George Horton
Encyclopedia
George Horton was a member of the US diplomatic corps
who held several consular offices, in Greece
and the Ottoman Empire
, in late 19th century and early 20th century. Horton initially arrived in Greece in 1893 and left from Greece 30 years later in 1924. During two different periods he was the US Consul
and US Consul general to Smyrna
, known as Izmir
today, the first time between 1911-1917 (till the cessation of diplomatic relations between the U.S. and the Ottoman Empire
during the First World War) and the second time between 1919–1922, during Greek administration of the city in the course of the Greco-Turkish War
. The Greek administration of Smyrna was appointed by the Allied Powers following Turkey's defeat in World War I and the seizure of Smyrna.
Today, George Horton is best remembered for his book about the events, notably the systematic ethnic cleansing
of the christian population, leading up to and during the fire. In his book he briefly summarises events from 1822 through to 1909 and then in more detail, with eye-witness accounts, from 1909 through to 1922. The book was published in 1926, and its title, The Blight of Asia, refers to what he considered the abominable behavior of the Ottoman Turks
, and by extension, all of Islam
.
. In 1909, Horton married Catherine Sakopoulos and they had one daughter, Nancy Horton.
and Latin
. He translated Sappho
. He wrote a guide for the interpretation of Scripture. He wrote several books (novel
s) and was a renowned journalist
in Chicago
, a member of what was called the “Chicago Renaissance.”
who loved Greece. He became U.S. Consul in Athens
in 1893, where he actively promoted the revival of the Olympic Games
and inspired the U.S. team's participation. He wrote a lyrical visitor's guide to Athens and composed a reflective description of his stay in Argolis
.
Horton served twice as the U.S. Consul in Athens 1893-1898 and between 1905-1906. Horton was the US Consul in Salonika between 1910 and 1911.
He then served as U.S. Consul in Smyrna
up to the U.S.'s break-off of diplomatic relations with the Ottoman Empire (1911–1917) in World War I. He served again as consul in Smyrna after the war (1919–1922) and remained in Smyrna until after the fire
began on September 13, 1922, spending the last hours before his evacuation signing passes for those entitled to American
protection and transportation to Piraeus
.
that ravaged the city of Smyrna
starting on 13 September 1922, two days after the Consul general's departure from his post there on 11 September, and that lasted for 4 days.
By the time of publication Horton had resigned his diplomatic commission, and he wrote strictly in the capacity of a private citizen, drawing on his own observations and those of the people he quotes. His account remains as controversial as the fire itself.
His account of the forced exodus of Smyrna's christian
inhabitants (Greek
and Armenian
), by Ottoman Turkish
soldiers, chronicles the latter stages of the ethnic cleansing of Asia Minor
's native christian population.
of 1914/15 by an american citizen and a german missionary. He also published letters that he received, at the US Consul in Smyrna, from americans living in Smyrna and the radio messages that he received whilst travelling by ship from Smyrna to Athens from 13 September 1922 that recorded how many lives were being saved by the British Navy.
First, he wanted to illustrate that the catastrophic events in Smyrna were merely “the closing act in a consistent program of exterminating Christianity throughout the length and breadth of the old Byzantine Empire.”
Second, he wanted to establish that the Smyrna fire was started by regular Turkish army troops with, as he put it, “fixed purpose, with system, and with painstaking minute details”.
Third, he wanted to emphasize that the Allied Powers
shamefully elevated their selfish political and economic interests over the plight of the beleaguered Christian
populations of Asia Minor
, thereby allowing the Smyrna catastrophe to unfold without any effective resistance and, as he said, “without even a word of protest by any civilized government.”
And fourth, he wanted to illustrate that pious western Christians were deluded in thinking they were making missionary headway in the Muslim
world.
described Horton's work, the Blight of Asia, in following terms:
Biray Kirli, who also put the blame on the Turkish side for the Great Fire of Smyrna, described Horton as an author "whose anti-Turkish bias is crudely explicit"
Heath Lowry considers The Blight of Asia as one-sided, extremely selective in the choice of testimonies, and so, unreliable.
between 1919–1922:
In that article it is noted that he brought with him thirty gold coins of ancient Lydia
, believed to have been minted for Croesus
, discovered by the American Archaeological Society.
Horton was quoted in a book titled Remembering Chrysostomos:A Modern Day Martyr:
During the Smyrna catastrophe, Nureddin Pasha
turned Bishop Chrysostomos
over to an angry mob. The bishop was barbarically beaten, mutilated and killed.
Diplomatic corps
The diplomatic corps or corps diplomatique is the collective body of foreign diplomats accredited to a particular country or body.The diplomatic corps may, in certain contexts, refer to the collection of accredited heads of mission who represent their countries in another state or country...
who held several consular offices, in Greece
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
and the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
, in late 19th century and early 20th century. Horton initially arrived in Greece in 1893 and left from Greece 30 years later in 1924. During two different periods he was the US Consul
Consul
Consul was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Empire. The title was also used in other city states and also revived in modern states, notably in the First French Republic...
and US Consul general to Smyrna
Smyrna
Smyrna was an ancient city located at a central and strategic point on the Aegean coast of Anatolia. Thanks to its advantageous port conditions, its ease of defence and its good inland connections, Smyrna rose to prominence. The ancient city is located at two sites within modern İzmir, Turkey...
, known as Izmir
Izmir
Izmir is a large metropolis in the western extremity of Anatolia. The metropolitan area in the entire Izmir Province had a population of 3.35 million as of 2010, making the city third most populous in Turkey...
today, the first time between 1911-1917 (till the cessation of diplomatic relations between the U.S. and the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
during the First World War) and the second time between 1919–1922, during Greek administration of the city in the course of the Greco-Turkish War
Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)
The Greco–Turkish War of 1919–1922, known as the Western Front of the Turkish War of Independence in Turkey and the Asia Minor Campaign or the Asia Minor Catastrophe in Greece, was a series of military events occurring during the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire after World War I between May...
. The Greek administration of Smyrna was appointed by the Allied Powers following Turkey's defeat in World War I and the seizure of Smyrna.
Today, George Horton is best remembered for his book about the events, notably the systematic ethnic cleansing
Ethnic cleansing
Ethnic cleansing is a purposeful policy designed by one ethnic or religious group to remove by violent and terror-inspiring means the civilian population of another ethnic orreligious group from certain geographic areas....
of the christian population, leading up to and during the fire. In his book he briefly summarises events from 1822 through to 1909 and then in more detail, with eye-witness accounts, from 1909 through to 1922. The book was published in 1926, and its title, The Blight of Asia, refers to what he considered the abominable behavior of the Ottoman Turks
Turkish people
Turkish people, also known as the "Turks" , are an ethnic group primarily living in Turkey and in the former lands of the Ottoman Empire where Turkish minorities had been established in Bulgaria, Cyprus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Greece, Kosovo, Macedonia, and Romania...
, and by extension, all of Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
.
Personal life
George Horton was born on October 11, 1859 in Fairville, New YorkNew York
New York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
. In 1909, Horton married Catherine Sakopoulos and they had one daughter, Nancy Horton.
Professional career
Horton was a literary man. He was a scholar of both GreekGreek language
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...
and Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
. He translated Sappho
Sappho
Sappho was an Ancient Greek poet, born on the island of Lesbos. Later Greeks included her in the list of nine lyric poets. Her birth was sometime between 630 and 612 BC, and it is said that she died around 570 BC, but little is known for certain about her life...
. He wrote a guide for the interpretation of Scripture. He wrote several books (novel
Novel
A novel is a book of long narrative in literary prose. The genre has historical roots both in the fields of the medieval and early modern romance and in the tradition of the novella. The latter supplied the present generic term in the late 18th century....
s) and was a renowned journalist
Journalist
A journalist collects and distributes news and other information. A journalist's work is referred to as journalism.A reporter is a type of journalist who researchs, writes, and reports on information to be presented in mass media, including print media , electronic media , and digital media A...
in Chicago
Chicago
Chicago is the largest city in the US state of Illinois. With nearly 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the Midwestern United States and the third most populous in the US, after New York City and Los Angeles...
, a member of what was called the “Chicago Renaissance.”
Journalist
Horton started his career as a literary journalist, first as the literary editor of Chicago Times-Herald (1899–1901) and then as the editor of the literary supplement of Chicago American newspaper (1901–1903).Diplomat
Horton was also a professional diplomatDiplomat
A diplomat is a person appointed by a state to conduct diplomacy with another state or international organization. The main functions of diplomats revolve around the representation and protection of the interests and nationals of the sending state, as well as the promotion of information and...
who loved Greece. He became U.S. Consul in Athens
Athens
Athens , is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, as its recorded history spans around 3,400 years. Classical Athens was a powerful city-state...
in 1893, where he actively promoted the revival of the Olympic Games
Olympic Games
The Olympic Games is a major international event featuring summer and winter sports, in which thousands of athletes participate in a variety of competitions. The Olympic Games have come to be regarded as the world’s foremost sports competition where more than 200 nations participate...
and inspired the U.S. team's participation. He wrote a lyrical visitor's guide to Athens and composed a reflective description of his stay in Argolis
Argolis
Argolis is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the region of Peloponnese. It is situated in the eastern part of the Peloponnese peninsula.-Geography:...
.
Horton served twice as the U.S. Consul in Athens 1893-1898 and between 1905-1906. Horton was the US Consul in Salonika between 1910 and 1911.
He then served as U.S. Consul in Smyrna
Smyrna
Smyrna was an ancient city located at a central and strategic point on the Aegean coast of Anatolia. Thanks to its advantageous port conditions, its ease of defence and its good inland connections, Smyrna rose to prominence. The ancient city is located at two sites within modern İzmir, Turkey...
up to the U.S.'s break-off of diplomatic relations with the Ottoman Empire (1911–1917) in World War I. He served again as consul in Smyrna after the war (1919–1922) and remained in Smyrna until after the fire
Great Fire of Smyrna
The Great Fire of Smyrna or the Catastrophe of Smyrna was a fire that destroyed much of the port city of Izmir in September 1922. Eye-witness reports state that the fire began on 13 September 1922 and lasted until it was largely extinguished on September 22...
began on September 13, 1922, spending the last hours before his evacuation signing passes for those entitled to American
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
protection and transportation to Piraeus
Piraeus
Piraeus is a city in the region of Attica, Greece. Piraeus is located within the Athens Urban Area, 12 km southwest from its city center , and lies along the east coast of the Saronic Gulf....
.
The Blight of Asia
Today, Horton is most remembered for his 1926 account "The Blight of Asia" relating, among a variety of topics, the Great Fire of SmyrnaGreat Fire of Smyrna
The Great Fire of Smyrna or the Catastrophe of Smyrna was a fire that destroyed much of the port city of Izmir in September 1922. Eye-witness reports state that the fire began on 13 September 1922 and lasted until it was largely extinguished on September 22...
that ravaged the city of Smyrna
Izmir
Izmir is a large metropolis in the western extremity of Anatolia. The metropolitan area in the entire Izmir Province had a population of 3.35 million as of 2010, making the city third most populous in Turkey...
starting on 13 September 1922, two days after the Consul general's departure from his post there on 11 September, and that lasted for 4 days.
By the time of publication Horton had resigned his diplomatic commission, and he wrote strictly in the capacity of a private citizen, drawing on his own observations and those of the people he quotes. His account remains as controversial as the fire itself.
His account of the forced exodus of Smyrna's christian
Christian
A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament...
inhabitants (Greek
Greeks
The Greeks, also known as the Hellenes , are a nation and ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighboring regions. They also form a significant diaspora, with Greek communities established around the world....
and Armenian
Armenians
Armenian people or Armenians are a nation and ethnic group native to the Armenian Highland.The largest concentration is in Armenia having a nearly-homogeneous population with 97.9% or 3,145,354 being ethnic Armenian....
), by Ottoman Turkish
Ottoman Turks
The Ottoman Turks were the Turkish-speaking population of the Ottoman Empire who formed the base of the state's military and ruling classes. Reliable information about the early history of Ottoman Turks is scarce, but they take their Turkish name, Osmanlı , from the house of Osman I The Ottoman...
soldiers, chronicles the latter stages of the ethnic cleansing of Asia Minor
Asia Minor
Asia Minor is a geographical location at the westernmost protrusion of Asia, also called Anatolia, and corresponds to the western two thirds of the Asian part of Turkey...
's native christian population.
Contemporary Communications
Horton's account does quote numerous contemporary communications including eyewitness accounts of the massacre of Phocea in 1914 by a frenchman and the armenian massacresArmenian Genocide
The Armenian Genocide—also known as the Armenian Holocaust, the Armenian Massacres and, by Armenians, as the Great Crime—refers to the deliberate and systematic destruction of the Armenian population of the Ottoman Empire during and just after World War I...
of 1914/15 by an american citizen and a german missionary. He also published letters that he received, at the US Consul in Smyrna, from americans living in Smyrna and the radio messages that he received whilst travelling by ship from Smyrna to Athens from 13 September 1922 that recorded how many lives were being saved by the British Navy.
Review
According to James L. Marketos, Horton wanted his book to make four main points.First, he wanted to illustrate that the catastrophic events in Smyrna were merely “the closing act in a consistent program of exterminating Christianity throughout the length and breadth of the old Byzantine Empire.”
Second, he wanted to establish that the Smyrna fire was started by regular Turkish army troops with, as he put it, “fixed purpose, with system, and with painstaking minute details”.
Third, he wanted to emphasize that the Allied Powers
Allies of World War I
The Entente Powers were the countries at war with the Central Powers during World War I. The members of the Triple Entente were the United Kingdom, France, and the Russian Empire; Italy entered the war on their side in 1915...
shamefully elevated their selfish political and economic interests over the plight of the beleaguered Christian
Christian
A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament...
populations of Asia Minor
Asia Minor
Asia Minor is a geographical location at the westernmost protrusion of Asia, also called Anatolia, and corresponds to the western two thirds of the Asian part of Turkey...
, thereby allowing the Smyrna catastrophe to unfold without any effective resistance and, as he said, “without even a word of protest by any civilized government.”
And fourth, he wanted to illustrate that pious western Christians were deluded in thinking they were making missionary headway in the Muslim
Muslim
A Muslim, also spelled Moslem, is an adherent of Islam, a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion based on the Quran, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God as revealed to prophet Muhammad. "Muslim" is the Arabic term for "submitter" .Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable...
world.
Criticism of the Blight of Asia
Brian ColemanBrian Coleman
Brian Coleman FRSA is a Conservative Party politician and member of the London Assembly for Barnet and Camden, England. He is a Councillor in the London Borough of Barnet, and was Mayor for 2009-2010....
described Horton's work, the Blight of Asia, in following terms:
"George Horton was a man of letters and United States Consul in Greece and Turkey at a time of social and political change. He writes of the re-taking of Smyrna by the Turkish army in September 1922. His account, however, goes beyond the blame and events to a demonization of Muslims, in general, and of Turks, in particular. In several of his novels, written more than two decades before the events of September 1922, he had already identified the Turk as the stock-in-trade villainVillainA villain is an "evil" character in a story, whether a historical narrative or, especially, a work of fiction. The villain usually is the antagonist, the character who tends to have a negative effect on other characters...
of Western civilization. In his account of Smyrna, he writes not as historian, but as publicist."
Biray Kirli, who also put the blame on the Turkish side for the Great Fire of Smyrna, described Horton as an author "whose anti-Turkish bias is crudely explicit"
Heath Lowry considers The Blight of Asia as one-sided, extremely selective in the choice of testimonies, and so, unreliable.
Criticism of Horton as a consul
Justin McCarthy argues that George Horton under-reported to his superiors the atrocities committted by the Greek forces against the Turkish civilian population during the Greek occupation of IzmirOccupation of Izmir
The Occupation of Smyrna occurred from 15 May 1919 to 8 September 1922 by Greek forces under the High Commissioner Aristidis Stergiadis in the Smyrna district, aligned with the Allied partitioning of the Ottoman Empire. There were no military hostilities between Greece and the Ottoman Empire...
between 1919–1922:
The reporting of the events at Aydin poin up the danger of trusting the reports of prejudiced sources, especially Americans, without careful consideration. The American consul at Izmir in 1919, Horton, was intensively pro-Greek, so much that members of the American, as well as the Turkish, communities at Izmir complained of his prejudices to the State Department (U.S. 867.00/302, John Manola [of New York] to Lansing, received 11 July 1919). Horton's reports of Aydin were a distillation of reports from the Greeks (U.S. 867.00/288, Horton to American Mission, Paris, Smyrna, 2 July 1919). However, in the face of overwhelming evidence from American and British observers, he was forced to retract his charges of atrocities by the Turks and stated ‘During the Occupation of the Turks after the Greeks had retreated, the Christian population was protected by one British officer and two French officer and by Turkish regular troops of the old 57th division, who are well disciplined and bow to foreign flags [my emphasis]’ (U.S. 867.00/295, Horton to American Embassy, Paris, Smyrna, 6 july 1919). He would still not admit, despite unanimous evidence of the Allied representatives on the scene, that Greeks attacked Turks. He blamed all the troubles in Aydin Vilâyeti on the Turks, and as instigators, the Italians. [...]
Horton's book, The Blight of Asia (Indianapolis, 1926) is a study of the victory of prejudice on reason. In it, he describes the Turks as ‘the lowest of the Mohammedans intellectually, with none, or at least few, of the graces and accomplishment of civilization, with no cultural history’ (p. 209) and ‘the only branch of the Mohammaden faith which has never made any contribution to the progress of civilization’ (p. 255).
Media coverage
The New York Times carried an article on 21 September 1922, concerning events in Smyrna and Horton's earlier career at the US Consul in Salonica.
"During my consulship at Saloniki I was bombed by BulgarsBulgarsThe Bulgars were a semi-nomadic who flourished in the Pontic Steppe and the Volga basin in the 7th century.The Bulgars emerge after the collapse of the Hunnic Empire in the 5th century....
and GermansGermansThe Germans are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe. The English term Germans has referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages....
and during my official career I have had many rough experiences with submarines and fire, but never in my life have I seen anything like the Smyrna catastrophe ... "
Return to the United States
Horton was mentioned in the New York Times, of 4 November 1922 p. 28, on his return to the United States in 1922.
"Dr. George Horton, United States Consul General at Smyrna, where he witnessed the burning and sacking of the ancient seaport and the evacuation of 40,000 refugees in five days, arrived here yesterday on the America of the United States LinesUnited States LinesUnited States Lines was a transatlantic shipping company that operated cargo services from 1921 to 1989, and ocean liners until 1969—most famously the SS United States.-1920s:...
..."
In that article it is noted that he brought with him thirty gold coins of ancient Lydia
Lydia
Lydia was an Iron Age kingdom of western Asia Minor located generally east of ancient Ionia in the modern Turkish provinces of Manisa and inland İzmir. Its population spoke an Anatolian language known as Lydian....
, believed to have been minted for Croesus
Croesus
Croesus was the king of Lydia from 560 to 547 BC until his defeat by the Persians. The fall of Croesus made a profound impact on the Hellenes, providing a fixed point in their calendar. "By the fifth century at least," J.A.S...
, discovered by the American Archaeological Society.
Horton was quoted in a book titled Remembering Chrysostomos:A Modern Day Martyr:
I have known Monsigneur Chrysostomos for years. He was an active and enthusiastic exponent of Greek ambitions and ideals which it seems to me was quite natural in him as a Greek ... [Greeks should] set him down in their history as a hero and martyr.
During the Smyrna catastrophe, Nureddin Pasha
Nureddin Pasha
Nureddin Pasha , often called Bearded Nureddin , was a Turkish military officer, who served in the Ottoman Empire during World War I and in the Turkish army during the Greco-Turkish War...
turned Bishop Chrysostomos
Chrysostomos of Smyrna
Chrysostomos Kalafatis , known as Saint Chrysostomos of Smyrna, Chrysostomos of Smyrna and Metropolitan Chrysostom, was the Greek Orthodox bishop of Smyrna between 1910 and 1914, and again from 1919 to his death in 1922...
over to an angry mob. The bishop was barbarically beaten, mutilated and killed.