Great Saxon Revolt
Encyclopedia
The Great Saxon Revolt was a civil war between 1077 and 1088 early in the history of the Holy Roman Empire
led by a group of opportunistic German princes who elected as their figurehead the duke
of Swabia
and anti-king Rudolf of Rheinfeld
, a two-way brother-in-law of the young Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor
(Henry was crowned at the age of six and took on his offices when aged sixteen). It followed the Saxon Rebellion
of 1073–75.
The duke had played power politics with the young Emperor several years earlier in his reign, and was demonstrably ruthless (kidnapping and forcing the marriage to Henry's sister) even without the support of the other princes of the Kingdom of Germany
. The allied nobility, were moved to take advantage of the momentary weakness of the Emperor in a period when he was at odds and had been excommunicated by Pope Gregory VII
over the issue of who was entitled to appoint whom, who was therefore subservient to whom, as well as a dispute over the Emperor-elects desire to divorce from his arranged wife.
After meeting with a penitent Henry IV in the fall of 1076, the pope had removed the first excommunication of the impetuous and hot-headed twenty-six year old monarch. However, during the same fall-winter season the organizers of the revolt by the nobility were arranging for all to meet in late winter to further their own ends against the interests of the young emperor-elect. With the delays of news and events imposed by High Middle Ages
travel, communications heralding the rapprochment was delayed enough that the decision was made to just go ahead and meet anyway. The diverse council of Saxon, Bavarian, and Carinthian princes met in the March of 1077, about as soon as early spring travel conditions allowed, in Forchheim
(Oberfranken), and despite the reconciliation between the pope and Henry decided to press forward with their desires to expand their own powers.
The group consisted of high ranking secular rulers as well as churchmen— who had up until the very recent Investiture Controversy
and crisis, been appointed by the Holy Roman Emperor—the new canon law reforms which set up the college of cardinals
had heavily involved Pope Gregory VII
. Prior to Henry's crowing at the age of six as the Emperor, the Emperor had been crowned by the Pope, who in turn he'd appointed. Henry's age of inheritance had been a flash point leading to much discussion and controversy spurring the reform. As the elected antiking
, Rudolf hoped to achieve the greater nobilities' backing by promising to respect the electoral concept
of the monarchy (thus accepting a more limited and greater circumscribed set of powers as King of Germany) and the pope's backing by openly declaring his willingness to be subservient to the pope, as King of the Romans
.
Despite these difficulties, Henry's situation in Germany improved in the following years. When Rudolf was crowned at Mainz in May 1077 by one of the plotters, Siegfried I, Archbishop of Mainz
, the population revolted and forced him, the archbishop, and other nobles to flee to Saxony. Positioned there, Rudolf was geographically and then militarily deprived of his territories (later he was also stripped of Swabia) by Henry. After the inconclusive battle of Mellrichstadt
(August 7, 1077) and the defeat of Henry's forces in the Battle of Flarchheim
(27 January 1080) Gregory VII, who'd a personal animus against the Emperor-elect due to his intemperate language in earlier discourse decided to flip-flop his decision supporting Henry to instead support the revolt and launched a second anathema (excommunication) against Henry in March 1080, thereby supporting the antiking duke Rudolph of Swabia. However, the ample evidence that Gregory's actions were rooted in hate for the Emperor-elect instead of theology and so had an unfavorable personal impact on the Pope's reputation and authority leading much of Germany to re-embrace Henry's cause.
On October 14, 1080 the armies of the two rival kings met at the Weisse Elster River in the battle of Elster
, in the plain of Leipzig
and Henry's forces again suffered a military defeat, but won the battle with a strategic outcome— the anti-king Rudolf of Swabia was mortally wounded and died the next day at nearby Merseburg
, and the rebellion against Henry lost much of its momentum.
Henry convoked a synod of the highest German clergy in Bamberg
and Brixen
(June, 1080). Here Henry had pope Gregory (he'd dubbed "The False Monk") deposed and replaced him by appointing the primate of Ravenna
, Guibert (now known as the antipope Clement III
, reasserting the Holy Roman Emperor
s' traditional right to appoint the pope for his side of the Investiture Controversy
—though who was in the right was unclear in the day—the emperor reacting to retain his traditional prerogatives against the new canon law
appointing the pope via the College of Cardinals
. For the next few years, the civil war shifted south of the Alps.
While Henry campaigned there, the German Aristocracy replaced their king Rudolf with the belated election of king Hermann of Salm
(ca. 1035 – 28 September 1088), also known as Herman of Luxembourg, as their new antiking in August of 1081, but he was fought successfully to a stalemate by Frederick I, Duke of Swabia
(Frederick of Swabia) — Rudolf's Henry-appointed successor in Swabia who had married Henry's daughter Agnes of Germany
. Henry's campaign against the pope in Italy resulted in an accommodation and he was crowned Holy Roman Emperor
by Pope Gregory VII
in 1084 leaving the anti-king Herman of Salm in an awkward position.
Hermann's plan to gather an army on the banks of the Danube
and march into Italy in support of the pope was dashed by the death of his main retainer, Otto of Nordheim
. When Henry, now the crowned Holy Roman Emperor
returned north and came into Saxony with an army in 1085, Hermann fled to Denmark
. He returned, however, in alliance with Welf I, Duke of Bavaria
, and defeated the emperor at the Battle of Bleichfeld on the River Main, taking Würzburg
. Soon after his victory, however, he tired of being a pawn in the hands of the grandees and retired to his familial estates. The Great Saxon revolt
civil war may have ended in 1088, for in 1089 Countess Matilda married Welf II
of Bavaria, but Welf I
only died in 1101.
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire was a realm that existed from 962 to 1806 in Central Europe.It was ruled by the Holy Roman Emperor. Its character changed during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, when the power of the emperor gradually weakened in favour of the princes...
led by a group of opportunistic German princes who elected as their figurehead the duke
Duke
A duke or duchess is a member of the nobility, historically of highest rank below the monarch, and historically controlling a duchy...
of Swabia
Swabia
Swabia is a cultural, historic and linguistic region in southwestern Germany.-Geography:Like many cultural regions of Europe, Swabia's borders are not clearly defined...
and anti-king Rudolf of Rheinfeld
Rudolf of Rheinfeld
Rudolf of Rheinfelden was Duke of Swabia and German antiking . He was the son of Count Kuno of Rheinfelden and eventually became the alternative king or antiking for the politically oriented anti-Henry German aristocrats, whose rebellion became known as the Great Saxon Revolt...
, a two-way brother-in-law of the young Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor
Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor
Henry IV was King of the Romans from 1056 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1084 until his forced abdication in 1105. He was the third emperor of the Salian dynasty and one of the most powerful and important figures of the 11th century...
(Henry was crowned at the age of six and took on his offices when aged sixteen). It followed the Saxon Rebellion
Saxon Rebellion
The Saxon Rebellion or Rebellion of the Saxons refers to the struggle between the Salian royal family and the rebel Saxons during the reign of King Henry IV. This reached its climax in the period from summer 1073 until the end of 1075, in a rebellion that involved armed conflict...
of 1073–75.
The duke had played power politics with the young Emperor several years earlier in his reign, and was demonstrably ruthless (kidnapping and forcing the marriage to Henry's sister) even without the support of the other princes of the Kingdom of Germany
Kingdom of Germany
The Kingdom of Germany developed out of the eastern half of the former Carolingian Empire....
. The allied nobility, were moved to take advantage of the momentary weakness of the Emperor in a period when he was at odds and had been excommunicated by Pope Gregory VII
Pope Gregory VII
Pope St. Gregory VII , born Hildebrand of Sovana , was Pope from April 22, 1073, until his death. One of the great reforming popes, he is perhaps best known for the part he played in the Investiture Controversy, his dispute with Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor affirming the primacy of the papal...
over the issue of who was entitled to appoint whom, who was therefore subservient to whom, as well as a dispute over the Emperor-elects desire to divorce from his arranged wife.
After meeting with a penitent Henry IV in the fall of 1076, the pope had removed the first excommunication of the impetuous and hot-headed twenty-six year old monarch. However, during the same fall-winter season the organizers of the revolt by the nobility were arranging for all to meet in late winter to further their own ends against the interests of the young emperor-elect. With the delays of news and events imposed by High Middle Ages
High Middle Ages
The High Middle Ages was the period of European history around the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries . The High Middle Ages were preceded by the Early Middle Ages and followed by the Late Middle Ages, which by convention end around 1500....
travel, communications heralding the rapprochment was delayed enough that the decision was made to just go ahead and meet anyway. The diverse council of Saxon, Bavarian, and Carinthian princes met in the March of 1077, about as soon as early spring travel conditions allowed, in Forchheim
Forchheim (Oberfranken)
Forchheim is a large town in Upper Franconia in northern Bavaria, and also the seat of the administrative district of Forchheim. Forchheim is a former royal city, and is sometimes called the “Gateway to the Franconian Switzerland”, as the region is known. Its population, as of October 2008, was...
(Oberfranken), and despite the reconciliation between the pope and Henry decided to press forward with their desires to expand their own powers.
The group consisted of high ranking secular rulers as well as churchmen— who had up until the very recent Investiture Controversy
Investiture Controversy
The Investiture Controversy or Investiture Contest was the most significant conflict between Church and state in medieval Europe. In the 11th and 12th centuries, a series of Popes challenged the authority of European monarchies over control of appointments, or investitures, of church officials such...
and crisis, been appointed by the Holy Roman Emperor—the new canon law reforms which set up the college of cardinals
College of Cardinals
The College of Cardinals is the body of all cardinals of the Catholic Church.A function of the college is to advise the pope about church matters when he summons them to an ordinary consistory. It also convenes on the death or abdication of a pope as a papal conclave to elect a successor...
had heavily involved Pope Gregory VII
Pope Gregory VII
Pope St. Gregory VII , born Hildebrand of Sovana , was Pope from April 22, 1073, until his death. One of the great reforming popes, he is perhaps best known for the part he played in the Investiture Controversy, his dispute with Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor affirming the primacy of the papal...
. Prior to Henry's crowing at the age of six as the Emperor, the Emperor had been crowned by the Pope, who in turn he'd appointed. Henry's age of inheritance had been a flash point leading to much discussion and controversy spurring the reform. As the elected antiking
Antiking
An Antiking is a would-be king who, due to succession disputes or simple political opposition, declares himself king in opposition to a reigning monarch. Antikings are more often found in elected monarchies than in hereditary monarchies like those of England and France; such figures in hereditary...
, Rudolf hoped to achieve the greater nobilities' backing by promising to respect the electoral concept
Prince-elector
The Prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire were the members of the electoral college of the Holy Roman Empire, having the function of electing the Roman king or, from the middle of the 16th century onwards, directly the Holy Roman Emperor.The heir-apparent to a prince-elector was known as an...
of the monarchy (thus accepting a more limited and greater circumscribed set of powers as King of Germany) and the pope's backing by openly declaring his willingness to be subservient to the pope, as King of the Romans
King of the Romans
King of the Romans was the title used by the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire following his election to the office by the princes of the Kingdom of Germany...
.
Siegfried I, Archbishop of Mainz
Siegfried I was the Abbot of Fulda from 25 December 1058 until he became Archbishop of Mainz in 6 January 1060.Siegfried was a member of the Frankish Reginbodonen family of the Rhineland. His family furnished counts in the Königssondergau and burgraves and vogts of Mainz. Siegfried was educated in...
, the population revolted and forced him, the archbishop, and other nobles to flee to Saxony. Positioned there, Rudolf was geographically and then militarily deprived of his territories (later he was also stripped of Swabia) by Henry. After the inconclusive battle of Mellrichstadt
Battle of Mellrichstadt
Battle of Mellrichstadt was fought between Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV and the German anti-king Rudolf of Swabia on August 7, 1078 near Mellrichstadt.-Battle:...
(August 7, 1077) and the defeat of Henry's forces in the Battle of Flarchheim
Battle of Flarchheim
Battle of Flarcheim was fought between Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV and the German anti-king Rudolf of Swabia on January 27, 1080 near Flarchheim.-Prelude:...
(27 January 1080) Gregory VII, who'd a personal animus against the Emperor-elect due to his intemperate language in earlier discourse decided to flip-flop his decision supporting Henry to instead support the revolt and launched a second anathema (excommunication) against Henry in March 1080, thereby supporting the antiking duke Rudolph of Swabia. However, the ample evidence that Gregory's actions were rooted in hate for the Emperor-elect instead of theology and so had an unfavorable personal impact on the Pope's reputation and authority leading much of Germany to re-embrace Henry's cause.
On October 14, 1080 the armies of the two rival kings met at the Weisse Elster River in the battle of Elster
, in the plain of Leipzig
Leipzig
Leipzig Leipzig has always been a trade city, situated during the time of the Holy Roman Empire at the intersection of the Via Regia and Via Imperii, two important trade routes. At one time, Leipzig was one of the major European centres of learning and culture in fields such as music and publishing...
and Henry's forces again suffered a military defeat, but won the battle with a strategic outcome— the anti-king Rudolf of Swabia was mortally wounded and died the next day at nearby Merseburg
Merseburg
Merseburg is a town in the south of the German state of Saxony-Anhalt on the river Saale, approx. 14 km south of Halle . It is the capital of the Saalekreis district. It had a diocese founded by Archbishop Adalbert of Magdeburg....
, and the rebellion against Henry lost much of its momentum.
Henry convoked a synod of the highest German clergy in Bamberg
Bamberg
Bamberg is a city in Bavaria, Germany. It is located in Upper Franconia on the river Regnitz, close to its confluence with the river Main. Bamberg is one of the few cities in Germany that was not destroyed by World War II bombings because of a nearby Artillery Factory that prevented planes from...
and Brixen
Brixen
Brixen is the name of two cities in the Alps:*Brixen, South Tyrol, Italy*Brixen im Thale, Tyrol, AustriaBrixen may also refer to:*Bishopric of Brixen, the former north-Italian state....
(June, 1080). Here Henry had pope Gregory (he'd dubbed "The False Monk") deposed and replaced him by appointing the primate of Ravenna
Ravenna
Ravenna is the capital city of the Province of Ravenna in the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy and the second largest comune in Italy by land area, although, at , it is little more than half the size of the largest comune, Rome...
, Guibert (now known as the antipope Clement III
Antipope Clement III
Guibert or Wibert of Ravenna was a cleric made antipope in 1080 due to perceived abuses of Pope Gregory VII during the Investiture Controversy, a title that lasted to his death....
, reasserting the Holy Roman Emperor
Holy Roman Emperor
The Holy Roman Emperor is a term used by historians to denote a medieval ruler who, as German King, had also received the title of "Emperor of the Romans" from the Pope...
s' traditional right to appoint the pope for his side of the Investiture Controversy
Investiture Controversy
The Investiture Controversy or Investiture Contest was the most significant conflict between Church and state in medieval Europe. In the 11th and 12th centuries, a series of Popes challenged the authority of European monarchies over control of appointments, or investitures, of church officials such...
—though who was in the right was unclear in the day—the emperor reacting to retain his traditional prerogatives against the new canon law
Canon law
Canon law is the body of laws & regulations made or adopted by ecclesiastical authority, for the government of the Christian organization and its members. It is the internal ecclesiastical law governing the Catholic Church , the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox churches, and the Anglican Communion of...
appointing the pope via the College of Cardinals
College of Cardinals
The College of Cardinals is the body of all cardinals of the Catholic Church.A function of the college is to advise the pope about church matters when he summons them to an ordinary consistory. It also convenes on the death or abdication of a pope as a papal conclave to elect a successor...
. For the next few years, the civil war shifted south of the Alps.
While Henry campaigned there, the German Aristocracy replaced their king Rudolf with the belated election of king Hermann of Salm
Hermann of Salm
Herman of Salm , also known as Herman of Luxembourg, was a count of Salm and German anti-king of the Holy Roman Empire who ruled from 1081 until his death...
(ca. 1035 – 28 September 1088), also known as Herman of Luxembourg, as their new antiking in August of 1081, but he was fought successfully to a stalemate by Frederick I, Duke of Swabia
Frederick I, Duke of Swabia
Frederick I von Staufen was Duke of Swabia from 1079 to his death. He was the first ruler of Swabia from the House of Hohenstaufen, and was the builder of dynasty's ancestral Hohenstaufen Castle near Göppingen.-Parents:...
(Frederick of Swabia) — Rudolf's Henry-appointed successor in Swabia who had married Henry's daughter Agnes of Germany
Agnes of Germany
Agnes of Germany was the daughter of Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor and Bertha of Savoy. Her maternal grandparents were Otto, Count of Savoy, Aosta and Moriana and Adelaide, Marchioness of Turin and Susa....
. Henry's campaign against the pope in Italy resulted in an accommodation and he was crowned Holy Roman Emperor
Holy Roman Emperor
The Holy Roman Emperor is a term used by historians to denote a medieval ruler who, as German King, had also received the title of "Emperor of the Romans" from the Pope...
by Pope Gregory VII
Pope Gregory VII
Pope St. Gregory VII , born Hildebrand of Sovana , was Pope from April 22, 1073, until his death. One of the great reforming popes, he is perhaps best known for the part he played in the Investiture Controversy, his dispute with Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor affirming the primacy of the papal...
in 1084 leaving the anti-king Herman of Salm in an awkward position.
Hermann's plan to gather an army on the banks of the Danube
Danube
The Danube is a river in the Central Europe and the Europe's second longest river after the Volga. It is classified as an international waterway....
and march into Italy in support of the pope was dashed by the death of his main retainer, Otto of Nordheim
Otto of Nordheim
Otto of Northeim was Duke of Bavaria from 1061 until 1070. He was one of the leaders of the Saxon revolt against Emperor Henry IV....
. When Henry, now the crowned Holy Roman Emperor
Holy Roman Emperor
The Holy Roman Emperor is a term used by historians to denote a medieval ruler who, as German King, had also received the title of "Emperor of the Romans" from the Pope...
returned north and came into Saxony with an army in 1085, Hermann fled to Denmark
Denmark
Denmark is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. The countries of Denmark and Greenland, as well as the Faroe Islands, constitute the Kingdom of Denmark . It is the southernmost of the Nordic countries, southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and bordered to the south by Germany. Denmark...
. He returned, however, in alliance with Welf I, Duke of Bavaria
Welf I, Duke of Bavaria
Welf I was duke of Bavaria from 1070 to 1077 and from 1096 to his death. He was the first member of the Welf branch of the House of Este. In the Welf genealogy he is counted as Welf IV.-Life and reign:...
, and defeated the emperor at the Battle of Bleichfeld on the River Main, taking Würzburg
Würzburg
Würzburg is a city in the region of Franconia which lies in the northern tip of Bavaria, Germany. Located at the Main River, it is the capital of the Regierungsbezirk Lower Franconia. The regional dialect is Franconian....
. Soon after his victory, however, he tired of being a pawn in the hands of the grandees and retired to his familial estates. The Great Saxon revolt
Great Saxon Revolt
The Great Saxon Revolt was a civil war between 1077 and 1088 early in the history of the Holy Roman Empire led by a group of opportunistic German princes who elected as their figurehead the duke of Swabia and anti-king Rudolf of Rheinfeld, a two-way brother-in-law of the young Henry IV, Holy Roman...
civil war may have ended in 1088, for in 1089 Countess Matilda married Welf II
Welf II
Welf II was a Swabian count and a member of the Elder House of Welf.He opposed the election of Conrad II in 1024 because it did not suit his interests, but he had to eventually relent....
of Bavaria, but Welf I
Welf I
Welf I or Welfo was a Swabian nobleman. He was a member of the Elder House of Welf.Welf was probably a son of Conrad I of Auxerre, and seems to have taken over his father's offices in Swabia, namely: count of Alpgau, count of Linzgau, and possibly count of Argengau...
only died in 1101.