Hierofalcon
Encyclopedia
The hierofalcons are four closely related species of falcon
which make up the subgenus
Hierofalco:
The Black Falcon
of Australia
is occasionally considered allied to the hierofalcons: indeed it seems fairly close to them (Wink et al. 2004).
They represent members of their genus
which are similar to species like the Peregrine Falcon
in outward appearance, but usually with more phaeomelanins which impart reddish or brown colors, and generally more strongly patterned plumage reminiscent of hawk
s. Their undersides usually have a lengthwise pattern of dark blotches, lines or arrowhead marks. They hunt usually in level flight, more like goshawk
s than Peregrines with their dive attack or hobbies
with their acrobatic pursuits.
Recent DNA sequence
data studies have confirmed that the hierofalcons are a monophyletic group - and, incidentally, that hybridization runs rampant in the present species complex. Initial results of mtDNA cytochrome b
sequence
analyses that suggested they are basal among all living falcons were in error, due to a numt
(Wink & Sauer-Gürth 2000). The biogeographically entirely distinct Prairie Falcon
was sometimes placed with the hierofalcons due to its similar coloration; it is now considered not to belong in this subgenus, the similarities being the result of convergent evolution
in adaptation to similar habitat
.
The hierofalcon lineage as such seems of Late Pliocene origin, maybe as old as the "typical" kestrel
s (Gelasian
, some 2.5-2 million years ago), maybe somewhat older, though little is known about their fossil history. It seems to have originated in Africa
or adjacent regions but apparently became nearly extinct in the past: the present hierofalcon diversity is of rather recent origin, presumably not older than the Eemian interglacial
(about 130,000-115,000 years ago) at the start of the Late Pleistocene
; only one of the hierofalcon species that presumably diverged between the Pliocene and the Middle Pleistocene
has left any living descendants. The Lanner Falcon
appears to be the most phylogenetically most ancient species (mainly judging from biogeography
); the others diverged - apparently out of a population isolated in northeastern Africa some time during the Riss glaciation 200,000 to 130,000 years ago - in a brief and rapid bout of evolution. DNA sequence data analyses in this group suffers from the extensive hybridization and incomplete lineage sorting confounding the data, and studies with small sample size
s can by no means be considered reliable. Sometimes, all hierofalcons are lumped
into one species, Falco hierofalco.
Possible examples of such extinct hierofalcon lineages include Falco bakalovi occurring from the Early Pliocene of Bulgaria to Early Pleistocene
of Spain and Czechia and Falco antiquus known from the Middle Pleistocene of Noailles
(France
) and possibly Hór-völgy (Hungary
).
Their name may mean "sacred falcon" (Greek ἱερος = "sacred") or "hawk-falcon" (Greek ἱεραξ = "hawk", but with a Greek error: the correct combining form of ἱεραξ is "hieraco-").
Falcon
A falcon is any species of raptor in the genus Falco. The genus contains 37 species, widely distributed throughout Europe, Asia, and North America....
which make up the subgenus
Subgenus
In biology, a subgenus is a taxonomic rank directly below genus.In zoology, a subgeneric name can be used independently or included in a species name, in parentheses, placed between the generic name and the specific epithet: e.g. the Tiger Cowry of the Indo-Pacific, Cypraea tigris Linnaeus, which...
Hierofalco:
- Lanner FalconLanner FalconThe Lanner Falcon is a large bird of prey that breeds in Africa, southeast Europe and just into Asia. It is mainly resident, but some birds disperse more widely after the breeding season.-Description:...
, Falco biarmicus - Laggar FalconLaggar FalconThe Laggar Falcon is a mid-sized bird of prey which occurs in the Indian subcontinent from extreme south-east Iran, south-east Afghanistan, Pakistan, through India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and north-west Myanmar....
, Falco jugger - Saker FalconSaker FalconThe Saker Falcon is a very large falcon. This species breeds from eastern Europe eastwards across Asia to Manchuria. It is mainly migratory except in the southernmost parts of its range, wintering in Ethiopia, the Arabian peninsula, northern Pakistan and western China...
, Falco cherrug - GyrfalconGyrfalconThe Gyrfalcon — Falco rusticolus — is the largest of the falcon species. The Gyrfalcon breeds on Arctic coasts and the islands of North America, Europe, and Asia. It is mainly resident there also, but some Gyrfalcons disperse more widely after the breeding season, or in winter.Individual vagrancy...
, Falco rusticolus
The Black Falcon
Black Falcon
The Black Falcon is a medium-large falcon that lives only in Australia. It is mainly found in open grasslands and woodlands in the semi arid inland parts of Australia. First year falcons are a dark black in colour fading to browner black in successive years...
of Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
is occasionally considered allied to the hierofalcons: indeed it seems fairly close to them (Wink et al. 2004).
They represent members of their genus
Genus
In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia...
which are similar to species like the Peregrine Falcon
Peregrine Falcon
The Peregrine Falcon , also known as the Peregrine, and historically as the Duck Hawk in North America, is a widespread bird of prey in the family Falconidae. A large, crow-sized falcon, it has a blue-gray back, barred white underparts, and a black head and "moustache"...
in outward appearance, but usually with more phaeomelanins which impart reddish or brown colors, and generally more strongly patterned plumage reminiscent of hawk
Hawk
The term hawk can be used in several ways:* In strict usage in Australia and Africa, to mean any of the species in the subfamily Accipitrinae, which comprises the genera Accipiter, Micronisus, Melierax, Urotriorchis and Megatriorchis. The large and widespread Accipiter genus includes goshawks,...
s. Their undersides usually have a lengthwise pattern of dark blotches, lines or arrowhead marks. They hunt usually in level flight, more like goshawk
Goshawk (disambiguation)
-Bird species:* Species of birds of prey, mainly in the genus Accipiter:** Northern Goshawk, Accipiter gentilis** Crested Goshawk, Accipiter trivirgatus** Sulawesi Goshawk, Accipiter griseiceps** Red-chested Goshawk, Accipiter toussenelii...
s than Peregrines with their dive attack or hobbies
Hobby (bird)
A hobby is a fairly small, very swift falcon with long, narrow wings. There are four birds called hobby, and some others which, although termed falcon, are very similar. All specialise in being superb aerialists...
with their acrobatic pursuits.
Recent DNA sequence
DNA sequence
The sequence or primary structure of a nucleic acid is the composition of atoms that make up the nucleic acid and the chemical bonds that bond those atoms. Because nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA, are unbranched polymers, this specification is equivalent to specifying the sequence of...
data studies have confirmed that the hierofalcons are a monophyletic group - and, incidentally, that hybridization runs rampant in the present species complex. Initial results of mtDNA cytochrome b
Cytochrome b
Cytochrome b/b6 is the main subunit of transmembrane cytochrome bc1 and b6f complexes. In addition, it commonly refers to a region of mtDNA used for population genetics and phylogenetics.- Function :...
sequence
DNA sequence
The sequence or primary structure of a nucleic acid is the composition of atoms that make up the nucleic acid and the chemical bonds that bond those atoms. Because nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA, are unbranched polymers, this specification is equivalent to specifying the sequence of...
analyses that suggested they are basal among all living falcons were in error, due to a numt
Numt
Numt is an abbreviated term for “nuclear mitochondrial DNA”, which describes any transfer or “transposition” of cytoplasmic mitochondrial DNA sequences into the separate nuclear genome of a eukaryotic organism...
(Wink & Sauer-Gürth 2000). The biogeographically entirely distinct Prairie Falcon
Prairie Falcon
The Prairie Falcon is a medium-sized falcon of western North America.It is about the size of a Peregrine Falcon or a crow, with an average length of 40 cm , wingspan of 1 metre , and weight of 720 g...
was sometimes placed with the hierofalcons due to its similar coloration; it is now considered not to belong in this subgenus, the similarities being the result of convergent evolution
Convergent evolution
Convergent evolution describes the acquisition of the same biological trait in unrelated lineages.The wing is a classic example of convergent evolution in action. Although their last common ancestor did not have wings, both birds and bats do, and are capable of powered flight. The wings are...
in adaptation to similar habitat
Habitat
* Habitat , a place where a species lives and grows*Human habitat, a place where humans live, work or play** Space habitat, a space station intended as a permanent settlement...
.
The hierofalcon lineage as such seems of Late Pliocene origin, maybe as old as the "typical" kestrel
Kestrel
The name kestrel, is given to several different members of the falcon genus, Falco. Kestrels are most easily distinguished by their typical hunting behaviour which is to hover at a height of around over open country and swoop down on prey, usually small mammals, lizards or large insects...
s (Gelasian
Gelasian
The Gelasian is an age in the international geologic timescale or a stage in chronostratigraphy, being the earliest or lowest subdivision of the Quaternary period/system and Pleistocene epoch/series. It spans the time between 2.588 ± 0.005 Ma and 1.806 ± 0.005 Ma...
, some 2.5-2 million years ago), maybe somewhat older, though little is known about their fossil history. It seems to have originated in Africa
Africa
Africa is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area...
or adjacent regions but apparently became nearly extinct in the past: the present hierofalcon diversity is of rather recent origin, presumably not older than the Eemian interglacial
Eemian interglacial
The Eemian was an interglacial period which began about 130,000 years ago and ended about 114,000 years ago. It was the second-to-latest interglacial period of the current Ice Age, the most recent being the Holocene which extends to the present day. The prevailing Eemian climate is believed to...
(about 130,000-115,000 years ago) at the start of the Late Pleistocene
Late Pleistocene
The Late Pleistocene is a stage of the Pleistocene Epoch. The beginning of the stage is defined by the base of the Eemian interglacial phase before the final glacial episode of the Pleistocene 126,000 ± 5,000 years ago. The end of the stage is defined exactly at 10,000 Carbon-14 years BP...
; only one of the hierofalcon species that presumably diverged between the Pliocene and the Middle Pleistocene
Middle Pleistocene
The Middle Pleistocene, more specifically referred to as the Ionian stage, is a period of geologic time from ca. 781 to 126 thousand years ago....
has left any living descendants. The Lanner Falcon
Lanner Falcon
The Lanner Falcon is a large bird of prey that breeds in Africa, southeast Europe and just into Asia. It is mainly resident, but some birds disperse more widely after the breeding season.-Description:...
appears to be the most phylogenetically most ancient species (mainly judging from biogeography
Biogeography
Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species , organisms, and ecosystems in space and through geological time. Organisms and biological communities vary in a highly regular fashion along geographic gradients of latitude, elevation, isolation and habitat area...
); the others diverged - apparently out of a population isolated in northeastern Africa some time during the Riss glaciation 200,000 to 130,000 years ago - in a brief and rapid bout of evolution. DNA sequence data analyses in this group suffers from the extensive hybridization and incomplete lineage sorting confounding the data, and studies with small sample size
Sample size
Sample size determination is the act of choosing the number of observations to include in a statistical sample. The sample size is an important feature of any empirical study in which the goal is to make inferences about a population from a sample...
s can by no means be considered reliable. Sometimes, all hierofalcons are lumped
Lumpers and splitters
Lumping and splitting refers to a well-known problem in any discipline which has to place individual examples into rigorously defined categories. The lumper/splitter problem occurs when there is the need to create classifications and assign examples to them, for example schools of literature,...
into one species, Falco hierofalco.
Possible examples of such extinct hierofalcon lineages include Falco bakalovi occurring from the Early Pliocene of Bulgaria to Early Pleistocene
Early Pleistocene
Calabrian is a subdivision of the Pleistocene Epoch of the Geologic time scale. ~1.8 Ma.—781,000 years ago ± 5,000 years, a period of ~.The end of the stage is defined by the last magnetic pole reversal and plunge in to an ice age and global drying possibly colder and drier than the late Miocene ...
of Spain and Czechia and Falco antiquus known from the Middle Pleistocene of Noailles
Noailles, Corrèze
Noailles is a commune in the Corrèze department in central France.-Population:...
(France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
) and possibly Hór-völgy (Hungary
Hungary
Hungary , officially the Republic of Hungary , is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is situated in the Carpathian Basin and is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine and Romania to the east, Serbia and Croatia to the south, Slovenia to the southwest and Austria to the west. The...
).
Their name may mean "sacred falcon" (Greek ἱερος = "sacred") or "hawk-falcon" (Greek ἱεραξ = "hawk", but with a Greek error: the correct combining form of ἱεραξ is "hieraco-").