Genital modification and mutilation
Encyclopedia
The terms genital modification and genital mutilation can refer to permanent or temporary changes to human
sex organ
s. Some forms of genital alteration are performed at the behest of an adult, with their informed consent. Others are performed on infants or children. Any of these procedures may be considered modifications or mutilations by different groups of people.
Many types of genital modification are performed at the behest of the individual, for personal, sexual, aesthetic or cultural reasons. Penile subincision, or splitting of the underside of the penis, is widespread in the traditional cultures of Indigenous Australians. This procedure has taken root in Western
body modification
culture. Meatotomy
is a form that involves splitting of the glans penis
alone, while genital bisection
is a more extreme form that splits the penis entirely in half.
Genital piercings and genital tattooing
may be performed for aesthetic reasons, but piercings have the benefit of increasing sexual pleasure for the pierced individual or their sex partners. Similarly, Pearling
involves surgical insertion of small, inert spheres under the skin along the shaft of the penis for the purpose of providing sexual stimulation to the walls of the vagina.
Clitoris enlargement
may be achieved temporarily through the use of a clitoral pump
, or it may be achieved permanently through application of testosterone
cream to the clitoris, or through injectable testosterone. Penis enlargement
is a term for various techniques used to attempt to increase the size of the penis, though the safety and efficacy of these techniques are debated.
people choose to undergo sex reassignment surgery
as part of their gender transition. Male-to-female transgenders, mtfs, or transwomen may undergo castration
, with or without vaginoplasty
, while female to male, ftms, or transmen transgenders may undergo phalloplasty
or metoidioplasty
, with or without oophorectomy
or hysterectomy
. Transgender people who wish to make this surgical transition are referred to as transsexuals.
condition, it may not be clear whether the child is female or male. In certain cases, the child's chromosomal makeup is neither female nor male, but a combination. In these cases, the baby is usually given a sex assignment, and in many cases, the child's genitals are surgically altered to conform to those of the assigned sex. This practice is met with strong dissent from advocates for genital integrity
. As cosmetic surgery is not medically necessary for health, they argue that the individual should be free to make the choice whether to pursue cosmetic surgery upon their genitals. Advocates state that the surgery can damage the individual's ability to experience sexual arousal and can render the individual incapable of orgasm. Another concern is that sex assignment holds a significant element of guesswork, and that an individual's sex assignment may turn out to be incorrect. If, for instance, an individual is assigned female, their phallus is usually surgically reduced in size, and the shape of a vulva may be created. If, upon maturing, the individual identifies as male; their phallus is still gone, and the individual may require further surgery to try to reverse the erroneous sex assignment. Those who oppose medically unnecessary genital surgery, and genital surgery coerced or performed without consent comprise the genital integrity
movement. The case of David Reimer
, the victim of a botched circumcision
who was raised as a girl alongside his twin brother, bears many parallels to this issue.
, sometimes the diseased areas are surgically removed. Biological females may undergo vaginectomy
, while males may undergo penectomy
. Reconstructive surgery
may be performed to restore what was lost, often with techniques similar to those used in sex reassignment surgery
.
Similarly, during childbirth
, episiotomy
is sometimes performed to increase the amount of space through which the baby may emerge. Advocates of natural childbirth
and unassisted birth state that this intervention is often performed without medical necessity, with significant damage to the person giving birth.
Hymenotomy
is the surgical perforation of an imperforate hymen. It may be performed to allow menstruation
to occur. An adult individual may opt for increasing the size of her hymenal opening, or removal of the hymen altogether, to facilitate sexual penetration
of her vagina.
whether for cultural
, religious
or other non-therapeutic reasons." It is not the same as the procedures used in gender reassignment surgery
or the genital modification of intersexuals. It is practiced throughout the world, but the practice is concentrated more heavily in Africa
, Indonesia
, and the Middle East
. There is much controversy surrounding infibulation
procedures, due to concerns regarding the safety and consequences of the procedure. In the past several decades, efforts have been made by global health organizations, such as the WHO, to end the practice. However, because of its importance in tradition
al and religious life, it continues to be practiced in many societies.
refers to the practice of thickening the hymen, or, in some cases, implanting a capsule of red liquid within the newly-created vaginal tissue. The newly-created hymen is created to cause physical resistance, blood, or the appearance of blood, at the time that the individual's new husband inserts his penis into her vagina. This is done in cultures where a high value is placed on female virginity
at the time of marriage. In these cultures, a woman may be punished, perhaps violently, if the community leaders deem that she was not virginal at the time of consummation
of her marriage. Individuals who are victims of rape
, who were virginal at the time of their rape, may elect for hymenorrhaphy.
or labiaplasty
procedures to alter the shape of their vulva
s to meet personal aesthetic standards. The surgery itself is controversial, and critics refer to the procedures as "designer vagina".
. It may also involve frenectomy
, the removal of the frenulum
. A related procedure is preputioplasty
, which is used as a treatment for phimosis
. This procedure is most often performed upon infant boys. It has religious significance in the Jewish religion and in Islam
. It spread into Western culture, and peaked in the early 80s. The bioethics of neonatal circumcision
are a subject of intense debate, with circumcision advocates promoting it as beneficial, and supporters of genital integrity opposing it as harmful and/or a violation of the individual's human rights. Some adults who were circumcised as infants engage in foreskin restoration
, a method of stretching the penile skin in order to partially recreate the foreskin.
is incised and the urethra
slit open lengthwise, from the urethral opening (meatus
) toward the base. The slit can be of varying lengths.
is another form of modification to the male genitalia.
Human
Humans are the only living species in the Homo genus...
sex organ
Sex organ
A sex organ, or primary sexual characteristic, as narrowly defined, is any of the anatomical parts of the body which are involved in sexual reproduction and constitute the reproductive system in a complex organism; flowers are the reproductive organs of flowering plants, cones are the reproductive...
s. Some forms of genital alteration are performed at the behest of an adult, with their informed consent. Others are performed on infants or children. Any of these procedures may be considered modifications or mutilations by different groups of people.
Body modification
Western culture
Western culture, sometimes equated with Western civilization or European civilization, refers to cultures of European origin and is used very broadly to refer to a heritage of social norms, ethical values, traditional customs, religious beliefs, political systems, and specific artifacts and...
body modification
Body modification
Body modification is the deliberate altering of the human body for any non-medical reason, such as aesthetics, sexual enhancement, a rite of passage, religious reasons, to display group membership or affiliation, to create body art, shock value, or self expression...
culture. Meatotomy
Meatotomy
A meatotomy is a form of penile modification in which the underside of the glans is split. The procedure may be performed by a doctor to alleviate meatal stenosis or urethral stricture...
is a form that involves splitting of the glans penis
Glans penis
The glans penis is the sensitive bulbous structure at the distal end of the penis. The glans penis is anatomically homologous to the clitoral glans of the female...
alone, while genital bisection
Genital bisection
Genital bisection in males involves the splitting of the penis . This still allows for erection, though often the two halves curve into each other, making insertion more difficult....
is a more extreme form that splits the penis entirely in half.
Genital piercings and genital tattooing
Genital tattooing
Genital tattooing is the practice of placing permanent marks under the skin of the genitals in the form of tattoos.Though tattoos in general have enjoyed an upsurge of popularity, particularly in the west and among younger people, genital tattoos are still relatively rare...
may be performed for aesthetic reasons, but piercings have the benefit of increasing sexual pleasure for the pierced individual or their sex partners. Similarly, Pearling
Pearling (body modification)
Pearling or genital beading is a form of body modification, the practice of permanently inserting small beads made of various materials beneath the skin of the genitals—of the labia, or of the shaft or foreskin of the penis...
involves surgical insertion of small, inert spheres under the skin along the shaft of the penis for the purpose of providing sexual stimulation to the walls of the vagina.
Clitoris enlargement
Clitoris enlargement
Clitoris enlargement is a form of body modification which has recently gained popularity because of its potential to increase pleasure and enhance the appearance of the genitals...
may be achieved temporarily through the use of a clitoral pump
Clitoral pump
A clitoral pump is a sex toy designed for women's pleasure that is applied to the clitoris and/or labia to create suction and increase blood flow to the genitals...
, or it may be achieved permanently through application of testosterone
Testosterone
Testosterone is a steroid hormone from the androgen group and is found in mammals, reptiles, birds, and other vertebrates. In mammals, testosterone is primarily secreted in the testes of males and the ovaries of females, although small amounts are also secreted by the adrenal glands...
cream to the clitoris, or through injectable testosterone. Penis enlargement
Penis enlargement
Penis enlargement procedures are techniques alleged to make the human penis increase in girth, length, or hardness. Often, in the course of advertising fraudulent products, the distinction between temporary enlargement, i.e...
is a term for various techniques used to attempt to increase the size of the penis, though the safety and efficacy of these techniques are debated.
Voluntary sex reassignment
Some transgenderTransgender
Transgender is a general term applied to a variety of individuals, behaviors, and groups involving tendencies to vary from culturally conventional gender roles....
people choose to undergo sex reassignment surgery
Sex reassignment surgery
Sex reassignment surgery is a term for the surgical procedures by which a person's physical appearance and function of their existing sexual characteristics are altered to resemble...
as part of their gender transition. Male-to-female transgenders, mtfs, or transwomen may undergo castration
Castration
Castration is any action, surgical, chemical, or otherwise, by which a male loses the functions of the testicles or a female loses the functions of the ovaries.-Humans:...
, with or without vaginoplasty
Vaginoplasty
thumb|right|300px|Vaginoplasty: the pre-operative aspect , and the post-operative aspect of a [[Labiaplasty|labial reduction]].Vaginoplasty is a reconstructive plastic surgery procedure for correcting the defects and deformities of the vaginal canal and its mucous membrane, and of vulvo-vaginal...
, while female to male, ftms, or transmen transgenders may undergo phalloplasty
Phalloplasty
Phalloplasty refers to the construction of a penis or, sometimes, artificial modification of the penis by surgery, often for cosmetic purposes. It is also occasionally used to refer to penis enlargement....
or metoidioplasty
Metoidioplasty
Metoidioplasty, sometimes referred to as a meto or meta or spelled "metaoidioplasty", is an alternative to phalloplasty for trans men...
, with or without oophorectomy
Oophorectomy
Oophorectomy is the surgical removal of an ovary or ovaries. The surgery is also called ovariectomy, but this term has been traditionally used in basic science research describing the surgical removal of ovaries in laboratory animals...
or hysterectomy
Hysterectomy
A hysterectomy is the surgical removal of the uterus, usually performed by a gynecologist. Hysterectomy may be total or partial...
. Transgender people who wish to make this surgical transition are referred to as transsexuals.
Involuntary sex assignment
If a baby is born with ambiguous genitalia due to an intersexIntersex
Intersex, in humans and other animals, is the presence of intermediate or atypical combinations of physical features that usually distinguish female from male...
condition, it may not be clear whether the child is female or male. In certain cases, the child's chromosomal makeup is neither female nor male, but a combination. In these cases, the baby is usually given a sex assignment, and in many cases, the child's genitals are surgically altered to conform to those of the assigned sex. This practice is met with strong dissent from advocates for genital integrity
Genital integrity
Male circumcision has often been, and remains, the subject of controversy on a number of grounds—including religious, ethical, sexual, and health....
. As cosmetic surgery is not medically necessary for health, they argue that the individual should be free to make the choice whether to pursue cosmetic surgery upon their genitals. Advocates state that the surgery can damage the individual's ability to experience sexual arousal and can render the individual incapable of orgasm. Another concern is that sex assignment holds a significant element of guesswork, and that an individual's sex assignment may turn out to be incorrect. If, for instance, an individual is assigned female, their phallus is usually surgically reduced in size, and the shape of a vulva may be created. If, upon maturing, the individual identifies as male; their phallus is still gone, and the individual may require further surgery to try to reverse the erroneous sex assignment. Those who oppose medically unnecessary genital surgery, and genital surgery coerced or performed without consent comprise the genital integrity
Genital integrity
Male circumcision has often been, and remains, the subject of controversy on a number of grounds—including religious, ethical, sexual, and health....
movement. The case of David Reimer
David Reimer
David Reimer was a Canadian man who was born as a healthy male, but was sexually reassigned and raised as female after his penis was accidentally destroyed during circumcision. Psychologist John Money oversaw the case and reported the reassignment as successful, and as evidence that gender...
, the victim of a botched circumcision
Circumcision
Male circumcision is the surgical removal of some or all of the foreskin from the penis. The word "circumcision" comes from Latin and ....
who was raised as a girl alongside his twin brother, bears many parallels to this issue.
In disease or medical necessity
If the genitals become diseased, as in the case of cancerCancer
Cancer , known medically as a malignant neoplasm, is a large group of different diseases, all involving unregulated cell growth. In cancer, cells divide and grow uncontrollably, forming malignant tumors, and invade nearby parts of the body. The cancer may also spread to more distant parts of the...
, sometimes the diseased areas are surgically removed. Biological females may undergo vaginectomy
Vaginectomy
Vaginectomy is a medical procedure to remove all or part of the vagina. It is usually used as a treatment for vaginal cancer. Vaginectomy is also used as part of some types of female-to-male sex reassignment surgery.-Cancer:...
, while males may undergo penectomy
Penectomy
Penectomy is the surgical removal of the penis for medical or personal reasons.- Medical Reasons for Penectomy :Cancer, for example, sometimes necessitates removal of part or of the penis. The amount of the penis removed depends on the severity of the cancer. Some men have only the tip of their...
. Reconstructive surgery
Reconstructive surgery
Reconstructive surgery is, in its broadest sense, the use of surgery to restore the form and function of the body, although Maxillo-Facial Surgeons, Plastic Surgeons and Otolaryngologists do reconstructive surgery on faces after trauma and to reconstruct the head and neck after cancer.Other...
may be performed to restore what was lost, often with techniques similar to those used in sex reassignment surgery
Sex reassignment surgery
Sex reassignment surgery is a term for the surgical procedures by which a person's physical appearance and function of their existing sexual characteristics are altered to resemble...
.
Similarly, during childbirth
Childbirth
Childbirth is the culmination of a human pregnancy or gestation period with the birth of one or more newborn infants from a woman's uterus...
, episiotomy
Episiotomy
An episiotomy , also known as perineotomy, is a surgically planned incision on the perineum and the posterior vaginal wall during second stage of labor. The incision, which can be midline or at an angle from the posterior end of the vulva, is performed under local anaesthetic , and is sutured...
is sometimes performed to increase the amount of space through which the baby may emerge. Advocates of natural childbirth
Natural childbirth
Natural Childbirth is a philosophy of childbirth that is based on the notion that women who are adequately prepared are innately able to give birth without routine medical interventions. Natural childbirth arose in opposition to the techno-medical model of childbirth that has recently gained...
and unassisted birth state that this intervention is often performed without medical necessity, with significant damage to the person giving birth.
Hymenotomy
Hymenotomy
A hymenotomy is a minor medical procedure involving the surgical removal or opening of the hymen. It is often performed on patients with imperforate hymens or septate hymens, or other situations where the hymen is unusually thick or rigid. In the case of a female with a hymen without any opening,...
is the surgical perforation of an imperforate hymen. It may be performed to allow menstruation
Menstruation
Menstruation is the shedding of the uterine lining . It occurs on a regular basis in sexually reproductive-age females of certain mammal species. This article focuses on human menstruation.-Overview:...
to occur. An adult individual may opt for increasing the size of her hymenal opening, or removal of the hymen altogether, to facilitate sexual penetration
Sexual penetration
Sexual penetration is a sexual activity that involves the entry into a bodily orifice, such as the vagina, anus or mouth, with a body part or an object....
of her vagina.
Female genitals
Cosmetic surgery of female genitalia, known as elective genitoplasty, has become pejoratively known as designer vagina. In May 2007, an article published in the British Medical Journal blasted the "designer vagina" craze, citing its popularity being rooted in commercial and media influences. Similar concerns have been expressed in Australia.Female genital mutilation
Female genital mutilation (FGM), also known as female genital cutting (FGC), female circumcision, or female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C), refers to "all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other surgery of the female genital organsSex organ
A sex organ, or primary sexual characteristic, as narrowly defined, is any of the anatomical parts of the body which are involved in sexual reproduction and constitute the reproductive system in a complex organism; flowers are the reproductive organs of flowering plants, cones are the reproductive...
whether for cultural
Culture
Culture is a term that has many different inter-related meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions...
, religious
Religion
Religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and worldviews that establishes symbols that relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values. Many religions have narratives, symbols, traditions and sacred histories that are intended to give meaning to life or to...
or other non-therapeutic reasons." It is not the same as the procedures used in gender reassignment surgery
Sex reassignment surgery
Sex reassignment surgery is a term for the surgical procedures by which a person's physical appearance and function of their existing sexual characteristics are altered to resemble...
or the genital modification of intersexuals. It is practiced throughout the world, but the practice is concentrated more heavily in Africa
Africa
Africa is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area...
, Indonesia
Indonesia
Indonesia , officially the Republic of Indonesia , is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 13,000 islands. It has 33 provinces with over 238 million people, and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an...
, and the Middle East
Middle East
The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...
. There is much controversy surrounding infibulation
Infibulation
Infibulation is the surgical modification or mutilation of the genitals in males and females, particularly the foreskin, labia minora and labia majora...
procedures, due to concerns regarding the safety and consequences of the procedure. In the past several decades, efforts have been made by global health organizations, such as the WHO, to end the practice. However, because of its importance in tradition
Tradition
A tradition is a ritual, belief or object passed down within a society, still maintained in the present, with origins in the past. Common examples include holidays or impractical but socially meaningful clothes , but the idea has also been applied to social norms such as greetings...
al and religious life, it continues to be practiced in many societies.
Hymenorrhaphy
HymenorrhaphyHymenorrhaphy
Hymenorrhaphy or hymenoplasty or hymen reconstruction surgery is the surgical restoration of the hymen. The term comes from the Greek words hymen meaning membrane, and raphe meaning suture...
refers to the practice of thickening the hymen, or, in some cases, implanting a capsule of red liquid within the newly-created vaginal tissue. The newly-created hymen is created to cause physical resistance, blood, or the appearance of blood, at the time that the individual's new husband inserts his penis into her vagina. This is done in cultures where a high value is placed on female virginity
Virginity
Virginity refers to the state of a person who has never engaged in sexual intercourse. There are cultural and religious traditions which place special value and significance on this state, especially in the case of unmarried females, associated with notions of personal purity, honor and worth...
at the time of marriage. In these cultures, a woman may be punished, perhaps violently, if the community leaders deem that she was not virginal at the time of consummation
Consummate
Consummation or consummation of a marriage, in many traditions and statutes of civil or religious law, is the first act of sexual intercourse between two individuals, following their marriage to each other...
of her marriage. Individuals who are victims of rape
Rape
Rape is a type of sexual assault usually involving sexual intercourse, which is initiated by one or more persons against another person without that person's consent. The act may be carried out by physical force, coercion, abuse of authority or with a person who is incapable of valid consent. The...
, who were virginal at the time of their rape, may elect for hymenorrhaphy.
Vaginoplasty and labiaplasty
Some women undergo vaginoplastyVaginoplasty
thumb|right|300px|Vaginoplasty: the pre-operative aspect , and the post-operative aspect of a [[Labiaplasty|labial reduction]].Vaginoplasty is a reconstructive plastic surgery procedure for correcting the defects and deformities of the vaginal canal and its mucous membrane, and of vulvo-vaginal...
or labiaplasty
Labiaplasty
Labiaplasty is a plastic surgery procedure for altering the labia minora and the labia majora, the paired tissue structures bounding the vestibule of the vulva. The indications for the correction of labial hypertrophy are two-fold: the correction of defect and deformity, and the cosmetic...
procedures to alter the shape of their vulva
Vulva
The vulva consists of the external genital organs of the female mammal. This article deals with the vulva of the human being, although the structures are similar for other mammals....
s to meet personal aesthetic standards. The surgery itself is controversial, and critics refer to the procedures as "designer vagina".
Male circumcision
Male circumcision involves the removal of the foreskinForeskin
In male human anatomy, the foreskin is a generally retractable double-layered fold of skin and mucous membrane that covers the glans penis and protects the urinary meatus when the penis is not erect...
. It may also involve frenectomy
Frenectomy
A lingual frenectomy is a form of frenectomy associated with the tongue.The removal of the lingual frenulum under the tongue can be accomplished with either frenectomy or frenuloplasty. This is used to treat a tongue tied patient. It is rumored that, immediately after this minor oral surgery, the...
, the removal of the frenulum
Frenulum
A frenulum is a small fold of tissue that secures or restricts the motion of a mobile organ in the body.-In human anatomy:...
. A related procedure is preputioplasty
Preputioplasty
Preputioplasty or prepuce plasty, also known as "limited dorsal slit with transverse closure", is a plastic surgical operation on the prepuce or foreskin of the penis, to widen a narrow non-retractile foreskin which cannot comfortably be drawn back off the head of the penis in erection because of a...
, which is used as a treatment for phimosis
Phimosis
Phimosis , from the Greek phimos ), is a condition where, in men, the foreskin cannot be fully retracted over the glans penis...
. This procedure is most often performed upon infant boys. It has religious significance in the Jewish religion and in Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
. It spread into Western culture, and peaked in the early 80s. The bioethics of neonatal circumcision
Bioethics of neonatal circumcision
Male circumcision involves the excision of genital tissue from the human body, so the ethics of circumcision are sometimes controversial.Some studies indicate that the foreskin and frenulum perform certain physiological functions among the men tested, which would be destroyed by excision...
are a subject of intense debate, with circumcision advocates promoting it as beneficial, and supporters of genital integrity opposing it as harmful and/or a violation of the individual's human rights. Some adults who were circumcised as infants engage in foreskin restoration
Foreskin restoration
Foreskin restoration is the process of expanding the residual skin on the penis, via surgical or non-surgical methods. It can be performed for several reasons, among them being a desire to create the appearance of a natural foreskin covering the glans penis, or to increase sexual sensitivity of...
, a method of stretching the penile skin in order to partially recreate the foreskin.
Penile subincision
Penile subincision is a form of body modification consisting of a urethrotomy, in which the underside of the penisPenis
The penis is a biological feature of male animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates...
is incised and the urethra
Urethra
In anatomy, the urethra is a tube that connects the urinary bladder to the genitals for the removal of fluids out of the body. In males, the urethra travels through the penis, and carries semen as well as urine...
slit open lengthwise, from the urethral opening (meatus
Urinary meatus
The urinary meatus is an orifice of the urethra. It is the point at which urine and, in males, semen exits the urethra. The meatus features varying degrees of sensitivity to the touch among males and females....
) toward the base. The slit can be of varying lengths.
Infibulation
Infibulation refers to suturing of the foreskin. In ancient Greece, performers infibulated themselves by using a clasp or string to foreskin and draw the penis over to one side.Penectomy
Penis removalPenis removal
In ancient civilizations, removal of the human penis was sometimes used as a means of demonstrating superiority: armies were sometimes known to sever the penises of their enemies to count the dead, as well as for trophies...
is another form of modification to the male genitalia.