Ghetto benches
Encyclopedia
Ghetto benches or bench Ghetto (known in Polish as getto ławkowe) was a form of official segregation
in the seating of students, introduced in Poland
's universities beginning in 1935 at Lwow Polytechnic. By 1937, when this practice became conditionally legalized, most rector
s at other higher education
institutions had adopted this form of segregation. Under the ghetto ławkowe system, Jewish university students were forced, under threat of expulsion, to sit in a left-hand side section of the lecture halls reserved exclusively for them. This official policy of enforced segregation was often accompanied by acts of violence directed against Jewish students by members of the ONR
(delegalised already after three months in 1934) and other extreme right and anti-Semitic organizations.
The "bench Ghetto" marked a peak of antisemitism in Poland between the world wars. "It antagonized not only Jews, but also many Poles." "Jewish students protested these policies, along with some Poles supporting them...[i.e. the Jewish students]" and stood instead of sitting. The segregation continued in force until the invasion of Poland
in World War II
and Poland's occupation by Nazi Germany suppressed the entire Polish education
al system.
. Several hundred thousand joined the already numerous Polish Jewish minority living predominantly in urban environments. They were considered foreigners in Poland, especially that they were among the least assimilated of all European Jewish communities of that time while, at the same time, forming the second largest minority at up to 10% of the total population of the Polish Second Republic. Jewish representation in educational institutions started to increase already during World War I
and, since Jewish culture highly supported education, the Jewish student population of Polish universities was out of proportion with that of gentile
Poles during the Interbellum. In the early 1920s, Jews constituted over one-third of all students attending Polish universities. At the same time, Polish universities had become the stronghold of the nationalist, antisemitic National Democracy supporters.
Proposals to reinstitute the numerus clausus, which would restrict Jewish enrollment to 10% of the student body (roughly the percentage of Jews living in Poland) were made as early as 1923. However, as this would have violated the Little Treaty of Versailles
, the proposals were rejected. In spite of these earlier objections, Poland later renounced the Treaty in 1934. Polish nationalism and hostility towards minorities, particularly Jews, increased. Discriminatory policies regarding Jews in education in Poland continued the practice of the Russian Empire
's numerus clausus
policy, implemented by the Empire during Poland's partitions
, which restricted, by means of quota
s, the participation of Jews
in public life.
Issues that had earlier been resolved by the Russian Empire
were now decided locally, uniting the Poles while dividing the nation as a whole.
Various means of limiting the number of Jewish students were adopted, seeking to reduce the Jewish role in Poland's economic and social life. The situation of Jews improved under Józef Piłsudski, but after his death in 1935 the National Democrats regained much of their power and the status of Jewish students deteriorated. A student "Green Ribbon" League was organized in 1931; its members distributed anti-semitic material and called for the boycott of Jewish businesses and the enforcement of the numerus clausus. In 1934 a group of rabbi
s petitioned the Archbishop
of Warsaw, Aleksander Kakowski, to stop the "youthful outbursts"; Kakowski responded that the incidents were regrettable, but also stated that Jewish newspapers were "infecting public culture with atheism."
Agitation against Jewish students intensified during the economic recession of the 1930s
and afterwards, as unemployment began to affect the Polish intellectual strata. There were growing demands to decrease the number of Jews in science and business so that "Christian" Poles could fill their positions. In November 1931, violence accompanied demands to reduce the number of Jewish students at several Polish universities. The universities' autonomous status contributed to this, as university rector
s tended not to call in police to protect Jewish students from attacks on the campuses, and no action was taken against students involved in anti-Jewish violence.
Nuremberg Laws
, demanded segregation
of Jews into separate sections in the classrooms, known as "ghetto benches". The majority of Jewish students refused to accept this system of seating, considering it to be a violation of their civil rights
. At some universities Polish students even attempted to forcibly move Jews to the ghetto benches.
Following Piłsudski's death in 1935, anti-Jewish riots broke out at the University of Warsaw
and the Warsaw Polytechnic. The violence spread from the campuses to the streets of Warsaw. Subsequently violence broke out at other universities in Poland as well. The student riots and violence were however mutual. Especially Jewish students from Academic Zionist Association "Kadimah" (Akademicki Związek Syjonistyczny "Kadimah") were involved in violence against Polish students. An uninterrupted wave of anti-Jewish violence eventually led to the temporary closure of all of Warsaw's institutions of higher education in November 1935. The National Democracy press put the blame for the riots on Jews refusing to comply with special seating arrangements set by Polish students.
While the Polish government initially opposed the segregation policies, the universities enjoyed significant level of autonomy and were able to impose their local regulations. Ghetto benches were officially sanctioned for the first time in December 1935 at the Lwów Polytechnic. Following several violent attacks against the Jewish students, school officials ordered that they sit in separate sections, under threat of expulsion. Penalties were imposed on those who stayed away from classes in protest against segregated seating. The move to legalize ghetto benches was contested by the Jewish community, which saw it as a dangerous precedent. Ghetto benches were criticized by Jewish deputies to the Sejm
(Polish parliament). In January 1936, a delegation of representatives of the Jewish community of Lwów
(Lviv) met with Poland's Education Minister, who promised to discuss the issue with school administrations, and in February 1936 the ghetto-bench order was cancelled by the Lwów Polytechnic's academic senate
.
This setback for the segregationist cause did not stop attempts to establish ghetto benches in other Polish universities. Demands for segregated seating were again raised by the OZON
-led Union of Young Poland (Związek Młodej Polski), the ND All-Polish Youth
, and other nationalist youth organizations. The Ministry of Education in Warsaw was opposed to the ghetto benches, declaring numerus clausus
a violation of the constitution, and Polish Minister of Education stated that: "Student ghettos would not be introduced at the Polish Universities". However in light of the continuing serious riots at the university, which the Ministry condemned as "zoological patriotism", the Ministry slowly gave in and decided to withdrew its opposition, hoping that the introduction of the ghettos would end the riots. The ethno-nationalists finally won their campaign for ghetto benches in 1937 when by Ministry decision universities were granted the right to regulate the seating of Polish and Jewish students. On October 5, 1937, the Rector of Warsaw Polytechnic ordered the establishment of the institution of ghetto benches in the lecture halls. Within a few days, similar orders were given in other universities of Poland. Over 50 notable Polish professors (for example, Marceli Handelsman
, Stanisław Ossowski, Tadeusz Kotarbiński
, Manfred Kridl
) criticized the introduction of the ghetto benches and declined to enforce either a quota or the ghetto bench system, but their voices were ignored; together with a few Polish students that objected to the ghettos, they would protest by standing in class, refusing to sit down. Rector Władysław Marian Jakowicki
of the Stefan Batory University in Wilno (Vilnius) resigned from his position in protest of the introduction of the benches. The only rector that refused to establish ghetto benches in his university was Prof. Stanisław Kulczyński of Lwów University. Facing the decision to sign the order introducing segregated seating, Prof. Kulczyński resigned from his position instead of signing it. Nevertheless the instruction ordering special "mandatory seats" for all Jewish students still was issued by the vice-rector of Lwów University the next morning. The only faculty in Poland that did not have ghetto benches introduced was that of the Children's Clinic in the Piłsudski University of Warsaw led by Professor Mieczysław Michałowicz, who refused to obey to the Rector's order. Some fifty-six professors of Warsaw, Poznań, and Wilno universities signed a protest against the Ghetto benches in December 1937. The list included the "elite of Polish scholarship", signatories such as Tadeusz Kotarbiński
, sociologists Józef Chałasiński, Stanisław and Maria Ossowska
and Jan Stanisław Bystroń, biologists Stanisław Kulczyński and Jan Dembowski
, psychologist Władysław Witwicki, physicist Konstanty Zakrzewski
, and historians Seweryn Wysłouch
, Tadeusz Manteuffel
and Natalia Gąsiorowska.
The introduction of ghetto benches was criticized internationally. Over 300 British professors signed an anti-ghetto bench manifesto. The International League for Academic Freedom in New York published an open letter signed by 202 professors condemning ghetto benches as "alien to the spirit of academic freedom."
Despite the arguments by Sanacja
government that introduction of ghetto benches would stop the disturbances, anti-Jewish violence continued, resulting in clashes between Jewish and Polish students organisations which even resulted in two fatalities among the Jewish students and assaults or even assassination attempts on Polish professors critical of the segregation policies.
.
The practice of segregated seating for the Jewish students in Poland ended with the demise of the Polish state
in the beginning of the Second World War
after which most of the Polish education was shut down (see Education in Poland during World War II
) although Lwów Polytechnic remained. Most Polish Jews perished during the Nazi Germany
occupation of Poland in the Holocaust in Poland
.
Racial segregation
Racial segregation is the separation of humans into racial groups in daily life. It may apply to activities such as eating in a restaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a public toilet, attending school, going to the movies, or in the rental or purchase of a home...
in the seating of students, introduced in Poland
Second Polish Republic
The Second Polish Republic, Second Commonwealth of Poland or interwar Poland refers to Poland between the two world wars; a period in Polish history in which Poland was restored as an independent state. Officially known as the Republic of Poland or the Commonwealth of Poland , the Polish state was...
's universities beginning in 1935 at Lwow Polytechnic. By 1937, when this practice became conditionally legalized, most rector
Rector
The word rector has a number of different meanings; it is widely used to refer to an academic, religious or political administrator...
s at other higher education
Higher education
Higher, post-secondary, tertiary, or third level education refers to the stage of learning that occurs at universities, academies, colleges, seminaries, and institutes of technology...
institutions had adopted this form of segregation. Under the ghetto ławkowe system, Jewish university students were forced, under threat of expulsion, to sit in a left-hand side section of the lecture halls reserved exclusively for them. This official policy of enforced segregation was often accompanied by acts of violence directed against Jewish students by members of the ONR
Obóz Narodowo-Radykalny
The National Radical Camp was a Polish extreme right anti-semitic, anti-communist, and nationalist political party, formed on 14 April 1934 mostly by the youth radicals who left the National Party of the National Democracy movement....
(delegalised already after three months in 1934) and other extreme right and anti-Semitic organizations.
The "bench Ghetto" marked a peak of antisemitism in Poland between the world wars. "It antagonized not only Jews, but also many Poles." "Jewish students protested these policies, along with some Poles supporting them...[i.e. the Jewish students]" and stood instead of sitting. The segregation continued in force until the invasion of Poland
Invasion of Poland (1939)
The Invasion of Poland, also known as the September Campaign or 1939 Defensive War in Poland and the Poland Campaign in Germany, was an invasion of Poland by Germany, the Soviet Union, and a small Slovak contingent that marked the start of World War II in Europe...
in World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
and Poland's occupation by Nazi Germany suppressed the entire Polish education
Education in Poland
Since changes made in 2009 Education in Poland starts at the age of five or six for the 0 class and six or seven years in the 1st class of primary school . It is compulsory that children do one year of formal education before entering 1st class at no later than 7 years of age...
al system.
Background
The percentage of Poland's Jewish population increased greatly during the Russian Civil WarRussian Civil War
The Russian Civil War was a multi-party war that occurred within the former Russian Empire after the Russian provisional government collapsed to the Soviets, under the domination of the Bolshevik party. Soviet forces first assumed power in Petrograd The Russian Civil War (1917–1923) was a...
. Several hundred thousand joined the already numerous Polish Jewish minority living predominantly in urban environments. They were considered foreigners in Poland, especially that they were among the least assimilated of all European Jewish communities of that time while, at the same time, forming the second largest minority at up to 10% of the total population of the Polish Second Republic. Jewish representation in educational institutions started to increase already during World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
and, since Jewish culture highly supported education, the Jewish student population of Polish universities was out of proportion with that of gentile
Gentile
The term Gentile refers to non-Israelite peoples or nations in English translations of the Bible....
Poles during the Interbellum. In the early 1920s, Jews constituted over one-third of all students attending Polish universities. At the same time, Polish universities had become the stronghold of the nationalist, antisemitic National Democracy supporters.
Proposals to reinstitute the numerus clausus, which would restrict Jewish enrollment to 10% of the student body (roughly the percentage of Jews living in Poland) were made as early as 1923. However, as this would have violated the Little Treaty of Versailles
Little Treaty of Versailles
Little Treaty of Versailles or the Polish Minority Treaty was one of the bilateral Minority Treaties signed between minor powers and the League of Nations in the aftermath of the First World War. The Polish treaty was signed on 28 June 1919, the same day as the main Treaty of Versailles was signed...
, the proposals were rejected. In spite of these earlier objections, Poland later renounced the Treaty in 1934. Polish nationalism and hostility towards minorities, particularly Jews, increased. Discriminatory policies regarding Jews in education in Poland continued the practice of the Russian Empire
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
's numerus clausus
Numerus clausus
Numerus clausus is one of many methods used to limit the number of students who may study at a university. In many cases, the goal of the numerus clausus is simply to limit the number of students to the maximum feasible in some particularly sought-after areas of studies.However, in some cases,...
policy, implemented by the Empire during Poland's partitions
Partitions of Poland
The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, resulting in the elimination of sovereign Poland for 123 years...
, which restricted, by means of quota
Jewish quota
Jewish quota was a percentage that limited the number of Jews in various establishments. In particular, in 19th and 20th centuries some countries had Jewish quotas for higher education, a special case of Numerus clausus....
s, the participation of Jews
Jews
The Jews , also known as the Jewish people, are a nation and ethnoreligious group originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation...
in public life.
Issues that had earlier been resolved by the Russian Empire
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
were now decided locally, uniting the Poles while dividing the nation as a whole.
Various means of limiting the number of Jewish students were adopted, seeking to reduce the Jewish role in Poland's economic and social life. The situation of Jews improved under Józef Piłsudski, but after his death in 1935 the National Democrats regained much of their power and the status of Jewish students deteriorated. A student "Green Ribbon" League was organized in 1931; its members distributed anti-semitic material and called for the boycott of Jewish businesses and the enforcement of the numerus clausus. In 1934 a group of rabbi
Rabbi
In Judaism, a rabbi is a teacher of Torah. This title derives from the Hebrew word רבי , meaning "My Master" , which is the way a student would address a master of Torah...
s petitioned the Archbishop
Archbishop
An archbishop is a bishop of higher rank, but not of higher sacramental order above that of the three orders of deacon, priest , and bishop...
of Warsaw, Aleksander Kakowski, to stop the "youthful outbursts"; Kakowski responded that the incidents were regrettable, but also stated that Jewish newspapers were "infecting public culture with atheism."
Agitation against Jewish students intensified during the economic recession of the 1930s
Great Depression
The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression in the decade preceding World War II. The timing of the Great Depression varied across nations, but in most countries it started in about 1929 and lasted until the late 1930s or early 1940s...
and afterwards, as unemployment began to affect the Polish intellectual strata. There were growing demands to decrease the number of Jews in science and business so that "Christian" Poles could fill their positions. In November 1931, violence accompanied demands to reduce the number of Jewish students at several Polish universities. The universities' autonomous status contributed to this, as university rector
Rector
The word rector has a number of different meanings; it is widely used to refer to an academic, religious or political administrator...
s tended not to call in police to protect Jewish students from attacks on the campuses, and no action was taken against students involved in anti-Jewish violence.
Attempts to legalize segregated seating
In 1935, students associated with National Democracy and the National Radical Camp, influenced by the NaziNazi Germany
Nazi Germany , also known as the Third Reich , but officially called German Reich from 1933 to 1943 and Greater German Reich from 26 June 1943 onward, is the name commonly used to refer to the state of Germany from 1933 to 1945, when it was a totalitarian dictatorship ruled by...
Nuremberg Laws
Nuremberg Laws
The Nuremberg Laws of 1935 were antisemitic laws in Nazi Germany introduced at the annual Nuremberg Rally of the Nazi Party. After the takeover of power in 1933 by Hitler, Nazism became an official ideology incorporating scientific racism and antisemitism...
, demanded segregation
Racial segregation
Racial segregation is the separation of humans into racial groups in daily life. It may apply to activities such as eating in a restaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a public toilet, attending school, going to the movies, or in the rental or purchase of a home...
of Jews into separate sections in the classrooms, known as "ghetto benches". The majority of Jewish students refused to accept this system of seating, considering it to be a violation of their civil rights
Civil rights
Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect individuals' freedom from unwarranted infringement by governments and private organizations, and ensure one's ability to participate in the civil and political life of the state without discrimination or repression.Civil rights include...
. At some universities Polish students even attempted to forcibly move Jews to the ghetto benches.
Following Piłsudski's death in 1935, anti-Jewish riots broke out at the University of Warsaw
University of Warsaw
The University of Warsaw is the largest university in Poland and one of the most prestigious, ranked as best Polish university in 2010 and 2011...
and the Warsaw Polytechnic. The violence spread from the campuses to the streets of Warsaw. Subsequently violence broke out at other universities in Poland as well. The student riots and violence were however mutual. Especially Jewish students from Academic Zionist Association "Kadimah" (Akademicki Związek Syjonistyczny "Kadimah") were involved in violence against Polish students. An uninterrupted wave of anti-Jewish violence eventually led to the temporary closure of all of Warsaw's institutions of higher education in November 1935. The National Democracy press put the blame for the riots on Jews refusing to comply with special seating arrangements set by Polish students.
Introduction of ghetto benches
Sejm
The Sejm is the lower house of the Polish parliament. The Sejm is made up of 460 deputies, or Poseł in Polish . It is elected by universal ballot and is presided over by a speaker called the Marshal of the Sejm ....
(Polish parliament). In January 1936, a delegation of representatives of the Jewish community of Lwów
Lviv
Lviv is a city in western Ukraine. The city is regarded as one of the main cultural centres of today's Ukraine and historically has also been a major Polish and Jewish cultural center, as Poles and Jews were the two main ethnicities of the city until the outbreak of World War II and the following...
(Lviv) met with Poland's Education Minister, who promised to discuss the issue with school administrations, and in February 1936 the ghetto-bench order was cancelled by the Lwów Polytechnic's academic senate
Academic Senate
An Academic Senate is a governing body in some universities and colleges, and is typically the supreme academic authority for the institution.-Scotland:...
.
This setback for the segregationist cause did not stop attempts to establish ghetto benches in other Polish universities. Demands for segregated seating were again raised by the OZON
Ozon
Ozon may refer to:* François Ozon, a French film director and screenwriter* ozon.ru, the Russian analog of Amazon.com* Ozon Radio , various radio stations* Obóz Zjednoczenia Narodowego, a Polish political party...
-led Union of Young Poland (Związek Młodej Polski), the ND All-Polish Youth
All-Polish Youth
The All-Polish Youth is a Polish nationalist youth group, formerly affiliated with the League of Polish Families, with a Catholic-National philosophy. Its agenda declares that its aim is to raise Polish youth in a Catholic and patriotic spirit....
, and other nationalist youth organizations. The Ministry of Education in Warsaw was opposed to the ghetto benches, declaring numerus clausus
Numerus clausus
Numerus clausus is one of many methods used to limit the number of students who may study at a university. In many cases, the goal of the numerus clausus is simply to limit the number of students to the maximum feasible in some particularly sought-after areas of studies.However, in some cases,...
a violation of the constitution, and Polish Minister of Education stated that: "Student ghettos would not be introduced at the Polish Universities". However in light of the continuing serious riots at the university, which the Ministry condemned as "zoological patriotism", the Ministry slowly gave in and decided to withdrew its opposition, hoping that the introduction of the ghettos would end the riots. The ethno-nationalists finally won their campaign for ghetto benches in 1937 when by Ministry decision universities were granted the right to regulate the seating of Polish and Jewish students. On October 5, 1937, the Rector of Warsaw Polytechnic ordered the establishment of the institution of ghetto benches in the lecture halls. Within a few days, similar orders were given in other universities of Poland. Over 50 notable Polish professors (for example, Marceli Handelsman
Marceli Handelsman
Marceli Handelsman was a Polish historian, a Warsaw University professor, medievalist, modern historian, and historical methodologist.-Life:Marceli Handelsman was born on 8 July 1882, in Warsaw, to a family of distant Jewish ancestry...
, Stanisław Ossowski, Tadeusz Kotarbiński
Tadeusz Kotarbinski
Tadeusz Kotarbiński , a pupil of Kazimierz Twardowski, was a Polish philosopher, logician, one of the most representative figures of the Lwów-Warsaw School, and a member of the Polish Academy of Learning as well as the Polish Academy of Sciences...
, Manfred Kridl
Manfred Kridl
Manfred Kridl was a Polish historian of literature.From 1932 Kridl taught at Wilno's Stefan Batory University, where he was an opponent of anti-semitic ghetto-bench policy. In 1940, during World War II, Kridl managed to escape from occupied Poland and settled in the United States. There he taught...
) criticized the introduction of the ghetto benches and declined to enforce either a quota or the ghetto bench system, but their voices were ignored; together with a few Polish students that objected to the ghettos, they would protest by standing in class, refusing to sit down. Rector Władysław Marian Jakowicki
Władysław Marian Jakowicki
Władysław Marian Jakowicki was a Polish soldier, physician and an academic. Professor and rector of the Stefan Batory University in Wilno...
of the Stefan Batory University in Wilno (Vilnius) resigned from his position in protest of the introduction of the benches. The only rector that refused to establish ghetto benches in his university was Prof. Stanisław Kulczyński of Lwów University. Facing the decision to sign the order introducing segregated seating, Prof. Kulczyński resigned from his position instead of signing it. Nevertheless the instruction ordering special "mandatory seats" for all Jewish students still was issued by the vice-rector of Lwów University the next morning. The only faculty in Poland that did not have ghetto benches introduced was that of the Children's Clinic in the Piłsudski University of Warsaw led by Professor Mieczysław Michałowicz, who refused to obey to the Rector's order. Some fifty-six professors of Warsaw, Poznań, and Wilno universities signed a protest against the Ghetto benches in December 1937. The list included the "elite of Polish scholarship", signatories such as Tadeusz Kotarbiński
Tadeusz Kotarbinski
Tadeusz Kotarbiński , a pupil of Kazimierz Twardowski, was a Polish philosopher, logician, one of the most representative figures of the Lwów-Warsaw School, and a member of the Polish Academy of Learning as well as the Polish Academy of Sciences...
, sociologists Józef Chałasiński, Stanisław and Maria Ossowska
Maria Ossowska
Maria Ossowska was a Polish sociologist and social philosopher.-Life:...
and Jan Stanisław Bystroń, biologists Stanisław Kulczyński and Jan Dembowski
Jan Bohdan Dembowski
Jan Bohdan Dembowski was a Polish biologist, professor, first president of the Polish Academy of Sciences , marshal of the Sejm , Deputy Chairman of the Polish Council of State .He was awarded the Order of the Builders of Polish People's Republic and also received the Commander's...
, psychologist Władysław Witwicki, physicist Konstanty Zakrzewski
Konstanty Zakrzewski
Konstanty Zakrzewski was a Polish physicist. He was a professor of the Jagiellonian University and professor of the Lviv University , member of the Polish Academy of Learning .Zakrzewski was a researcher of electron theory of metals, optics, dielectric properties of substances...
, and historians Seweryn Wysłouch
Seweryn Wysłouch
Seweryn Wysłouch was an influential legal historian and vice-rector of Wrocław University.-Biography:...
, Tadeusz Manteuffel
Tadeusz Manteuffel
Tadeusz Manteuffel or Tadeusz Manteuffel-Szoege was a Polish historian, specializing in the medieval history of Europe.- Biography :...
and Natalia Gąsiorowska.
The introduction of ghetto benches was criticized internationally. Over 300 British professors signed an anti-ghetto bench manifesto. The International League for Academic Freedom in New York published an open letter signed by 202 professors condemning ghetto benches as "alien to the spirit of academic freedom."
Despite the arguments by Sanacja
Sanacja
Sanation was a Polish political movement that came to power after Józef Piłsudski's May 1926 Coup d'État. Sanation took its name from his watchword—the moral "sanation" of the Polish body politic...
government that introduction of ghetto benches would stop the disturbances, anti-Jewish violence continued, resulting in clashes between Jewish and Polish students organisations which even resulted in two fatalities among the Jewish students and assaults or even assassination attempts on Polish professors critical of the segregation policies.
Aftermath
The ghetto bench system and other anti-Semitic demonstrations of the segment of student youth inspired vengeance among some Jewish students of Lwów Polytechnic upon the arrival of the Soviet authorities, following the Soviet invasion of PolandSoviet invasion of Poland (1939)
The 1939 Soviet invasion of Poland was a Soviet military operation that started without a formal declaration of war on 17 September 1939, during the early stages of World War II. Sixteen days after Nazi Germany invaded Poland from the west, the Soviet Union did so from the east...
.
The practice of segregated seating for the Jewish students in Poland ended with the demise of the Polish state
Invasion of Poland (1939)
The Invasion of Poland, also known as the September Campaign or 1939 Defensive War in Poland and the Poland Campaign in Germany, was an invasion of Poland by Germany, the Soviet Union, and a small Slovak contingent that marked the start of World War II in Europe...
in the beginning of the Second World War
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
after which most of the Polish education was shut down (see Education in Poland during World War II
Education in Poland during World War II
This article covers the topic of underground education in Poland during World War II. Secret learning prepared new cadres for the post-war reconstruction of Poland and countered the German and Soviet threat to exterminate the Polish culture....
) although Lwów Polytechnic remained. Most Polish Jews perished during the Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany , also known as the Third Reich , but officially called German Reich from 1933 to 1943 and Greater German Reich from 26 June 1943 onward, is the name commonly used to refer to the state of Germany from 1933 to 1945, when it was a totalitarian dictatorship ruled by...
occupation of Poland in the Holocaust in Poland
Holocaust in Poland
The Holocaust, also known as haShoah , was a genocide officially sanctioned and executed by the Third Reich during World War II. It took the lives of three million Polish Jews, destroying an entire civilization. Only a small percentage survived or managed to escape beyond the reach of the Nazis...
.
Further reading
Monika Natkowska, "Numerus clausus", "ghetto ławkowe", "numerus nullus": Antisemityzm na uniwersytecie Warszawskim 1931–39 ("Numerus clauses", "ghetto benches", "numerus nullus": Antisemitism in Warsaw University" 1931–39), Warsaw, 1999. Zbysław Popławski, "Dzieje Politechniki Lwowskiej 1844-1945", Wrocław 1992.- H. Rabinowicz. "The Battle of the Ghetto Benches." The Jewish Quarterly ReviewJewish Quarterly ReviewThe Jewish Quarterly Review is an peer-reviewed academic journal which focuses on Jewish studies. It is published quarterly for the Herbert D. Katz Center for Advanced Judaic Studies at the University of Pennsylvania by the University of Pennsylvania Press. The current editors are Elliott Horowitz...
, New Series, Vol. 55, No. 2 (Oct., 1964), pp. 151–159.