
was the Japanese foundress of Tenrikyo who is worshiped by that religion as the Shrine of God the Parent. Tenrikyo is, arguably, the largest current religion to have a woman founder. The official Tenrikyo biography states she was a holy woman born to a wealthy farming family in what is now Nara...
was the founder of Tenrikyo
Tenrikyo
Tenrikyo is a monotheistic religion originating in revelations to a 19th-century Japanese woman named Nakayama Miki, known as Oyasama by followers...
, which may be the largest religion to have a woman founder.
Ellen G. White
Ellen G. White
Ellen Gould White was a prolific author and an American Christian pioneer. She, along with other Sabbatarian Adventist leaders, such as Joseph Bates and her husband James White, would form what is now known as the Seventh-day Adventist Church.Ellen White reported to her fellow believers her...
was instrumental to the founding of the Seventh-day Adventist Church
Seventh-day Adventist Church
The Seventh-day Adventist Church is a Protestant Christian denomination distinguished by its observance of Saturday, the original seventh day of the Judeo-Christian week, as the Sabbath, and by its emphasis on the imminent second coming of Jesus Christ...
and is officially considered a prophet by Seventh-day Adventists.
In particular, White's biblical commentaries and other writings are often considered inspired
Biblical inspiration
Biblical inspiration is the doctrine in Christian theology that the authors and editors of the Bible were led or influenced by God with the result that their writings many be designated in some sense the word of God.- Etymology :...
or even infallible.
Mary Baker Eddy
Mary Baker Eddy
Mary Baker Eddy was the founder of Christian Science , a Protestant American system of religious thought and practice religion adopted by the Church of Christ, Scientist, and others...
was the founder of the Christian Science
Christian Science
Christian Science is a system of thought and practice derived from the writings of Mary Baker Eddy and the Bible. It is practiced by members of The First Church of Christ, Scientist as well as some others who are nonmembers. Its central texts are the Bible and the Christian Science textbook,...
movement.
Segregation
Sex segregation
Sex segregation is the separation of people according to their sex.The term gender apartheid also has been applied to segregation of people by gender, implying that it is sexual discrimination...
.
In traditional Jewish
Judaism
Judaism ) is the "religion, philosophy, and way of life" of the Jewish people...
synagogue
Synagogue
A synagogue is a Jewish house of prayer. This use of the Greek term synagogue originates in the Septuagint where it sometimes translates the Hebrew word for assembly, kahal...
s, the women's section is separated from the men's' section by a wall or curtain called a mechitza
Mechitza
A mechitza in Jewish Halakha is a partition, particularly one that is used to separate men and women....
. Men are not permitted to pray in the presence of women, to prevent distraction. The mechitza shown in the picture on the right is one in a synagogue affiliated with the 'left wing' (more modern side) of Modern Orthodox Judaism
Modern Orthodox Judaism
Modern Orthodox Judaism is a movement within Orthodox Judaism that attempts to synthesize Jewish values and the observance of Jewish law, with the secular, modern world....
, which requires the mechitza to be of the height shown in the picture. More traditional or 'right wing' Modern Orthodox Judaism, and all forms of Haredi Judaism
Haredi Judaism
Haredi or Charedi/Chareidi Judaism is the most conservative form of Orthodox Judaism, often referred to as ultra-Orthodox. A follower of Haredi Judaism is called a Haredi ....
, requires the mechitza to be of a type which absolutely prevents the men from seeing the women.
Enclosed religious orders are usually segregated by gender.
Sex segregation in Islam includes restrictions on interaction between men and women. Men and women also worship separately in mosque
Mosque
A mosque is a place of worship for followers of Islam. The word is likely to have entered the English language through French , from Portuguese , from Spanish , and from Berber , ultimately originating in — . The Arabic word masjid literally means a place of prostration...
s.
Roles in marriage
Nearly all religions recognize marriageMarriage
Marriage is a social union or legal contract between people that creates kinship. It is an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually intimate and sexual, are acknowledged in a variety of ways, depending on the culture or subculture in which it is found...
, and many religions also promote views on appropriate gender role
Gender role
Gender roles refer to the set of social and behavioral norms that are considered to be socially appropriate for individuals of a specific sex in the context of a specific culture, which differ widely between cultures and over time...
s within marriage.
Two notable views are Complementarianism and Christian Egalitarianism
Christian Egalitarianism
Christian Egalitarianism , also known as biblical equality, is a Christian form of the moral doctrine of Egalitarianism. It holds that all human persons are created equally in God's sight—equal in fundamental worth and moral status...
.
In Genesis 3, Adam names his wife Eve ("life") because she "was the mother of all living."
Islam
In IslamGender roles in Islam
In Islam, the sexes are considered equal before God in the complementarian sense. Allah says in verse 13 of chapter 49 in the Holy Qu'ran: "O mankind! We have created you from a male and a female, and made you into nations and tribes, that you may know one another. Verily, the most honourable of...
, a woman's primary responsibility is usually interpreted as fulfilling her role as a wife and mother, whereas women still have the right and are free to work. A man’s role is to work and be able to protect and financially support his wife and family.
Abortion
In some religions abortionAbortion
Abortion is defined as the termination of pregnancy by the removal or expulsion from the uterus of a fetus or embryo prior to viability. An abortion can occur spontaneously, in which case it is usually called a miscarriage, or it can be purposely induced...
is considered to be immoral, the taking of God's gift of life to a child, for the sake of self-interest. The rationale for this view often also involves appeals to mothering responsibilities and privileges considered to be divine gifts to exclusively given to women.
Homosexuality
Homosexuality is expressly forbidden in many religions, but typically in casuisticCasuistry
In applied ethics, casuistry is case-based reasoning. Casuistry is used in juridical and ethical discussions of law and ethics, and often is a critique of principle- or rule-based reasoning...
rather than apodictic laws. As such, the rationale for such proscriptions is not clearly evident, though avoidance of procreation and contribution to society via establishing families are sometimes offered as pragmatic considerations.
Christianity
The feminist study of gender and religion began in the 1960s and '70s, when some scholars and women (e.g., Mary DalyMary Daly
Mary Daly was an American radical feminist philosopher, academic, and theologian. Daly, who described herself as a "radical lesbian feminist", taught at Boston College, a Jesuit-run institution, for 33 years. Daly retired in 1999, after violating university policy by refusing to allow male...
) began to feel increasingly dissatisfied with the position of women in religion. There were two main aspects of traditional religious institutions that were problems for feminists in Christianity:
- Christianity was typically androcentric. The texts, leaders, experiences, and rituals were focused on men, and women were seen as the deviants from the cultural normality.
- It was patriarchal. All of the leaders were men and assumed to be strong and assertive, whereas women were seen as subservient, passive and weak and thus unfit to be in a high position within religion. In support of these claims, feminists have noted that some religious leaders considered women as morally inferior to men, and many have considered women the source of temptations, especially sexual temptations, for men. In traditions where God is considered male, there is sometimes a view that men are more like God than women. For example, in 1 Corinthians 11:7, Paul asserts that man "is the image and glory of God: but the woman is the glory of the man". In some cases leading to a view of male superiority and female inferiority.
Feminism has engaged with Christians in three main ways:
- from outside religions as, often critically or as "Rejectionists", feminist scholars have cited religious texts and practice as evidence of patriarchal institutions within humans societies, antithetical to feminist aims;
- from within religions as "Traditionalists," some members, scholars and leaders sympathetic to feminism have attempted reforms to harmonize contemporary religious thought and practice to be more in line with feminism; and,
- independently of established religion, also as Rejectionists, some feminist thinkers have attempted to construct a theology or range of religious practices based on feminist principles, notably but not restricted to WiccaWiccaWicca , is a modern Pagan religious movement. Developing in England in the first half of the 20th century, Wicca was popularised in the 1950s and early 1960s by a Wiccan High Priest named Gerald Gardner, who at the time called it the "witch cult" and "witchcraft," and its adherents "the Wica."...
, neopaganismNeopaganismNeopaganism is an umbrella term used to identify a wide variety of modern religious movements, particularly those influenced by or claiming to be derived from the various pagan beliefs of pre-modern Europe...
and various New AgeNew AgeThe New Age movement is a Western spiritual movement that developed in the second half of the 20th century. Its central precepts have been described as "drawing on both Eastern and Western spiritual and metaphysical traditions and then infusing them with influences from self-help and motivational...
religions.
In contrast, Christian writer and speaker Paul Coughlin argues that male influence in Christianity is overstated, and moreover that a substantial misandric
Misandry
Misandry is the hatred or dislike of men or boys.Misandry comes from Greek misos and anēr, andros . Misandry is the antonym of philandry, the fondness towards men, love, or admiration of them...
undercurrent has existed in American Protestantism for many decades:
Here are some of the messages Christian men have been told [by religious leaders], some for decades:
- If there is a major problem in a couple's marriage, whether or not it leads to divorce, it is ultimately the husband's fault.
- Women are more moral and spiritual than men.
- Women are more sensitive to the Holy Spirit than men. [...]
...beating up on Christian men in church is good business in Christian media [and husbands] have been told that a "good Christian man" does not confront his wife about her [abusive, self-absorbed or unreasonable] behavior. His spiritual training has told him that accepting abuse is synonymous with sacrifice, so he sits there and takes it.
Feminist theology
Feminist theology is a movement, generally in ChristianityChristianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
and Judaism
Judaism
Judaism ) is the "religion, philosophy, and way of life" of the Jewish people...
, to reconsider the traditions, practices, scriptures, and theologies of their religion from a feminist perspective.
Likewise, those who practice feminist spirituality may adhere to a feminist re-interpretation of Western monotheistic traditions. In these cases, the notion of God
God
God is the English name given to a singular being in theistic and deistic religions who is either the sole deity in monotheism, or a single deity in polytheism....
as having a male gender is rejected, and God is not referred to using male pronouns.
Religious support for gender equality
Some religions, religious scholars and religious have argued that "gender inequality" exists either generally or in certain instances, and have supported a variety of remedies.Pierre Chaunu
Pierre Chaunu
Pierre Chaunu was a French historian. His specialty was Latin American history; he also studied French social and religious history of the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries...
has argued that the influence of Christianity is the main factor leading to equality for women.
Priyamvada Gopal argues that increased gender equality is indeed a product of Judeo-Christian doctrine, but not exclusive to it. She expresses concern that gender equality is used by western countries as a rationale for "neocolonialism
Neocolonialism
Neocolonialism is the practice of using capitalism, globalization, and cultural forces to control a country in lieu of direct military or political control...
".
Jamaine Abidogun argues another interesting perspective: that Judeo-Christian influence has indeed shaped gender roles in Nigeria (a strongly Christianised country), however, she doesn't consider feminism to be a product of Judeo-Christian doctrine, but rather a preferable form of "neocolonialism".
Specific religions
More information on the role of gender in specific religions:- Bahá'í FaithBahá'í FaithThe Bahá'í Faith is a monotheistic religion founded by Bahá'u'lláh in 19th-century Persia, emphasizing the spiritual unity of all humankind. There are an estimated five to six million Bahá'ís around the world in more than 200 countries and territories....
- Bahá'í Faith and gender equalityBahá'í Faith and gender equalityOne of the fundamental teachings of the Bahá'í Faith is that men and women are equal, and that the equality of the sexes is a spiritual and moral standard that is essential for the unification of the planet and the unfoldment of peace. The Bahá'í teachings note the importance of implementing the... - BuddhismBuddhismBuddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
- Women in BuddhismWomen in BuddhismWomen in Buddhism is a topic that can be approached from varied perspectives including those of theology, history, anthropology and feminism. Topical interests include the theological status of women, the treatment of women in Buddhist societies at home and in public, the history of women in... - ChristianityChristianityChristianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
- Women in Christianity- MormonismMormonismMormonism is the religion practiced by Mormons, and is the predominant religious tradition of the Latter Day Saint movement. This movement was founded by Joseph Smith, Jr. beginning in the 1820s as a form of Christian primitivism. During the 1830s and 1840s, Mormonism gradually distinguished itself...
- Women and MormonismWomen and MormonismThe status of women in Mormonism has been a source of public debate since before the death of Joseph Smith, Jr. in 1844. Various denominations within the Latter Day Saint movement have taken different paths on the subject of women and their role in the church and in society...
- Mormonism
- HinduismHinduismHinduism is the predominant and indigenous religious tradition of the Indian Subcontinent. Hinduism is known to its followers as , amongst many other expressions...
- Women in HinduismWomen in HinduismThe role of women in Hinduism is often disputed, and positions range from equal status with men to restrictive. Hinduism is based on numerous texts, some of which date back to 2000 BCE or earlier. They are varied in authority, authenticity, content and theme, with the most authoritative being the... - IslamIslamIslam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
- Women in IslamWomen in IslamThe study of women in Islam investigates the role of women within the religion of Islam. The complex relationship between women and Islam is defined by Islamic texts, the history and culture of the Muslim world... - JudaismJudaismJudaism ) is the "religion, philosophy, and way of life" of the Jewish people...
- Gender and JudaismGender and JudaismGender and Judaism is an emerging subfield at the intersection of gender studies and Jewish studies. Gender studies centers on interdisciplinary research on the phenomenon of gender. It focuses on cultural representations of gender and people's lived experience...
, Women in Judaism - SikhismSikhismSikhism is a monotheistic religion founded during the 15th century in the Punjab region, by Guru Nanak Dev and continued to progress with ten successive Sikh Gurus . It is the fifth-largest organized religion in the world and one of the fastest-growing...
- Women in SikhismWomen in SikhismThe role of women in Sikhism is outlined in the Sikh scriptures, which state that the Sikh woman is to be regarded as equal to the Sikh man. In Sikhism, women are considered to have the same souls as men and an equal right to grow spiritually...
External links
- Women in the Bible by the Atheist Foundation of Australia Inc