General aviation in the United Kingdom
Encyclopedia
General aviation in the United Kingdom has been defined as a civil aircraft operation
other than a commercial air transport
flight operating to a schedule. Although the International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO) excludes any form of remunerated aviation from its definition, some commercial operations are often included within the scope of general aviation
(GA) in the UK
. The sector operates business jet
s, rotorcraft
, piston
and jet-engined fixed-wing aircraft
, gliders
of all descriptions, and lighter than air
craft. Public transport operations include business (or corporate) aviation and air taxi
services, and account for nearly half of the economic contribution made by the sector. Other commercial GA activities are aerial work, such as surveying
and air ambulances
, and flight training
, which plays an important role in the supply of pilots to the commercial air transport (CAT) industry. Private flying
is conducted for personal transport and recreation. It includes a strong vintage aircraft movement, and encompasses a range of air sports
, such as racing, aerobatics
, and parachuting
, at which British teams and individuals have succeeded in international competition.
Of the 21,000 civil aircraft registered in the UK, 96 per cent are engaged in GA operations, and annually the GA fleet accounts for between 1.25 and 1.35 million hours flown. The single most common class of aircraft is the fixed-wing light aircraft
associated with traditional GA, but the main area of growth over the last 20 years has been in the use of more affordable aircraft, such as microlights
, amateur built
aeroplanes, and smaller helicopters. There are 28,000 Private Pilot Licence holders, and 10,000 certified glider pilots. Some of the 19,000 pilots who hold professional licences are also engaged in GA activities. Although GA operates from more than 1,800 aerodrome
s and landing sites, ranging in size from large regional airports to farm strips, over 80 per cent of GA activity is conducted at 134 of the larger aerodromes. The GA industry, which is around 7 per cent the size of its CAT cousin, employs 12,000 people, and contributes £1.4 billion to the UK economy.
GA is regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), although regulatory powers are being increasingly transferred to the European Aviation Safety Agency
(EASA). The main focus is on standards of airworthiness
and pilot licensing
, and the objective is to promote high standards of safety. At the lighter end of the GA spectrum some regulatory authority is devolved to representative bodies, and gliding
is in transition from a self-regulatory model to more formal governance by EASA. Airspace
regulation necessary to protect an increasing number of CAT operations has reduced the area in which GA flights can be freely conducted. The growth in CAT is also making access to larger airports more difficult for the GA sector, and smaller aerodromes are vulnerable to closure and re-development for more profitable uses. The UK planning system
has no remit to consider the national significance of GA public transport operations, and generally does not favour the development of smaller aerodromes catering to the GA market. The planning process has become a mechanism for addressing local aerodrome-related environmental issues which, particularly regarding noise, are the main subjects of public criticism levelled at GA.
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The International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO) defines general aviation
(GA) as "an aircraft operation other than a commercial air transport operation or an aerial work operation." It defines commercial air transport
(CAT) as "an aircraft operation involving the transport of passengers, cargo or mail for remuneration or hire", and aerial work as "an aircraft operation in which an aircraft is used for specialized services such as agriculture, construction, photography, surveying, observation and patrol, search and rescue, aerial advertisement, etc."
Organisations in the United Kingdom
(UK) describe GA in less restrictive terms that include elements of commercial aviation
. The British Business and General Aviation Association
interprets it to be "all aeroplane and helicopter flying except that performed by the major airlines and the Armed Services". The General Aviation Awareness Council applies the description "all Civil Aviation operations other than scheduled air services and non-scheduled air transport operations for remuneration or hire". For the purposes of a strategic review of GA in the UK, the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) defined the scope of GA as "a civil aircraft operation other than a commercial air transport flight operating to a schedule", and considered it necessary to depart from the ICAO definition and include aerial work and minor CAT operations.
The first aerodrome
in the UK was established by the Aero Club
at Muswell Manor on the Isle of Sheppey
, and in May 1909 it was the venue of the first flight conducted in the country by a British pilot
, John Moore-Brabazon
. In 1910 the Aero Club was granted the Royal prefix, took responsibility for controlling all private flying
in the UK, and started issuing the first British pilot licences. The introduction of the de Havilland DH.60 Moth
in 1925 revolutionised light aviation, and the Royal Aero Club, recognising the "vital necessity of promoting civil flying", formed the Light Aeroplane Club scheme. Between 1925 and 1939 around 60 flying club
s were started, and more than 5,000 pilots were trained.
During World War II
civil aerodromes were taken over for military use, existing military airfields were expanded, and new ones were built. This resulted in a significant inventory of facilities becoming available after the war. Pre-war civil aerodromes, for example Sywell
, were returned to civilian use. Surplus military airfields were closed, and in some cases, for example Beccles
, subsequently re-opened as civil aerodromes. The Ministry of Civil Aviation was created to regulate all civil aviation
in the UK, and this task remained the responsibility of government departments until the establishment of the independent CAA in 1972.
With an expanded infrastructure in place, GA became established after the war when manufacturers such as Cessna
and Piper introduced light aircraft
designed for the private market. The Cessna 172
, developed from the late 1940s Cessna 170
, was introduced in 1956, and became the world's best selling single-engine aeroplane. Single piston
-engine aircraft are still the most common class of aircraft in the UK GA fleet. The development of the Rogallo wing
in the 1950s fostered the development of hang-gliding during the 1960s and 1970s. The 1960s also saw experiments with motorised hang gliders
, but it was not until the 1970s that this blend of technologies started to mature, resulting in the birth of the microlight
movement. Another milestone in the development of GA was the 1964 introduction of the Learjet 23
. Although it was not the first business jet
, it popularised corporate aviation, and established the personal jet as a "whole new class of aircraft".
The GA sector operates a range of aircraft, including balloons
and airship
s, gliders
, hang gliders, paragliders
, microlights, gyrocopters
, helicopters, amateur built
and mass-produced light aircraft, ex-military aircraft
, and business jets. Flights can be broadly categorised as public transport, aerial work, and private flying, the first two of which are commercial activities.
travel. Air taxi
operations offer charter services for third parties, and business or corporate aviation uses company-owned aircraft to transport employees and clients. Aircraft used in these operations include business jets, helicopters, and twin piston-engine aeroplanes carrying between six and ten people. An example of this type of operation is the transport by helicopter of spectators to the British Formula One
grand prix at Silverstone
. This involves so many flights that, according to Cranfield Aviation Services, on race day the heliport is temporarily the world’s busiest airport. Aerial work is a small but important component of the commercial GA sector, characterised in its simplest form as remunerated non-transport activities, such as surveying
, crop spraying
, and emergency services work (air ambulance
and police
).
, both for recreational purposes and for those intending to fly professionally. They make widespread use of fixed-wing
light aircraft associated with traditional GA, not only for flying lessons but also as club aircraft rented out to qualified pilots for recreational flights. School-owned aircraft account for a significant amount of GA activity, both in terms of hours flown and aircraft movements. The pilot training element is regarded by the GA community as a key benefit that is critical to the supply of pilots for the airline industry. It is claimed by the General Aviation Awareness Council that 60–70 per cent of professional pilots have self-financed their flight training at GA schools, and one UK airline operator has stated that the industry must rely on 70–80 per cent of new pilots coming from the GA sector. The CAA estimates that between 1996 and 2006 the number of new professional pilots following the unsponsored training route rose from 48 per cent to 59 per cent. The counter argument to this claim is that pilots can be trained outside of the UK, and that the airline industry is not therefore dependent on a healthy GA sector in the UK for its supply of pilots. The CAA concludes that a severe reduction in GA would give "some merit to the argument that pilot recruitment would be threatened", but that the data on flying hours "does not support such a gloomy outlook." Of course, reliance on other countries for pilot training means that the UK foregoes the economic benefit of the training activity.
Private flying is most associated with the traditional form of factory-produced two and four-seater, single piston-engine training and touring aircraft. Examples of these are the Cessna 152
, Cessna 172, and Piper PA28 Cherokee
, all with their origins in the 1950s, and the more modern designs of Cirrus
. The average cost per hour to fly such aircraft has been estimated to be £133, compared to an estimated £77 per hour for gliders, and a reported £35 per hour for microlights. Recent trends have seen an increase in the use of microlights, and also in recreational helicopter flying following the introduction of smaller and cheaper machines such as the Robinson R22
and R44
. Another growth area in private flying in recent years has been in the use of amateur built aircraft, such as the Van's Aircraft RV-4
and the Europa
.
There is a strong vintage aircraft movement in the UK, with two-thirds of the 500 registered historic aircraft active. These cover the whole spectrum of civil and military aviation, examples being the de Havilland Dragon Rapide
airliner of the 1930s, and the World War II
(WWII) Spitfire
fighter. There are many post-WWII aircraft which could also be considered historic under a looser definition, including for example 60 ex-military jets such as the Hawker Hunter
. Historic aircraft are regular exhibits at air displays
, which are claimed to be the second most popular spectator activity after football in the UK.
Competitive gliding
in the UK takes place between May and September. Regionals are local competitions, organised and run by one of the bigger gliding clubs in the region, and represent the entry level to glider racing. Races are handicapped according to glider performance, and normally take place over nine days. Success in the regionals allows pilots to progress to the nationals, where there are five classes
of competition. These are based on glider performance, the lowest being club class, and then progressing through standard (maximum 15 metres (49.2 ft) wingspan
, and flaps
not permitted), 15 metres (49.2 ft) (as standard, but flaps are permitted), 18 metres (59.1 ft) (maximum 18 metres (59.1 ft) wingspan), and finally open-class (no restrictions). Success at national level can lead to a place in the national team and competition at international level. In 2007 the British gliding team was ranked number one, and British pilots took two women's world championships
and the open class European championship
.
Handicapped
air racing
is open to any propeller-driven aircraft capable of maintaining a minimum speed of 100 miles (160.9 km) per hour in level flight. Races are a case of "fly low, fly fast, turn left", consisting of 4–5 laps round a 20–25 mile (32–40 km) circuit. Faster aircraft are handicapped by starting after slower aircraft, the intention being that the race concludes with all aircraft diving for the finish line together. There are up to seven races per year, conducted at airfields in the UK, France
and the Channel Islands
, for prizes that include the Schneider Trophy
and King's Cup
, and the season culminates with the British Air Racing and European Air Racing Championships.
Aerobatic competitions
take place for both powered aircraft and gliders, with up to 30 events each year in the UK and Ireland
. Starting at the Beginner level, pilots can move up to Standard (powered aircraft) or Sports (glider) levels, and then on to Intermediate, Advanced, and finally Unlimited classes. Each step up requires a wider repertoire of aerobatic
figures and progressively more performance from the aircraft. National championships are awarded annually at Standard/Sports, Intermediate, Advanced (powered aircraft only), and Unlimited levels, and pilots who have reached Advanced and Unlimited levels are eligible for selection to represent the UK in international competition.
Parachute
competitions are held at club, regional, national and international levels, and include the disciplines of accuracy landing
s, freefall gymnastics
, formation skydiving
, canopy formation
, freestyle
and freeflying
, and skysurfing
. British teams consistently win medals in canopy formation world championships, and a British team took the 2006 world championship in women's 4-way formation skydiving.
Aerodrome is a collective term for any location from which flying operations take place, although more specific terminology can be used to characterise its purpose. The CAA strategic review of GA applies the term airport
to locations which predominantly support large scale commercial operations, and airfield to locations which predominantly support GA operations. The General Aviation Small Aerodrome Research Study (GASAR) analysed 687 aerodromes in England
which come under the scope of GA, classifying 374 into six types. These range in size from regional airports to the smallest farm strip, although 84 per cent of GA flights operate from 134 of the larger aerodromes in the first four categories.
); developed GA airfields (e.g. Andrewsfield); basic GA airfields (e.g. Rufforth
); developed airstrips (e.g. Tilstock
); and basic airstrips.
Airports generally have long, fully lit, hard-surfaced runways, full air traffic control
, and navigation
and landing
aids. They are usually located on urban fringes, support commercial and business operations, and often exclude certain types of light aircraft. At the more rurally located airfields, the lighter end of aviation, such as microlight and gliding activities, becomes increasingly prevalent, and there are few or no commercial operations other than flying schools. At this level runways are generally shorter, and grass surfaces are increasingly common. Navigation aids are increasingly scarce, being more basic where they are available, and informal ground to air radio communication replaces air traffic control. The smallest airfields are too small to feature on general purpose Ordnance Survey
(OS) maps, and lack basic facilities such as fuel and maintenance. The majority of airstrips are basically single short grass runways with no supporting facilities, although the presence of a hangar is not uncommon at the larger examples. They do not feature on OS maps, and are owned by private clubs or, more commonly, individuals.
and Duxford
, are licensed, and all airstrips are unlicensed. The Light Aviation Airports Study Group, a joint CAA-industry initiative, was established in 2005 to review the regulation of light aviation aerodromes. A particular focus of this group was a review of the restrictions placed on unlicensed aerodromes. The group concluded that the requirement for public transport operations to be conducted only from licensed aerodromes should be further reviewed in the context of corresponding international and European requirements. It also recommended that restrictions on flight training at unlicensed aerodromes should be lifted, and this was permitted from April 2010
There are an estimated 27,000 civil aircraft registered in the UK, 96 per cent of which are engaged in GA activities. In 2005 the GA fleet comprised 9,000 fixed-wing aircraft, 4,100 microlights, 1,300 helicopters, 1,800 airships/balloons, 2,500 gliders and some 7,000 hang gliders. Estimates put the number of foreign-registered GA aircraft based in the UK at 900.
The number of pilots licensed by the CAA to fly powered aircraft in 2005 was 47,000, of whom 28,000 held a Private Pilot Licence. The remainder held professional pilot licences, either a Commercial Pilot Licence
or an Airline Transport Pilot Licence, although not all of these would be engaged in GA activities. In addition, there are 10,000 active glider pilots, and estimates put the membership of aviation-related sport and recreational associations at 36,000.
The number of aerodromes that support GA in the UK is difficult to establish with certainty. Pooleys 2008 United Kingdom Flight Guide lists 355, and the Airplan Flight Equipment UK VFR Flight Guide 2008 lists nearly 500. Lockyears Farm 'Strips' and Private Airfields Flight Guide lists more than 300 landing sites. The GASAR study estimates 1,100 formal flying sites in England alone, a figure which includes 400 sites known to planning authorities but not included in flight guides. It estimates another 759 informal sites known only to land owners, customs, and members of the enthusiast group Air-Britain.
The sector was estimated to employ nearly 12,000 people and directly contribute £1.4 billion to the UK economy in 2005, making it roughly seven per cent of the size of the CAT industry. Nearly half of the economic contribution was generated by business aviation.
Most sectors of GA for which data are available have experienced growth in aircraft numbers and hours flown over the last two decades. The lighter end of the GA spectrum: microlights, amateur built, and airships and balloons, have in particular shown strong growth, although the last of these activities was severely curtailed during the foot-and-mouth outbreak in 2001, when access to farmland was denied . After strong growth in the late 1980s, traditional flying has shown a slight decline recently, reflecting a move amongst recreational flyers towards microlight aircraft, and increased numbers of foreign-registered aircraft. Recreational helicopter usage has grown primarily due to the introduction of smaller and cheaper aircraft. Glider activity has remained relatively static, although there has been a gradual increase in the number of self-launching motor gliders
.
Business aviation has shown strong growth, although the numbers of aircraft on the UK register have declined. This reflects a shift away from turboprop
aircraft towards foreign-registered business jets based in the UK, which are estimated to be growing in numbers. However, twin piston-engined aircraft numbers have declined significantly, reflecting pressures on the light air-taxi segment from increasingly flexible and cheaper scheduled services, and a more sophisticated corporate charter business. The amount of flight training conducted by UK schools has declined, largely at the hands of competition from foreign schools, which benefit from lower costs and better weather.
Since 1990 the total number of hours flown annually by the GA sector has remained in the range 1.25–1.35 million, the dominant sector being traditional GA flying, which accounts for 0.6 million per year. An overall increase in aircraft numbers combined with nil growth in hours flown has brought the annual average utilisation per aircraft down from 157 hours in 1984 to 103 hours in 2002. The decline in asset utilisation has led to speculation that the economic health of the GA industry is weakening, though the lack of data on profitability makes this difficult to confirm.
The objective of regulation is to "promote high standards of safety in all aspects of aviation", and this is the main area of interaction between the CAA and the GA sector. Efforts focus on assuring appropriate standards of airworthiness
, pilot qualification
, the rules for the movement of aircraft, and equipment to be carried. The CAA was established as the primary regulatory body for all aviation in the UK in 1972. In 1991 it started working within the Joint Aviation Authorities
(JAA) framework to implement agreed common standards, known as the Joint Aviation Requirements (JAR), throughout the European Union
(EU). In 2003 this was taken a step further when the European Aviation Safety Agency
(EASA) was established as the central EU regulator, taking over responsibility for legislating airworthiness and environmental regulation from the national authorities. The CAA acts as an agency of EASA on these issues, retaining its original regulatory powers in areas not yet transferred to EASA. Proposed developments seek to establish EASA as the single authority throughout the EU, taking over from individual member states the power to regulate all aviation other than that specifically excluded from the scope of EASA.
, although the aircraft used in this activity are generally CAA-regulated. Balloon and airship flying is overseen by the British Balloon and Airship Club. The UK-specific National Private Pilot Licence (NPPL) is administered by the National Pilots Licensing Group Ltd., supported by the LAA, the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association
UK, the British Gliding Association
, and the British Microlight Aircraft Association. Separate from these devolved groups, gliding in the UK is self-regulated. The British Gliding Association was until recently responsible for glider airworthiness, now formally regulated as a result of EASA legislation, and still retains control of pilot certification. Hang gliding and paragliding activities (i.e. foot-launched gliders) are governed by the British Hang Gliding and Paragliding Association.
only. A number of organisations (e.g. the British Microlight Aircraft Association and the
Light Aircraft Association) have obtained a standing over-flight permission for Permit
to Fly aircraft within their area of interest with some European countries, notably
France. Permits are typically issued to vintage and historic aircraft, amateur built aircraft, and microlights.
(NPPL) was introduced in 2002. The NPPL is easier to obtain than the JAR-FCL licence, has less stringent medical requirements, is more restrictive in the privileges it grants, and is valid only for flights in British-registered aircraft flying in UK and French airspace. Although there are plans to bring glider pilot licensing within the regulatory framework of EASA, the gliding sector is currently self-regulating in this respect. The British Gliding Association is responsible for defining the standards of initial training, and certifying, via a badge system, pilots who meet those standards. Pilots working in sectors of GA that are commercial operations, such as aerial work and business aviation, are required to hold a professional pilot licence which, at a minimum, is the Commercial Pilot Licence.
Between 1995 and 2004 there were 2,630 accidents involving GA aircraft, of which 139 were fatal, resulting in the loss of 317 lives. The majority of accidents involved small fixed-wing aircraft engaged in private flights, and analysis attributes the most common causes of these to: flight handling skills; poor judgement or airmanship
; lack of training or experience; and omission of, or inappropriate, action.
There were 27 fatal accidents involving GA aircraft in 2007, resulting in the loss of 48 lives. These compare with 16 accidents claiming a total of 19 lives the previous year, and although the 2007 statistics are higher than average, they are not exceptional.
is designed to focus on local issues, and consideration of the national impact of GA operations is not within its remit. This makes aerodrome development difficult, often subjecting those that successfully negotiate the process to restrictions in use.
Airspace
is shared by CAT, military
and GA users. It is divided into controlled airspace
, in which aircraft must always be under the control of an air traffic controller
, and uncontrolled airspace
, in which aircraft can operate autonomously. Although GA flights can under certain conditions enter controlled airspace, they operate mainly outside of it.
Controlled airspace is essential for the provision of a known air traffic environment necessary for the safe operation of CAT, and mixing operations with other users is "considered undesirable, even untenable".. However this position turned out to be fundamentally flawed. It resulted in extensive Class A airspace with over-complex boundaries, including some running down to the ground, prohibiting VFR access to airspace, resulting in high numbers of GA activity operating close to the borders of controlled airspace who were not in formal receipt of any service. Coupled with pilot navigation errors, hundreds of airspace infringements have been recorded every year.
Increases in the number of CAT operations, and in the number of airports they operate from, has resulted in a corresponding increase in controlled airspace. Between 1997 and 2006 this area grew in size from 13 per cent of all airspace to 22 per cent nationally, and from 24 per cent to 43 per cent in airspace above England and Wales
, leading to a perception within the GA community of being squeezed out. There are particular problems for GA around large airports, where controlled airspace extends to ground level. The concentration of commercial operations and high demand for GA in the South East of England have also resulted in extensive areas of controlled airspace there, which serve to channel uncontrolled GA operations through high-collision-risk hot spots.
Regional airports, such as Southampton Airport
, have experienced strong growth in CAT operations in recent years. These operations are commercially and operationally incompatible with GA, and although there is no evidence of unfair discrimination, the effect has been to discourage or exclude it. GA aircraft are being subject to significant increases in charges, including the imposition of handling fees in some cases. Some airports restrict or deny GA parking, and others limit or refuse certain GA activity.. As a result almost all light GA aircraft is no longer found at large, busy international airports such as Heathrow, Stansted, Gatwick and Manchester.
In addition to this de facto loss of facilities, the number of aerodromes in the UK has been in decline over the last 50 years, as a result of increasing urbanisation and the rationalisation of WWII airfields. Alternative and more profitable uses for land can also lead to existing aerodromes being threatened with closure, for example North Weald
, or actually being closed, as happened to Ipswich Airport
. Referring to the importance of a "functioning national network of GA airfields", especially where GA performs an air transport role, the CAA states that "there could be cause for concern if a significant further loss of airfields were to continue, especially if crucial nodes on the transport network were to be lost."
, and most planning decisions relating to GA either refuse permission, or grant it with restrictive conditions. Little Gransden
is just one example of a GA airfield required to comply with planning restrictions on the number of movements permitted, thereby inhibiting further development. Such restrictions, if poorly conceived, can make GA operations unviable or even unsafe.
Public opinion towards aviation generally is worsening, based on increasing environmental concerns
relating to emissions and noise
, and private flying has been criticised by respondents to a government consultation on aircraft noise as a frivolous or selfish activity. In terms of environmental complaints and enquiries made to the CAA that relate specifically to GA, noise is "by far" the most common subject. Half of the 2,000 noise complaints made annually to the CAA concern GA operations, most of which relate to aerobatics, helicopters using private sites, air balloon incidents, parachute dropping, and alleged low flying.
Planning guidance on aircraft noise advises that "in some circumstances the public perceive general aircraft noise levels as more disturbing than similar levels around major airports." This is a result of the tonal characteristics of light aircraft engines and the activities they are engaged in, including: repetitive circuit flying
at low-altitude near an aerodrome, during which aircraft are audible for long periods; slow climbing aircraft engaged in parachute drop or glider tug activities concentrated around the drop zone
or aerodrome, also audible for long periods; erratic and repetitive engine noise from aircraft engaged in aerobatics; and piston-engines on full power in areas of low background noise, leading to the perception that such noise is more intrusive. In an attempt to alleviate these problems, the majority of aerodromes implement noise abatement procedures designed to route aircraft away from noise sensitive areas, and more than 50 are required by the government to provide consultative facilities in which local concerns can be raised with aerodrome operators.
Civil aviation
Civil aviation is one of two major categories of flying, representing all non-military aviation, both private and commercial. Most of the countries in the world are members of the International Civil Aviation Organization and work together to establish common standards and recommended practices...
other than a commercial air transport
Airline
An airline provides air transport services for traveling passengers and freight. Airlines lease or own their aircraft with which to supply these services and may form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for mutual benefit...
flight operating to a schedule. Although the International Civil Aviation Organization
International Civil Aviation Organization
The International Civil Aviation Organization , pronounced , , is a specialized agency of the United Nations. It codifies the principles and techniques of international air navigation and fosters the planning and development of international air transport to ensure safe and orderly growth...
(ICAO) excludes any form of remunerated aviation from its definition, some commercial operations are often included within the scope of general aviation
General aviation
General aviation is one of the two categories of civil aviation. It refers to all flights other than military and scheduled airline and regular cargo flights, both private and commercial. General aviation flights range from gliders and powered parachutes to large, non-scheduled cargo jet flights...
(GA) in the UK
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
. The sector operates business jet
Business jet
Business jet, private jet or, colloquially, bizjet is a term describing a jet aircraft, usually of smaller size, designed for transporting groups of up to 19 business people or wealthy individuals...
s, rotorcraft
Rotorcraft
A rotorcraft or rotary wing aircraft is a heavier-than-air flying machine that uses lift generated by wings, called rotor blades, that revolve around a mast. Several rotor blades mounted to a single mast are referred to as a rotor. The International Civil Aviation Organization defines a rotorcraft...
, piston
Reciprocating engine
A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is a heat engine that uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. This article describes the common features of all types...
and jet-engined fixed-wing aircraft
Fixed-wing aircraft
A fixed-wing aircraft is an aircraft capable of flight using wings that generate lift due to the vehicle's forward airspeed. Fixed-wing aircraft are distinct from rotary-wing aircraft in which wings rotate about a fixed mast and ornithopters in which lift is generated by flapping wings.A powered...
, gliders
Glider aircraft
Glider aircraft are heavier-than-air craft that are supported in flight by the dynamic reaction of the air against their lifting surfaces, and whose free flight does not depend on an engine. Mostly these types of aircraft are intended for routine operation without engines, though engine failure can...
of all descriptions, and lighter than air
Aerostat
An aerostat is a craft that remains aloft primarily through the use of buoyant lighter than air gases, which impart lift to a vehicle with nearly the same overall density as air. Aerostats include free balloons, airships, and moored balloons...
craft. Public transport operations include business (or corporate) aviation and air taxi
Air taxi
An air taxi is an air charter passenger or cargo aircraft which operates on an on-demand basis.-Regulation:In the United States, air taxi and air charter operations are governed by Part 135 of the Federal Aviation Regulations , unlike the larger scheduled air carriers which are governed by more...
services, and account for nearly half of the economic contribution made by the sector. Other commercial GA activities are aerial work, such as surveying
Aerial survey
Aerial survey is a geomatics method of collecting information by using aerial photography, LiDAR or from remote sensing imagery using other bands of the electromagnetic spectrum, such as infrared, gamma, or ultraviolet. It can also refer to the chart or map made by analysing a region from the air...
and air ambulances
Air Ambulances in the United Kingdom
There are a number of air ambulance services in the United Kingdom using either helicopters or fixed-wing aircraft. Thirty helicopters, all operated by commercial companies and funded by charitable organisations, cover England and Wales...
, and flight training
Flight training
Flight training is a course of study used when learning to pilot an aircraft. The overall purpose of primary and intermediate flight training is the acquisition and honing of basic airmanship skills....
, which plays an important role in the supply of pilots to the commercial air transport (CAT) industry. Private flying
Private aviation
Private aviation is the part of civil aviation that does not include flying for hire. In most countries, private flights are always general aviation flights, but the opposite is not true: many general aviation flights are commercial in that the pilot is hired and paid...
is conducted for personal transport and recreation. It includes a strong vintage aircraft movement, and encompasses a range of air sports
Air sports
The term Air sports covers a range of aerial activities such as:* Aerobatics* Ballooning* General aviation including Air racing* Gliding* Hang gliding* Human powered aircraft* Model aircraft* Parachuting* Paragliding...
, such as racing, aerobatics
Aerobatics
Aerobatics is the practice of flying maneuvers involving aircraft attitudes that are not used in normal flight. Aerobatics are performed in airplanes and gliders for training, recreation, entertainment and sport...
, and parachuting
Parachuting
Parachuting, also known as skydiving, is the action of exiting an aircraft and returning to earth with the aid of a parachute. It may or may not involve a certain amount of free-fall, a time during which the parachute has not been deployed and the body gradually accelerates to terminal...
, at which British teams and individuals have succeeded in international competition.
Of the 21,000 civil aircraft registered in the UK, 96 per cent are engaged in GA operations, and annually the GA fleet accounts for between 1.25 and 1.35 million hours flown. The single most common class of aircraft is the fixed-wing light aircraft
Light aircraft
A light aircraft is an aircraft that has a maximum gross take-off weight of or less.Many aircraft used commercially for freight, sightseeing, photography and scheduled flights are light aircraft.Examples of light aircraft include:...
associated with traditional GA, but the main area of growth over the last 20 years has been in the use of more affordable aircraft, such as microlights
Ultralight aviation
The term "ultralight aviation" refers to light-weight, 1- or 2-person airplanes., also called microlight aircraft in the UK, India and New Zealand...
, amateur built
Homebuilt aircraft
Also known as amateur-built aircraft or kit planes, homebuilt aircraft are constructed by persons for whom this is not a professional activity. These aircraft may be constructed from "scratch," from plans, or from assembly kits.-Overview:...
aeroplanes, and smaller helicopters. There are 28,000 Private Pilot Licence holders, and 10,000 certified glider pilots. Some of the 19,000 pilots who hold professional licences are also engaged in GA activities. Although GA operates from more than 1,800 aerodrome
Aerodrome
An aerodrome, airdrome or airfield is a term for any location from which aircraft flight operations take place, regardless of whether they involve cargo, passengers or neither...
s and landing sites, ranging in size from large regional airports to farm strips, over 80 per cent of GA activity is conducted at 134 of the larger aerodromes. The GA industry, which is around 7 per cent the size of its CAT cousin, employs 12,000 people, and contributes £1.4 billion to the UK economy.
GA is regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), although regulatory powers are being increasingly transferred to the European Aviation Safety Agency
European Aviation Safety Agency
The European Aviation Safety Agency is an agency of the European Union with offices in Cologne, Germany, which has been given regulatory and executive tasks in the field of civilian aviation safety. It was created on 15 July 2002, and it reached full functionality in 2008, taking over functions...
(EASA). The main focus is on standards of airworthiness
Airworthiness
Airworthiness is a term used to describe whether an aircraft has been certified as suitable for safe flight. Certification is initially conferred by a Certificate of Airworthiness from a National Airworthiness Authority, and is maintained by performing required maintenance actions by a licensed...
and pilot licensing
Pilot licensing in the United Kingdom
Pilot licensing in the United Kingdom is regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority under the auspices of the Joint Aviation Authorities and European Aviation Safety Agency. Each member nation in the EU has responsibility for regulating their own pilot licensing...
, and the objective is to promote high standards of safety. At the lighter end of the GA spectrum some regulatory authority is devolved to representative bodies, and gliding
Gliding
Gliding is a recreational activity and competitive air sport in which pilots fly unpowered aircraft known as gliders or sailplanes using naturally occurring currents of rising air in the atmosphere to remain airborne. The word soaring is also used for the sport.Gliding as a sport began in the 1920s...
is in transition from a self-regulatory model to more formal governance by EASA. Airspace
Airspace
Airspace means the portion of the atmosphere controlled by a country above its territory, including its territorial waters or, more generally, any specific three-dimensional portion of the atmosphere....
regulation necessary to protect an increasing number of CAT operations has reduced the area in which GA flights can be freely conducted. The growth in CAT is also making access to larger airports more difficult for the GA sector, and smaller aerodromes are vulnerable to closure and re-development for more profitable uses. The UK planning system
Town and country planning in the United Kingdom
Town and Country Planning is the land use planning system governments use to balance economic development and environmental quality. Each country of the United Kingdom has its own planning system that is responsible for town and country planning devolved to the Northern Ireland Assembly, the...
has no remit to consider the national significance of GA public transport operations, and generally does not favour the development of smaller aerodromes catering to the GA market. The planning process has become a mechanism for addressing local aerodrome-related environmental issues which, particularly regarding noise, are the main subjects of public criticism levelled at GA.
Definitions
International Civil Aviation Organization
The International Civil Aviation Organization , pronounced , , is a specialized agency of the United Nations. It codifies the principles and techniques of international air navigation and fosters the planning and development of international air transport to ensure safe and orderly growth...
(ICAO) defines general aviation
General aviation
General aviation is one of the two categories of civil aviation. It refers to all flights other than military and scheduled airline and regular cargo flights, both private and commercial. General aviation flights range from gliders and powered parachutes to large, non-scheduled cargo jet flights...
(GA) as "an aircraft operation other than a commercial air transport operation or an aerial work operation." It defines commercial air transport
Airline
An airline provides air transport services for traveling passengers and freight. Airlines lease or own their aircraft with which to supply these services and may form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for mutual benefit...
(CAT) as "an aircraft operation involving the transport of passengers, cargo or mail for remuneration or hire", and aerial work as "an aircraft operation in which an aircraft is used for specialized services such as agriculture, construction, photography, surveying, observation and patrol, search and rescue, aerial advertisement, etc."
Organisations in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
(UK) describe GA in less restrictive terms that include elements of commercial aviation
Commercial aviation
Commercial aviation is the part of civil aviation that involves operating aircraft for hire to transport passengers or cargo...
. The British Business and General Aviation Association
BBGA
The British Business and General Aviation Association is a non-profit corporation based in the United Kingdom, and is the UK's National Trade Body representing companies operating and trading in the General & Business Aviation Industry.-History:...
interprets it to be "all aeroplane and helicopter flying except that performed by the major airlines and the Armed Services". The General Aviation Awareness Council applies the description "all Civil Aviation operations other than scheduled air services and non-scheduled air transport operations for remuneration or hire". For the purposes of a strategic review of GA in the UK, the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) defined the scope of GA as "a civil aircraft operation other than a commercial air transport flight operating to a schedule", and considered it necessary to depart from the ICAO definition and include aerial work and minor CAT operations.
History
Aerodrome
An aerodrome, airdrome or airfield is a term for any location from which aircraft flight operations take place, regardless of whether they involve cargo, passengers or neither...
in the UK was established by the Aero Club
Royal Aero Club
The Royal Aero Club is the national co-ordinating body for Air Sport in the United Kingdom.The Aero Club was founded in 1901 by Frank Hedges Butler, his daughter Vera and the Hon Charles Rolls , partly inspired by the Aero Club of France...
at Muswell Manor on the Isle of Sheppey
Isle of Sheppey
The Isle of Sheppey is an island off the northern coast of Kent, England in the Thames Estuary, some to the east of London. It has an area of . The island forms part of the local government district of Swale...
, and in May 1909 it was the venue of the first flight conducted in the country by a British pilot
Aviator
An aviator is a person who flies an aircraft. The first recorded use of the term was in 1887, as a variation of 'aviation', from the Latin avis , coined in 1863 by G. de la Landelle in Aviation Ou Navigation Aérienne...
, John Moore-Brabazon
John Moore-Brabazon, 1st Baron Brabazon of Tara
John Theodore Cuthbert Moore-Brabazon, 1st Baron Brabazon of Tara, GBE, MC, PC was an English aviation pioneer and Conservative politician...
. In 1910 the Aero Club was granted the Royal prefix, took responsibility for controlling all private flying
Private aviation
Private aviation is the part of civil aviation that does not include flying for hire. In most countries, private flights are always general aviation flights, but the opposite is not true: many general aviation flights are commercial in that the pilot is hired and paid...
in the UK, and started issuing the first British pilot licences. The introduction of the de Havilland DH.60 Moth
De Havilland DH.60 Moth
The de Havilland DH 60 Moth was a 1920s British two-seat touring and training aircraft that was developed into a series of aircraft by the de Havilland Aircraft Company.-Development:The DH 60 was developed from the larger DH 51 biplane...
in 1925 revolutionised light aviation, and the Royal Aero Club, recognising the "vital necessity of promoting civil flying", formed the Light Aeroplane Club scheme. Between 1925 and 1939 around 60 flying club
Flying club
A flying club or aero club is a not for profit, member run organization that provides its members with affordable access to aircraft.Many clubs also provide flight training, flight planning facilities, pilot supplies and associated services, as well as organizing social functions, fly-ins and...
s were started, and more than 5,000 pilots were trained.
During World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
civil aerodromes were taken over for military use, existing military airfields were expanded, and new ones were built. This resulted in a significant inventory of facilities becoming available after the war. Pre-war civil aerodromes, for example Sywell
Sywell Aerodrome
Sywell Aerodrome is the local aerodrome serving Northampton, Wellingborough and Kettering as it is situated midway between these towns. The airport is located northeast of Northampton and was originally opened in 1928 on the edge of Sywell village....
, were returned to civilian use. Surplus military airfields were closed, and in some cases, for example Beccles
Beccles Airport
Beccles Airfield is located in Ellough, southeast of Beccles in the English county of Suffolk. Built during the second world war, it has operated as a heliport servicing the North Sea oil and gas industry and currenty operates as a base for private flights and flight training.Beccles Aerodrome...
, subsequently re-opened as civil aerodromes. The Ministry of Civil Aviation was created to regulate all civil aviation
Civil aviation
Civil aviation is one of two major categories of flying, representing all non-military aviation, both private and commercial. Most of the countries in the world are members of the International Civil Aviation Organization and work together to establish common standards and recommended practices...
in the UK, and this task remained the responsibility of government departments until the establishment of the independent CAA in 1972.
With an expanded infrastructure in place, GA became established after the war when manufacturers such as Cessna
Cessna
The Cessna Aircraft Company is an airplane manufacturing corporation headquartered in Wichita, Kansas, USA. Their main products are general aviation aircraft. Although they are the most well known for their small, piston-powered aircraft, they also produce business jets. The company is a subsidiary...
and Piper introduced light aircraft
Light aircraft
A light aircraft is an aircraft that has a maximum gross take-off weight of or less.Many aircraft used commercially for freight, sightseeing, photography and scheduled flights are light aircraft.Examples of light aircraft include:...
designed for the private market. The Cessna 172
Cessna 172
The Cessna 172 Skyhawk is a four-seat, single-engine, high-wing fixed-wing aircraft. First flown in 1955 and still in production, more Cessna 172s have been built than any other aircraft.-Design and development:...
, developed from the late 1940s Cessna 170
Cessna 170
|-See also:-External links:* *...
, was introduced in 1956, and became the world's best selling single-engine aeroplane. Single piston
Reciprocating engine
A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is a heat engine that uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. This article describes the common features of all types...
-engine aircraft are still the most common class of aircraft in the UK GA fleet. The development of the Rogallo wing
Rogallo wing
The Rogallo wing is a flexible type of airfoil. In 1948, Gertrude Rogallo, and her husband Francis Rogallo, a NASA engineer, invented a self-inflating flexible wing they called the Parawing, also known after them as the "Rogallo Wing" and flexible wing...
in the 1950s fostered the development of hang-gliding during the 1960s and 1970s. The 1960s also saw experiments with motorised hang gliders
Hang gliding
Hang gliding is an air sport in which a pilot flies a light and unmotorized foot-launchable aircraft called a hang glider ....
, but it was not until the 1970s that this blend of technologies started to mature, resulting in the birth of the microlight
Ultralight aviation
The term "ultralight aviation" refers to light-weight, 1- or 2-person airplanes., also called microlight aircraft in the UK, India and New Zealand...
movement. Another milestone in the development of GA was the 1964 introduction of the Learjet 23
Learjet 23
-References:* Taylor, John W. R. Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1965–1966. London:Sampson Low, Marston & Company, 1965.**-External links:*...
. Although it was not the first business jet
Business jet
Business jet, private jet or, colloquially, bizjet is a term describing a jet aircraft, usually of smaller size, designed for transporting groups of up to 19 business people or wealthy individuals...
, it popularised corporate aviation, and established the personal jet as a "whole new class of aircraft".
Activities
Balloon (aircraft)
A balloon is a type of aircraft that remains aloft due to its buoyancy. A balloon travels by moving with the wind. It is distinct from an airship, which is a buoyant aircraft that can be propelled through the air in a controlled manner....
and airship
Airship
An airship or dirigible is a type of aerostat or "lighter-than-air aircraft" that can be steered and propelled through the air using rudders and propellers or other thrust mechanisms...
s, gliders
Glider aircraft
Glider aircraft are heavier-than-air craft that are supported in flight by the dynamic reaction of the air against their lifting surfaces, and whose free flight does not depend on an engine. Mostly these types of aircraft are intended for routine operation without engines, though engine failure can...
, hang gliders, paragliders
Paragliding
Paragliding is the recreational and competitive adventure sport of flying paragliders: lightweight, free-flying, foot-launched glider aircraft with no rigid primary structure...
, microlights, gyrocopters
Autogyro
An autogyro , also known as gyroplane, gyrocopter, or rotaplane, is a type of rotorcraft which uses an unpowered rotor in autorotation to develop lift, and an engine-powered propeller, similar to that of a fixed-wing aircraft, to provide thrust...
, helicopters, amateur built
Homebuilt aircraft
Also known as amateur-built aircraft or kit planes, homebuilt aircraft are constructed by persons for whom this is not a professional activity. These aircraft may be constructed from "scratch," from plans, or from assembly kits.-Overview:...
and mass-produced light aircraft, ex-military aircraft
Warbird
Warbird is a term used, predominantly in North America, to describe vintage military aircraft.- Naming :Although the term originally implied piston-driven aircraft from the World War II era, it is now often extended to include all military aircraft, including jet-powered aircraft, that are no...
, and business jets. Flights can be broadly categorised as public transport, aerial work, and private flying, the first two of which are commercial activities.
Commercial operations
Commercial operations are remunerated activities which fall within the ICAO definition of CAT. Some are, however, closely aligned to, and considered part of, the GA sector. Public transport operations are non-scheduled, on-demand services flying between points specified by the customer, providing a more flexible service than airlineAirline
An airline provides air transport services for traveling passengers and freight. Airlines lease or own their aircraft with which to supply these services and may form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for mutual benefit...
travel. Air taxi
Air taxi
An air taxi is an air charter passenger or cargo aircraft which operates on an on-demand basis.-Regulation:In the United States, air taxi and air charter operations are governed by Part 135 of the Federal Aviation Regulations , unlike the larger scheduled air carriers which are governed by more...
operations offer charter services for third parties, and business or corporate aviation uses company-owned aircraft to transport employees and clients. Aircraft used in these operations include business jets, helicopters, and twin piston-engine aeroplanes carrying between six and ten people. An example of this type of operation is the transport by helicopter of spectators to the British Formula One
Formula One
Formula One, also known as Formula 1 or F1 and referred to officially as the FIA Formula One World Championship, is the highest class of single seater auto racing sanctioned by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile . The "formula" designation in the name refers to a set of rules with which...
grand prix at Silverstone
Silverstone Circuit
Silverstone Circuit is an English motor racing circuit next to the Northamptonshire villages of Silverstone and Whittlebury. The circuit straddles the Northamptonshire and Buckinghamshire border, with the current main circuit entry on the Buckinghamshire side...
. This involves so many flights that, according to Cranfield Aviation Services, on race day the heliport is temporarily the world’s busiest airport. Aerial work is a small but important component of the commercial GA sector, characterised in its simplest form as remunerated non-transport activities, such as surveying
Aerial survey
Aerial survey is a geomatics method of collecting information by using aerial photography, LiDAR or from remote sensing imagery using other bands of the electromagnetic spectrum, such as infrared, gamma, or ultraviolet. It can also refer to the chart or map made by analysing a region from the air...
, crop spraying
Aerial application
Aerial application, commonly called crop dusting, involves spraying crops with fertilizers, pesticides, and fungicides from an agricultural aircraft. The specific spreading of fertilizer is also known as aerial topdressing....
, and emergency services work (air ambulance
Air Ambulances in the United Kingdom
There are a number of air ambulance services in the United Kingdom using either helicopters or fixed-wing aircraft. Thirty helicopters, all operated by commercial companies and funded by charitable organisations, cover England and Wales...
and police
Police aviation in the United Kingdom
Police aviation in United Kingdom provides the British police with an aerial support unit to assist them in pursuit, surveillance and tracking....
).
Flying schools
Flying schools are commercial businesses engaged in the training of pilotsFlight training
Flight training is a course of study used when learning to pilot an aircraft. The overall purpose of primary and intermediate flight training is the acquisition and honing of basic airmanship skills....
, both for recreational purposes and for those intending to fly professionally. They make widespread use of fixed-wing
Fixed-wing aircraft
A fixed-wing aircraft is an aircraft capable of flight using wings that generate lift due to the vehicle's forward airspeed. Fixed-wing aircraft are distinct from rotary-wing aircraft in which wings rotate about a fixed mast and ornithopters in which lift is generated by flapping wings.A powered...
light aircraft associated with traditional GA, not only for flying lessons but also as club aircraft rented out to qualified pilots for recreational flights. School-owned aircraft account for a significant amount of GA activity, both in terms of hours flown and aircraft movements. The pilot training element is regarded by the GA community as a key benefit that is critical to the supply of pilots for the airline industry. It is claimed by the General Aviation Awareness Council that 60–70 per cent of professional pilots have self-financed their flight training at GA schools, and one UK airline operator has stated that the industry must rely on 70–80 per cent of new pilots coming from the GA sector. The CAA estimates that between 1996 and 2006 the number of new professional pilots following the unsponsored training route rose from 48 per cent to 59 per cent. The counter argument to this claim is that pilots can be trained outside of the UK, and that the airline industry is not therefore dependent on a healthy GA sector in the UK for its supply of pilots. The CAA concludes that a severe reduction in GA would give "some merit to the argument that pilot recruitment would be threatened", but that the data on flying hours "does not support such a gloomy outlook." Of course, reliance on other countries for pilot training means that the UK foregoes the economic benefit of the training activity.
Private flying
Private flying can be for both recreational purposes and personal transport, using aircraft that are owned individually, collectively as part of a syndicate, or rented from a flying club. A survey of pilots conducted between 2001 and 2002 indicated that the most common purposes of recreational flights were local flights near the base aerodrome, visits to other aerodromes, and day trips away. Half of all flights landed at the same aerodrome they departed from, and only 9 per cent involved an overnight stay away from home.Private flying is most associated with the traditional form of factory-produced two and four-seater, single piston-engine training and touring aircraft. Examples of these are the Cessna 152
Cessna 152
The Cessna 152 is an American two-seat, fixed tricycle gear, general aviation airplane, used primarily for flight training and personal use.-Development:...
, Cessna 172, and Piper PA28 Cherokee
Piper Cherokee
The Piper PA-28 Cherokee is a family of light aircraft designed for flight training, air taxi, and personal use. It is built by Piper Aircraft....
, all with their origins in the 1950s, and the more modern designs of Cirrus
Cirrus Design
The Cirrus Aircraft Corporation is an aircraft manufacturer that was founded in 1984 by Alan and Dale Klapmeier to produce the VK-30 kit aircraft....
. The average cost per hour to fly such aircraft has been estimated to be £133, compared to an estimated £77 per hour for gliders, and a reported £35 per hour for microlights. Recent trends have seen an increase in the use of microlights, and also in recreational helicopter flying following the introduction of smaller and cheaper machines such as the Robinson R22
Robinson R22
The Robinson R22 is a two-bladed, single-engine light utility helicopter manufactured by Robinson Helicopter. The two-seat R22 was designed in 1973 by Frank Robinson and has been in production since 1979.-Development:...
and R44
Robinson R44
|-See also:-External links:* * * * * *...
. Another growth area in private flying in recent years has been in the use of amateur built aircraft, such as the Van's Aircraft RV-4
Van's Aircraft RV-4
-External links:*...
and the Europa
Europa Aircraft
Europa Aircraft is a British kitplane manufacturer that produces the Europa XS.The company was established to produce a small kit-built low-wing aircraft for personal use within Europe, with these design goals: high speed, low cost, able to be built and stored at home, easily transportable, using...
.
There is a strong vintage aircraft movement in the UK, with two-thirds of the 500 registered historic aircraft active. These cover the whole spectrum of civil and military aviation, examples being the de Havilland Dragon Rapide
De Havilland Dragon Rapide
The de Havilland DH.89 Dragon Rapide was a British short-haul passenger airliner of the 1930s.-Design and development:Designed by the de Havilland company in late 1933 as a faster and more comfortable successor to the DH.84 Dragon, it was in effect a twin-engined, scaled-down version of the...
airliner of the 1930s, and the World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
(WWII) Spitfire
Supermarine Spitfire
The Supermarine Spitfire is a British single-seat fighter aircraft that was used by the Royal Air Force and many other Allied countries throughout the Second World War. The Spitfire continued to be used as a front line fighter and in secondary roles into the 1950s...
fighter. There are many post-WWII aircraft which could also be considered historic under a looser definition, including for example 60 ex-military jets such as the Hawker Hunter
Hawker Hunter
The Hawker Hunter is a subsonic British jet aircraft developed in the 1950s. The single-seat Hunter entered service as a manoeuvrable fighter aircraft, and later operated in fighter-bomber and reconnaissance roles in numerous conflicts. Two-seat variants remained in use for training and secondary...
. Historic aircraft are regular exhibits at air displays
Airshow
An air show is an event at which aviators display their flying skills and the capabilities of their aircraft to spectators in aerobatics. Air shows without aerobatic displays, having only aircraft displayed parked on the ground, are called "static air shows"....
, which are claimed to be the second most popular spectator activity after football in the UK.
Sports
Gliding competitions
Some of the pilots in the sport of gliding take part in gliding competitions. These are usually racing competitions, but there are also aerobatic contests and on-line league tables.-History of competitions:...
in the UK takes place between May and September. Regionals are local competitions, organised and run by one of the bigger gliding clubs in the region, and represent the entry level to glider racing. Races are handicapped according to glider performance, and normally take place over nine days. Success in the regionals allows pilots to progress to the nationals, where there are five classes
Glider Competition Classes
Competition classes in gliding, as in other sports, mainly exist to ensure fairness in competition. However the classes have not been targeted at fostering technological development as in other sports...
of competition. These are based on glider performance, the lowest being club class, and then progressing through standard (maximum 15 metres (49.2 ft) wingspan
Wingspan
The wingspan of an airplane or a bird, is the distance from one wingtip to the other wingtip. For example, the Boeing 777 has a wingspan of about ; and a Wandering Albatross caught in 1965 had a wingspan of , the official record for a living bird.The term wingspan, more technically extent, is...
, and flaps
Flap (aircraft)
Flaps are normally hinged surfaces mounted on the trailing edges of the wings of a fixed-wing aircraft to reduce the speed an aircraft can be safely flown at and to increase the angle of descent for landing without increasing air speed. They shorten takeoff and landing distances as well as...
not permitted), 15 metres (49.2 ft) (as standard, but flaps are permitted), 18 metres (59.1 ft) (maximum 18 metres (59.1 ft) wingspan), and finally open-class (no restrictions). Success at national level can lead to a place in the national team and competition at international level. In 2007 the British gliding team was ranked number one, and British pilots took two women's world championships
World Gliding Championships
The World Gliding Championships is a gliding competition held every two years or so by the FAI Gliding Commission. The dates are not always exactly two years apart, often because the contests are sometimes held in the summer in the Southern Hemisphere....
and the open class European championship
European Gliding Championships
The European Gliding Championships is a gliding competition held every two years or so.Gliding is a competitive sport and was even a demonstration sport at the 1936 Summer Olympics. It was due to become an official Olympic sport in the Helsinki Games in 1940. However since the war, gliding has not...
.
Handicapped
Handicapping
Handicapping, in sport and games, is the practice of assigning advantage through scoring compensation or other advantage given to different contestants to equalize the chances of winning. The word also applies to the various methods by which the advantage is calculated...
air racing
Air racing
- History :The first ever air race was held in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1908. The participants piloted the only 4 airships in the U.S. around a course located at Forest Park...
is open to any propeller-driven aircraft capable of maintaining a minimum speed of 100 miles (160.9 km) per hour in level flight. Races are a case of "fly low, fly fast, turn left", consisting of 4–5 laps round a 20–25 mile (32–40 km) circuit. Faster aircraft are handicapped by starting after slower aircraft, the intention being that the race concludes with all aircraft diving for the finish line together. There are up to seven races per year, conducted at airfields in the UK, France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
and the Channel Islands
Channel Islands
The Channel Islands are an archipelago of British Crown Dependencies in the English Channel, off the French coast of Normandy. They include two separate bailiwicks: the Bailiwick of Guernsey and the Bailiwick of Jersey...
, for prizes that include the Schneider Trophy
Schneider Trophy
The Coupe d'Aviation Maritime Jacques Schneider was a prize competition for seaplanes. Announced by Jacques Schneider, a financier, balloonist and aircraft enthusiast, in 1911, it offered a prize of roughly £1,000. The race was held eleven times between 1913 and 1931...
and King's Cup
King's Cup Race
The King's Cup Race is an annual British handicapped cross-country air race, first contested on 8 September 1922. The event was open to British pilots only, but that did include members of the Commonwealth....
, and the season culminates with the British Air Racing and European Air Racing Championships.
Competition aerobatics
Competition aerobatics is an air sport in which judges rate the skill of pilots performing aerobatic flying. It is practiced in both piston-powered single-engine airplanes and gliders....
take place for both powered aircraft and gliders, with up to 30 events each year in the UK and Ireland
Republic of Ireland
Ireland , described as the Republic of Ireland , is a sovereign state in Europe occupying approximately five-sixths of the island of the same name. Its capital is Dublin. Ireland, which had a population of 4.58 million in 2011, is a constitutional republic governed as a parliamentary democracy,...
. Starting at the Beginner level, pilots can move up to Standard (powered aircraft) or Sports (glider) levels, and then on to Intermediate, Advanced, and finally Unlimited classes. Each step up requires a wider repertoire of aerobatic
Aerobatics
Aerobatics is the practice of flying maneuvers involving aircraft attitudes that are not used in normal flight. Aerobatics are performed in airplanes and gliders for training, recreation, entertainment and sport...
figures and progressively more performance from the aircraft. National championships are awarded annually at Standard/Sports, Intermediate, Advanced (powered aircraft only), and Unlimited levels, and pilots who have reached Advanced and Unlimited levels are eligible for selection to represent the UK in international competition.
Parachute
Parachuting
Parachuting, also known as skydiving, is the action of exiting an aircraft and returning to earth with the aid of a parachute. It may or may not involve a certain amount of free-fall, a time during which the parachute has not been deployed and the body gradually accelerates to terminal...
competitions are held at club, regional, national and international levels, and include the disciplines of accuracy landing
Accuracy landing
Accuracy landing is one of the oldest skydiving disciplines, in which skydivers attempt to land as closely as possible to a pre-determined target.-Competitive accuracy landing:...
s, freefall gymnastics
Freefall style
Freefall style is a category of sport skydiving competition. Competitors aim to perform a predefined series of aerial maneuvers including front and back flips , turns, and rolls in the least amount of time. Competitors are timed for the length they take to perform the series of maneuvers...
, formation skydiving
Formation skydiving
Formation skydiving is the art of building formations in free-fall with multiple people gripping each others' limbs or specially built "grippers" on their jumpsuits....
, canopy formation
Canopy formation
A canopy formation is a formation built by parachutists by flying their parachutes in proximity to each other and then taking grips on other jumpers' parachutes....
, freestyle
Freestyle skydiving
Freestyle skydiving is a competitive skydiving discipline where one member of a two-person team performs acrobatic manoeuvres in free fall while the other one films the performance from a close distance using a helmet mounted camera....
and freeflying
Freeflying
Freeflying is a skydiving discipline which began in 1990 when Olav Zipser began experimenting with non-traditional forms of body flight. Zipser formed the Freefly Clowns as a two person competitive team with Mike Vail in 1992, and was joined by Omar Alhegelan, Charles Bryan, and Stefania...
, and skysurfing
Skysurfing
Sky surfing is a type of skydiving in which the skydiver wears a board attached to his or her feet and performs surfing-style aerobatics during freefall....
. British teams consistently win medals in canopy formation world championships, and a British team took the 2006 world championship in women's 4-way formation skydiving.
Aerodromes
Aerodrome is a collective term for any location from which flying operations take place, although more specific terminology can be used to characterise its purpose. The CAA strategic review of GA applies the term airport
Airport
An airport is a location where aircraft such as fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, and blimps take off and land. Aircraft may be stored or maintained at an airport...
to locations which predominantly support large scale commercial operations, and airfield to locations which predominantly support GA operations. The General Aviation Small Aerodrome Research Study (GASAR) analysed 687 aerodromes in England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
which come under the scope of GA, classifying 374 into six types. These range in size from regional airports to the smallest farm strip, although 84 per cent of GA flights operate from 134 of the larger aerodromes in the first four categories.
GASAR aerodrome classification
The factors used in determining how an individual aerodrome is categorised by the GASAR study are based broadly on size and facilities. The six types of aerodrome are described, in size order, as: regional airports (e.g. East Midlands); major GA airports (e.g. OxfordOxford Airport
-Expansion:The airport is currently looking to establish new routes out of the airport to help grow the airport and grow more into the comercial avaition market. The routes they are looking at are Edinburgh, Dublin, Munich, Amsterdam, Paris, Glasgow and Barcelona...
); developed GA airfields (e.g. Andrewsfield); basic GA airfields (e.g. Rufforth
Rufforth
Rufforth is a village and civil parish in the unitary authority of the City of York in North Yorkshire, England. It lies about west of York. The village is mentioned in the "Domesday Book" and dates from Saxon times....
); developed airstrips (e.g. Tilstock
Tilstock Airfield
Tilstock Airfield is an airfield located in Shropshire, EnglandLocated close north of the village of Prees, it is west of the village of Tilstock, and south of Whitchurch.-Prees Heath Army Camp:...
); and basic airstrips.
Air traffic control
Air traffic control is a service provided by ground-based controllers who direct aircraft on the ground and in the air. The primary purpose of ATC systems worldwide is to separate aircraft to prevent collisions, to organize and expedite the flow of traffic, and to provide information and other...
, and navigation
Radio navigation
Radio navigation or radionavigation is the application of radio frequencies to determine a position on the Earth. Like radiolocation, it is a type of radiodetermination.The basic principles are measurements from/to electric beacons, especially...
and landing
Instrument approach
For aircraft operating under instrument flight rules , an instrument approach or instrument approach procedure is a series of predetermined maneuvers for the orderly transfer of an aircraft under instrument flight conditions from the beginning of the initial approach to a landing, or to a point...
aids. They are usually located on urban fringes, support commercial and business operations, and often exclude certain types of light aircraft. At the more rurally located airfields, the lighter end of aviation, such as microlight and gliding activities, becomes increasingly prevalent, and there are few or no commercial operations other than flying schools. At this level runways are generally shorter, and grass surfaces are increasingly common. Navigation aids are increasingly scarce, being more basic where they are available, and informal ground to air radio communication replaces air traffic control. The smallest airfields are too small to feature on general purpose Ordnance Survey
Ordnance Survey
Ordnance Survey , an executive agency and non-ministerial government department of the Government of the United Kingdom, is the national mapping agency for Great Britain, producing maps of Great Britain , and one of the world's largest producers of maps.The name reflects its creation together with...
(OS) maps, and lack basic facilities such as fuel and maintenance. The majority of airstrips are basically single short grass runways with no supporting facilities, although the presence of a hangar is not uncommon at the larger examples. They do not feature on OS maps, and are owned by private clubs or, more commonly, individuals.
Aerodrome licensing
Most aerodromes used for public transport operations are required to be licensed by the CAA. To be granted a licence an aerodrome operator must satisfy the CAA that: the physical conditions at the aerodrome, and its environs, are acceptable; the scale of equipment, and facilities provided, are adequate for the flying activities which are expected to take place; an effective safety management system is in place; and that staff are competent and, where necessary, suitably qualified. Aerodromes classified as developed GA airfields or larger by the GASAR study are, with few exceptions, licensed. Only two basic GA airfields, SilverstoneSilverstone Heliport
Silverstone Heliport is located north of Buckingham, Buckinghamshire, England and within Silverstone Circuit, formerly RAF Silverstone.Silverstone Northern Heliport has a CAA Ordinary Licence that allows flights for the public transport of passengers or for flying instruction as authorised by...
and Duxford
Duxford Aerodrome
Duxford Aerodrome is located south of Cambridge, within the Parish of Duxford, Cambridgeshire, England and nearly west of the village.The airfield is owned jointly by the Imperial War Museum and Cambridgeshire County Council and it is the site of the Imperial War Museum Duxford and the American...
, are licensed, and all airstrips are unlicensed. The Light Aviation Airports Study Group, a joint CAA-industry initiative, was established in 2005 to review the regulation of light aviation aerodromes. A particular focus of this group was a review of the restrictions placed on unlicensed aerodromes. The group concluded that the requirement for public transport operations to be conducted only from licensed aerodromes should be further reviewed in the context of corresponding international and European requirements. It also recommended that restrictions on flight training at unlicensed aerodromes should be lifted, and this was permitted from April 2010
Scale of the sector
The number of pilots licensed by the CAA to fly powered aircraft in 2005 was 47,000, of whom 28,000 held a Private Pilot Licence. The remainder held professional pilot licences, either a Commercial Pilot Licence
Commercial Pilot Licence
A Commercial Pilot License or, in the United States, a Commercial Pilot Certificate, is a qualification that permits the holder to act as the Pilot In Command of a single pilot aircraft, or as co-pilot of a multi-pilot aircraft and be paid for his/her work.The basic requirements to obtain the...
or an Airline Transport Pilot Licence, although not all of these would be engaged in GA activities. In addition, there are 10,000 active glider pilots, and estimates put the membership of aviation-related sport and recreational associations at 36,000.
The number of aerodromes that support GA in the UK is difficult to establish with certainty. Pooleys 2008 United Kingdom Flight Guide lists 355, and the Airplan Flight Equipment UK VFR Flight Guide 2008 lists nearly 500. Lockyears Farm 'Strips' and Private Airfields Flight Guide lists more than 300 landing sites. The GASAR study estimates 1,100 formal flying sites in England alone, a figure which includes 400 sites known to planning authorities but not included in flight guides. It estimates another 759 informal sites known only to land owners, customs, and members of the enthusiast group Air-Britain.
The sector was estimated to employ nearly 12,000 people and directly contribute £1.4 billion to the UK economy in 2005, making it roughly seven per cent of the size of the CAT industry. Nearly half of the economic contribution was generated by business aviation.
Trends
Motor glider
A motor glider is a fixed-wing aircraft that can be flown with or without engine power. The FAI Gliding Commission Sporting Code definition is: A fixed wing aerodyne equipped with a means of propulsion ,...
.
Business aviation has shown strong growth, although the numbers of aircraft on the UK register have declined. This reflects a shift away from turboprop
Turboprop
A turboprop engine is a type of turbine engine which drives an aircraft propeller using a reduction gear.The gas turbine is designed specifically for this application, with almost all of its output being used to drive the propeller...
aircraft towards foreign-registered business jets based in the UK, which are estimated to be growing in numbers. However, twin piston-engined aircraft numbers have declined significantly, reflecting pressures on the light air-taxi segment from increasingly flexible and cheaper scheduled services, and a more sophisticated corporate charter business. The amount of flight training conducted by UK schools has declined, largely at the hands of competition from foreign schools, which benefit from lower costs and better weather.
Since 1990 the total number of hours flown annually by the GA sector has remained in the range 1.25–1.35 million, the dominant sector being traditional GA flying, which accounts for 0.6 million per year. An overall increase in aircraft numbers combined with nil growth in hours flown has brought the annual average utilisation per aircraft down from 157 hours in 1984 to 103 hours in 2002. The decline in asset utilisation has led to speculation that the economic health of the GA industry is weakening, though the lack of data on profitability makes this difficult to confirm.
Regulation
Airworthiness
Airworthiness is a term used to describe whether an aircraft has been certified as suitable for safe flight. Certification is initially conferred by a Certificate of Airworthiness from a National Airworthiness Authority, and is maintained by performing required maintenance actions by a licensed...
, pilot qualification
Pilot licensing in the United Kingdom
Pilot licensing in the United Kingdom is regulated by the Civil Aviation Authority under the auspices of the Joint Aviation Authorities and European Aviation Safety Agency. Each member nation in the EU has responsibility for regulating their own pilot licensing...
, the rules for the movement of aircraft, and equipment to be carried. The CAA was established as the primary regulatory body for all aviation in the UK in 1972. In 1991 it started working within the Joint Aviation Authorities
Joint Aviation Authorities
The Joint Aviation Authorities, or JAA, was an associated body of the ECAC representing the civil aviation regulatory authorities of a number of European States who had agreed to co-operate in developing and implementing common safety regulatory standards and procedures...
(JAA) framework to implement agreed common standards, known as the Joint Aviation Requirements (JAR), throughout the European Union
European Union
The European Union is an economic and political union of 27 independent member states which are located primarily in Europe. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community , formed by six countries in 1958...
(EU). In 2003 this was taken a step further when the European Aviation Safety Agency
European Aviation Safety Agency
The European Aviation Safety Agency is an agency of the European Union with offices in Cologne, Germany, which has been given regulatory and executive tasks in the field of civilian aviation safety. It was created on 15 July 2002, and it reached full functionality in 2008, taking over functions...
(EASA) was established as the central EU regulator, taking over responsibility for legislating airworthiness and environmental regulation from the national authorities. The CAA acts as an agency of EASA on these issues, retaining its original regulatory powers in areas not yet transferred to EASA. Proposed developments seek to establish EASA as the single authority throughout the EU, taking over from individual member states the power to regulate all aviation other than that specifically excluded from the scope of EASA.
Devolved and self-regulation
Within this framework certain sectors of GA are governed on a devolved basis. In all cases the CAA/EASA retains responsibility for safety regulation, but representative bodies, particularly of sectors that are not included in the scope of EASA, are granted greater oversight of their activities. The majority of microlight aircraft are regulated by the British Microlight Aircraft Association, although a significant number are regulated by the Light Aircraft Association (LAA), formerly known as the Popular Flying Association. The LAA is the primary regulator for amateur built aircraft, as well as vintage and classic aircraft. Parachuting is governed by the British Parachute AssociationBritish Parachute Association
British Parachute Association is the National Governing Body for Sport Parachuting in the United Kingdom.-Overview:The BPA was founded in 1961 to organise, govern and further the advancement of sport parachuting within the UK ....
, although the aircraft used in this activity are generally CAA-regulated. Balloon and airship flying is overseen by the British Balloon and Airship Club. The UK-specific National Private Pilot Licence (NPPL) is administered by the National Pilots Licensing Group Ltd., supported by the LAA, the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association
Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association
The Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association is a Frederick, Maryland-based non-profit political organization. Incorporated on 15 May 1939, AOPA's membership consists mainly of general aviation pilots in the United States...
UK, the British Gliding Association
British Gliding Association
The British Gliding Association is the governing body for gliding in the United Kingdom. Gliding in the United Kingdom operates through 85 gliding clubs which have 2,310 gliders and 9,462 full flying members , though a further 17,000 people have gliding air-experience flights each year.-History:A...
, and the British Microlight Aircraft Association. Separate from these devolved groups, gliding in the UK is self-regulated. The British Gliding Association was until recently responsible for glider airworthiness, now formally regulated as a result of EASA legislation, and still retains control of pilot certification. Hang gliding and paragliding activities (i.e. foot-launched gliders) are governed by the British Hang Gliding and Paragliding Association.
Airworthiness
Under CAA and EASA rules, all aircraft are required to meet certain standards of airworthiness to fly safely and legally. Aircraft that meet these standards are issued with a Certificate of Airworthiness. However, British-registered aircraft which are excluded from the scope of EASA, and which cannot satisfy the requirements for the issue of a Certificate of Airworthiness, may be issued with a Permit to Fly. This allows them to fly in UK airspace subject to certain limitations, for example being restricted to day-time flights under visual flight rulesVisual flight rules
Visual flight rules are a set of regulations which allow a pilot to operate an aircraft in weather conditions generally clear enough to allow the pilot to see where the aircraft is going. Specifically, the weather must be better than basic VFR weather minimums, as specified in the rules of the...
only. A number of organisations (e.g. the British Microlight Aircraft Association and the
Light Aircraft Association) have obtained a standing over-flight permission for Permit
to Fly aircraft within their area of interest with some European countries, notably
France. Permits are typically issued to vintage and historic aircraft, amateur built aircraft, and microlights.
Pilot licensing
The pilot qualification most relevant to GA is the Private Pilot Licence (PPL), which permits the holder to fly for recreational purposes without remuneration. In addition to the European-wide Joint Aviation Regulations Flight Crew Licensing (JAR-FCL) standard, the CAA also issues UK-specific national licences. In the absence of European standards for gyroplane, balloon, and airship pilots, the CAA licenses these according to the original UK PPL standard. As a response to the perception that JAR pilot licensing standards are excessively bureaucratic and expensive for the purposes of recreational pilots, the National Private Pilot LicenceNational Private Pilot Licence
The National Private Pilot Licence is issued by the United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority. Holders are entitled to fly UK registered single engined aircraft or microlights and self-powered gliders within UK airspace. Aircraft pilots may carry up to 3 passengers and fly using VFR Visual Flight...
(NPPL) was introduced in 2002. The NPPL is easier to obtain than the JAR-FCL licence, has less stringent medical requirements, is more restrictive in the privileges it grants, and is valid only for flights in British-registered aircraft flying in UK and French airspace. Although there are plans to bring glider pilot licensing within the regulatory framework of EASA, the gliding sector is currently self-regulating in this respect. The British Gliding Association is responsible for defining the standards of initial training, and certifying, via a badge system, pilots who meet those standards. Pilots working in sectors of GA that are commercial operations, such as aerial work and business aviation, are required to hold a professional pilot licence which, at a minimum, is the Commercial Pilot Licence.
Safety
Airmanship
Airmanship is skill and knowledge applied to aerial navigation, similar to seamanship in maritime navigation. Airmanship covers a broad range of desirable behaviors and abilities in an aviator...
; lack of training or experience; and omission of, or inappropriate, action.
| Type | Total Accidents | Fatal Accidents | Total Fatalities |
|---|---|---|---|
| Aeroplane | 1,622 | 107 | 196 |
| Helicopter | 246 | 31 | 71 |
| Balloon | 49 | 1 | 1 |
| Airship | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| Glider | 430 | n/a | 38 |
| Gyroplane | 31 | n/a | 8 |
| Microlight | 251 | n/a | 23 |
| Totals | 2,630 | 139 | 317 |
There were 27 fatal accidents involving GA aircraft in 2007, resulting in the loss of 48 lives. These compare with 16 accidents claiming a total of 19 lives the previous year, and although the 2007 statistics are higher than average, they are not exceptional.
Issues
The growth in Commercial Air Transport (CAT) has eroded the operational freedom of GA, both in the air and on the ground at larger airports. Difficulty with access to larger airports is compounded by a decline in the number of aerodromes generally, and existing sites are often threatened with closure and re-development for more profitable uses. The UK planning systemTown and country planning in the United Kingdom
Town and Country Planning is the land use planning system governments use to balance economic development and environmental quality. Each country of the United Kingdom has its own planning system that is responsible for town and country planning devolved to the Northern Ireland Assembly, the...
is designed to focus on local issues, and consideration of the national impact of GA operations is not within its remit. This makes aerodrome development difficult, often subjecting those that successfully negotiate the process to restrictions in use.
Airspace access
Airspace
Airspace means the portion of the atmosphere controlled by a country above its territory, including its territorial waters or, more generally, any specific three-dimensional portion of the atmosphere....
is shared by CAT, military
Military aviation
Military aviation is the use of aircraft and other flying machines for the purposes of conducting or enabling warfare, including national airlift capacity to provide logistical supply to forces stationed in a theater or along a front. Air power includes the national means of conducting such...
and GA users. It is divided into controlled airspace
Controlled airspace
Controlled airspace is an aviation term used to describe airspace in which ATChas the authority to control air traffic, the level of which varies with the different classes of airspace. Controlled airspace is established mainly for three different reasons:...
, in which aircraft must always be under the control of an air traffic controller
Air traffic controller
Air traffic controllers are the people who expedite and maintain a safe and orderly flow of air traffic in the global air traffic control system. The position of the air traffic controller is one that requires highly specialized skills...
, and uncontrolled airspace
Uncontrolled airspace
Uncontrolled airspace is airspace where an Air Traffic Control service is not deemed necessary or cannot be provided for practical reasons. According to the airspace classes set by ICAO both class F and class G airspace are uncontrolled...
, in which aircraft can operate autonomously. Although GA flights can under certain conditions enter controlled airspace, they operate mainly outside of it.
Controlled airspace is essential for the provision of a known air traffic environment necessary for the safe operation of CAT, and mixing operations with other users is "considered undesirable, even untenable".. However this position turned out to be fundamentally flawed. It resulted in extensive Class A airspace with over-complex boundaries, including some running down to the ground, prohibiting VFR access to airspace, resulting in high numbers of GA activity operating close to the borders of controlled airspace who were not in formal receipt of any service. Coupled with pilot navigation errors, hundreds of airspace infringements have been recorded every year.
Increases in the number of CAT operations, and in the number of airports they operate from, has resulted in a corresponding increase in controlled airspace. Between 1997 and 2006 this area grew in size from 13 per cent of all airspace to 22 per cent nationally, and from 24 per cent to 43 per cent in airspace above England and Wales
Wales
Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain, bordered by England to its east and the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea to its west. It has a population of three million, and a total area of 20,779 km²...
, leading to a perception within the GA community of being squeezed out. There are particular problems for GA around large airports, where controlled airspace extends to ground level. The concentration of commercial operations and high demand for GA in the South East of England have also resulted in extensive areas of controlled airspace there, which serve to channel uncontrolled GA operations through high-collision-risk hot spots.
Aerodrome access
Southampton Airport
Southampton Airport is the 20th largest airport in the UK, located north north-east of Southampton, in the Borough of Eastleigh within Hampshire, England....
, have experienced strong growth in CAT operations in recent years. These operations are commercially and operationally incompatible with GA, and although there is no evidence of unfair discrimination, the effect has been to discourage or exclude it. GA aircraft are being subject to significant increases in charges, including the imposition of handling fees in some cases. Some airports restrict or deny GA parking, and others limit or refuse certain GA activity.. As a result almost all light GA aircraft is no longer found at large, busy international airports such as Heathrow, Stansted, Gatwick and Manchester.
In addition to this de facto loss of facilities, the number of aerodromes in the UK has been in decline over the last 50 years, as a result of increasing urbanisation and the rationalisation of WWII airfields. Alternative and more profitable uses for land can also lead to existing aerodromes being threatened with closure, for example North Weald
North Weald Airfield
North Weald Airfield is an operational airfield, near the village of North Weald Bassett in Epping Forest, Essex, England. It was an important fighter station during the Battle of Britain, when it was known as the RAF Station RAF North Weald. It is the home of North Weald Airfield Museum...
, or actually being closed, as happened to Ipswich Airport
Ipswich Airport
Ipswich Airport is a former airfield on the outskirts of Ipswich, Suffolk England.-History:The site of Ravens Wood was purchased by the Ipswich Corporation in 1929 with the intention of creating a municipal airport for Ipswich, with construction starting in the following year. The airport was...
. Referring to the importance of a "functioning national network of GA airfields", especially where GA performs an air transport role, the CAA states that "there could be cause for concern if a significant further loss of airfields were to continue, especially if crucial nodes on the transport network were to be lost."
Planning system
The planning system is critical to the viability and operation of GA aerodromes. With many cities lacking scheduled air transport services between them, and with GA access to commercial airports becoming increasingly difficult and expensive, a viable network of aerodromes supporting GA air transport operations is regarded as an important national issue. However, there is no unified national planning policy specific to GA aerodromes, and planning decisions relating to these are based on local issues that are not required to consider the national impact. Because aircraft are excluded from noise control legislation, the only recourse for people affected by aircraft noise is through the planning process, and this issue is the principal factor on which the majority of planning decisions relating to GA land use are made. GA is a specialist subject often unfamiliar to Local Planning AuthoritiesLocal Planning Authority
A local planning authority is the local authority or council that is empowered by law to exercise planning functions for a particular area of the United Kingdom. Although, in Scotland, where all of the local authorities are unitary, the term 'planning authority' is used without the 'local'...
, and most planning decisions relating to GA either refuse permission, or grant it with restrictive conditions. Little Gransden
Little Gransden Airfield
Little Gransden Airfield is a unlicensed airfield located near the village of Little Gransden, southeast of St Neots, Cambridgeshire, England....
is just one example of a GA airfield required to comply with planning restrictions on the number of movements permitted, thereby inhibiting further development. Such restrictions, if poorly conceived, can make GA operations unviable or even unsafe.
Criticism
Aviation and the environment
The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit noise, particulates, and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming...
relating to emissions and noise
Aircraft noise
Aircraft noise is noise pollution produced by any aircraft or its components, during various phases of a flight: on the ground while parked such as auxiliary power units, while taxiing, on run-up from propeller and jet exhaust, during take off, underneath and lateral to departure and arrival paths,...
, and private flying has been criticised by respondents to a government consultation on aircraft noise as a frivolous or selfish activity. In terms of environmental complaints and enquiries made to the CAA that relate specifically to GA, noise is "by far" the most common subject. Half of the 2,000 noise complaints made annually to the CAA concern GA operations, most of which relate to aerobatics, helicopters using private sites, air balloon incidents, parachute dropping, and alleged low flying.
Planning guidance on aircraft noise advises that "in some circumstances the public perceive general aircraft noise levels as more disturbing than similar levels around major airports." This is a result of the tonal characteristics of light aircraft engines and the activities they are engaged in, including: repetitive circuit flying
Airfield traffic pattern
An airfield traffic pattern is a standard path followed by aircraft when taking off or landing, while maintaining visual contact with the airfield....
at low-altitude near an aerodrome, during which aircraft are audible for long periods; slow climbing aircraft engaged in parachute drop or glider tug activities concentrated around the drop zone
Drop zone
A drop zone is a place where parachutists or parachuted supplies land. It can be an area targeted for landing by paratroopers, or a base from which recreational parachutists and skydivers take off in aircraft and land under parachutes...
or aerodrome, also audible for long periods; erratic and repetitive engine noise from aircraft engaged in aerobatics; and piston-engines on full power in areas of low background noise, leading to the perception that such noise is more intrusive. In an attempt to alleviate these problems, the majority of aerodromes implement noise abatement procedures designed to route aircraft away from noise sensitive areas, and more than 50 are required by the government to provide consultative facilities in which local concerns can be raised with aerodrome operators.