High Commissioner
Encyclopedia
High Commissioner is the title of various high-ranking, special executive positions held by a commission
of appointment.
The English
term is also used to render various equivalent titles in other languages.
In the Commonwealth of Nations
, a High Commissioner is the senior diplomat
(ranking as an ambassador
) in charge of the diplomatic mission of one Commonwealth government to another. In this usage, a Commonwealth nation's High Commission is its embassy to another Commonwealth nation.
(most of which would become the Commonwealth) High Commissioners were envoys of the Imperial Government appointed to manage protectorate
s or groups of territories not fully under the sovereignty of the British Crown, while Crown colonies (which were British sovereign territory) would normally be administered by a Governor
and the most significant possessions, large confederations and the independent Commonwealth Dominion
s would be headed by a Governor-General.
Cases include:
A High Commission could also be charged with the last phase of a decolonization, as in the crown colony of the Seychelles
(12 November 1970 granted autonomy), where the last Governor, Colin Hamilton Allen (b. 1921 – d. 1993), stayed on as only colonial High Commissioner from 1 October 1975, when self-rule under the Crown was granted, till 28 June 1976 when the archipelago became an independent republic within the Commonwealth
(as diplomatic ranks were codified, this became a lower class than Ambassador
s and High Commissioners) were sometimes appointed to native rulers, High Commissioners could likewise be appointed as British agents of indirect rule
upon native states. Thus High Commissioners could be charged with managing diplomatic relations with native rulers and their states (analogous to the Resident Minister), and might have under them several Resident Commissioner
s or similar agents attached to each state.
In present Nigeria
:
In certain regions of particular importance, a Commissioner-General would be appointed, to have control over several High Commissioners and Governors, e.g. the Commissioner-General for South-East Asia had responsibility for Malaya
, Singapore
and British Borneo
.
was coupled with that of British Governor of the Cape Colony
in the nineteenth century giving the colonial administrator in question responsibility both for administering British possessions and relating to neighbouring Boer
settlements. The best known of these High Commissioners, Alfred Milner
who was named to both positions in the 1890s, is considered responsible by some for igniting the Second Boer War
.
Historically, in Southern Africa
, the protectorate
s of Bechuanaland (now Botswana
), Basutoland
(now Lesotho
) and Swaziland
were administered as High Commission Territories by the Governor-General of South Africa was also the British High Commissioner for Bechuanaland, Basutoland, and Swaziland until the 1930s, with various local representatives, then by the British High Commissioner (from 1961 Ambassador) to South Africa, who was represented locally in each by a Resident Commissioner
.
The British Governor of the crown colony of the Straits Settlements
, based in Singapore
, doubled as High Commissioner of the Federated Malay States
, and had authority over the Resident-General in Kuala Lumpur
, who in turn was responsible for the various Residents
appointed to the native rulers of the Malay states under British protection.
The British Western Pacific Territories
were permanently governed as a group of minor insular colonial territories, under one single, not even full time, Western Pacific High Commissioner (1905–1953), an office attached first to the governorship of Fiji
, and subsequently to that of the Solomon Islands
, represented in each of the other islands units: by a Resident Commissioner
, Consul (representative)
or other official (on tiny Pitcairn a mere Chief Magistrate
).
Currently, there is still one High Commissioner who also serves in an additional capacity as a Governor
: the British High Commissioner to New Zealand
serves ex officio as British colonial Governor of the Pitcairn Islands
.
In the later period of decolonisation, the office of High Commissioner in a colony to become an allied nation was intended to become remarkably analogous to the Commonwealth's 'close relationship diplomats' in President General De Gaulle's project for a French Union
to match the Commonwealth, but it soon started to fall apart, so they actually just presided over most of the peaceful decolonisation.
While the colonies above were generally artificially carved creations, Haut commissaires also were appointed by Paris to prepare the (de facto) independence of pre-existing monarchies that had formally been French protectorates, such as:
Yet a colony could achieve independence without a High Commissioner, e.g. Guinée
(French Guinea
).
In one case a French Haut Commissaire was the exact match and colleague of a British High Commissioner: they represented both powers in the south sea condominium (i.e. territory under joint sovereignty) of the New Hebrides
, which became the present republic of Vanuatu
.Current High Commissioner of Vanuatu to USA [5 February 2009] David J. Wilson (b. 1956)
A very special category was the Haut Commissaire as 'liquidator' of a gouvernement-général (the colonial echelon grouping several neighbouring colonies under a Governor-general), notably:
Another use for the title was found in the rare remaining insulara (formerly no longer colonial) overseas possessions, in these cases still functioning:
(the Anatolian Izmir district, occupied by Greece since 12 May 1919) a protectorate.
Until on 9 September 1922, when Greece lost Smyrna to Turkey, it had a Greek High Commissioner (21 May 1919 – 8 September 1922): Aristeidis Stergiadis (b. 1861 – d. 1950)
The title Alto Comisario was also used for the representative of Spain in its protectorate zone within the Sherifan sultanate of Morocco
(most of the country was under French protectorate), known as el Jalifato after the (Jalifa in Spanish), the Sultan's fully mandated, princely Viceroy in this protectorate, to which the High Commissioner was formally accredited, but whose senior he was in reality.
In 1934–1956 the Governors of the Western Sahara
(which from 27 November 1912 were also Governors-general of Spanish West Africa) were subordinated to him.
The office itself was however filled by the governors of Spanish West Africa from 1939 to 1956.
Often the main/locally concerned members of an alliance would not set up a joint occupation authority (as in Italy after the Nazi defeat) but simply each appoint one for each of the zones into which they physically divided amongst themselves an occupied state or territory, e.g. after World War II:
These 'guardianships' most often were simply awarded to the former colonial power or if that was a loser in the preceding World War, to the 'liberating' Allied victor(s).
At the United Nations
and affiliated global organisations, a High Commissioner serves as the permanent chief executive of a commission
composed of representatives of various member nation
s.
Letters patent
Letters patent are a type of legal instrument in the form of a published written order issued by a monarch or president, generally granting an office, right, monopoly, title, or status to a person or corporation...
of appointment.
The English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
term is also used to render various equivalent titles in other languages.
Bilateral diplomacy
In the Commonwealth of Nations
Commonwealth of Nations
The Commonwealth of Nations, normally referred to as the Commonwealth and formerly known as the British Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of fifty-four independent member states...
, a High Commissioner is the senior diplomat
Diplomat
A diplomat is a person appointed by a state to conduct diplomacy with another state or international organization. The main functions of diplomats revolve around the representation and protection of the interests and nationals of the sending state, as well as the promotion of information and...
(ranking as an ambassador
Ambassador
An ambassador is the highest ranking diplomat who represents a nation and is usually accredited to a foreign sovereign or government, or to an international organization....
) in charge of the diplomatic mission of one Commonwealth government to another. In this usage, a Commonwealth nation's High Commission is its embassy to another Commonwealth nation.
British Colonial usage
Historically, in the British EmpireBritish Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the...
(most of which would become the Commonwealth) High Commissioners were envoys of the Imperial Government appointed to manage protectorate
Protectorate
In history, the term protectorate has two different meanings. In its earliest inception, which has been adopted by modern international law, it is an autonomous territory that is protected diplomatically or militarily against third parties by a stronger state or entity...
s or groups of territories not fully under the sovereignty of the British Crown, while Crown colonies (which were British sovereign territory) would normally be administered by a Governor
Governor
A governor is a governing official, usually the executive of a non-sovereign level of government, ranking under the head of state...
and the most significant possessions, large confederations and the independent Commonwealth Dominion
Dominion
A dominion, often Dominion, refers to one of a group of autonomous polities that were nominally under British sovereignty, constituting the British Empire and British Commonwealth, beginning in the latter part of the 19th century. They have included Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Newfoundland,...
s would be headed by a Governor-General.
Cases include:
- the island of CyprusCyprusCyprus , officially the Republic of Cyprus , is a Eurasian island country, member of the European Union, in the Eastern Mediterranean, east of Greece, south of Turkey, west of Syria and north of Egypt. It is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea.The earliest known human activity on the...
, since 12 July 1878 under British administration (previously under Ottoman rule), Istanbul retained nominal sovereignty until the 5 November 1914 full British annexation; there were 9 incumbents (all but one already knighted) from 22 July 1878 until on 10 March 1925 Cyprus became a crown colony, and the last incumbent stayed on as its first Governor.
A High Commission could also be charged with the last phase of a decolonization, as in the crown colony of the Seychelles
Seychelles
Seychelles , officially the Republic of Seychelles , is an island country spanning an archipelago of 115 islands in the Indian Ocean, some east of mainland Africa, northeast of the island of Madagascar....
(12 November 1970 granted autonomy), where the last Governor, Colin Hamilton Allen (b. 1921 – d. 1993), stayed on as only colonial High Commissioner from 1 October 1975, when self-rule under the Crown was granted, till 28 June 1976 when the archipelago became an independent republic within the Commonwealth
British Indirect Rule
As diplomatic ResidentsResident (title)
A Resident, or in full Resident Minister, is a government official required to take up permanent residence in another country. A representative of his government, he officially has diplomatic functions which are often seen as a form of indirect rule....
(as diplomatic ranks were codified, this became a lower class than Ambassador
Ambassador
An ambassador is the highest ranking diplomat who represents a nation and is usually accredited to a foreign sovereign or government, or to an international organization....
s and High Commissioners) were sometimes appointed to native rulers, High Commissioners could likewise be appointed as British agents of indirect rule
Indirect rule
Indirect rule was a system of government that was developed in certain British colonial dependencies...
upon native states. Thus High Commissioners could be charged with managing diplomatic relations with native rulers and their states (analogous to the Resident Minister), and might have under them several Resident Commissioner
Resident Commissioner
Resident Commissioner is the title of several, quite different types of Commissioner in overseas possession or protectorate of the British Crown or of the United States.-British English:...
s or similar agents attached to each state.
In present Nigeria
Nigeria
Nigeria , officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal constitutional republic comprising 36 states and its Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. The country is located in West Africa and shares land borders with the Republic of Benin in the west, Chad and Cameroon in the east, and Niger in...
:
- Northern NigeriaNorthern NigeriaNorthern Nigeria is a geographical region of Nigeria. It is more arid and less densely populated than the south. The people are largely Muslim, and many are Hausa...
, three incumbents 1900–1907, the last of which stayed on as first Governor - Southern Nigeria, three incumbent 1900–1906 (four terms), the last of which stayed on as first Governor.
In certain regions of particular importance, a Commissioner-General would be appointed, to have control over several High Commissioners and Governors, e.g. the Commissioner-General for South-East Asia had responsibility for Malaya
British Malaya
British Malaya loosely described a set of states on the Malay Peninsula and the Island of Singapore that were brought under British control between the 18th and the 20th centuries...
, Singapore
Singapore
Singapore , officially the Republic of Singapore, is a Southeast Asian city-state off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, north of the equator. An island country made up of 63 islands, it is separated from Malaysia by the Straits of Johor to its north and from Indonesia's Riau Islands by the...
and British Borneo
British Borneo
British Borneo means the two parts of the island of Borneo presently part of the Federation of Malaysia, during the British colonial rule: Labuan and what was called British North Borneo .-Catholic missions:In 1687 Father Ventimiglia, a Theatine, was commissioned by Pope Innocent XI to...
.
Governors doubling as High Commissioners
The role of High Commissioner for Southern AfricaHigh Commissioner for Southern Africa
The British office of High Commissioner for South Africa was responsible for governing British possessions in Southern Africa, latterly the protectorates Basutoland , the Bechuanaland Protectorate and Swaziland, as well as for relations with autonomous governments in the area...
was coupled with that of British Governor of the Cape Colony
Cape Colony
The Cape Colony, part of modern South Africa, was established by the Dutch East India Company in 1652, with the founding of Cape Town. It was subsequently occupied by the British in 1795 when the Netherlands were occupied by revolutionary France, so that the French revolutionaries could not take...
in the nineteenth century giving the colonial administrator in question responsibility both for administering British possessions and relating to neighbouring Boer
Boer
Boer is the Dutch and Afrikaans word for farmer, which came to denote the descendants of the Dutch-speaking settlers of the eastern Cape frontier in Southern Africa during the 18th century, as well as those who left the Cape Colony during the 19th century to settle in the Orange Free State,...
settlements. The best known of these High Commissioners, Alfred Milner
Alfred Milner, 1st Viscount Milner
Alfred Milner, 1st Viscount Milner KG, GCB, GCMG, PC was a British statesman and colonial administrator who played an influential leadership role in the formulation of foreign and domestic policy between the mid-1890s and early 1920s...
who was named to both positions in the 1890s, is considered responsible by some for igniting the Second Boer War
Second Boer War
The Second Boer War was fought from 11 October 1899 until 31 May 1902 between the British Empire and the Afrikaans-speaking Dutch settlers of two independent Boer republics, the South African Republic and the Orange Free State...
.
Historically, in Southern Africa
Southern Africa
Southern Africa is the southernmost region of the African continent, variably defined by geography or geopolitics. Within the region are numerous territories, including the Republic of South Africa ; nowadays, the simpler term South Africa is generally reserved for the country in English.-UN...
, the protectorate
Protectorate
In history, the term protectorate has two different meanings. In its earliest inception, which has been adopted by modern international law, it is an autonomous territory that is protected diplomatically or militarily against third parties by a stronger state or entity...
s of Bechuanaland (now Botswana
Botswana
Botswana, officially the Republic of Botswana , is a landlocked country located in Southern Africa. The citizens are referred to as "Batswana" . Formerly the British protectorate of Bechuanaland, Botswana adopted its new name after becoming independent within the Commonwealth on 30 September 1966...
), Basutoland
Basutoland
Basutoland or officially the Territory of Basutoland, was a British Crown colony established in 1884 after the Cape Colony's inability to control the territory...
(now Lesotho
Lesotho
Lesotho , officially the Kingdom of Lesotho, is a landlocked country and enclave, surrounded by the Republic of South Africa. It is just over in size with a population of approximately 2,067,000. Its capital and largest city is Maseru. Lesotho is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The name...
) and Swaziland
Swaziland
Swaziland, officially the Kingdom of Swaziland , and sometimes called Ngwane or Swatini, is a landlocked country in Southern Africa, bordered to the north, south and west by South Africa, and to the east by Mozambique...
were administered as High Commission Territories by the Governor-General of South Africa was also the British High Commissioner for Bechuanaland, Basutoland, and Swaziland until the 1930s, with various local representatives, then by the British High Commissioner (from 1961 Ambassador) to South Africa, who was represented locally in each by a Resident Commissioner
Resident Commissioner
Resident Commissioner is the title of several, quite different types of Commissioner in overseas possession or protectorate of the British Crown or of the United States.-British English:...
.
The British Governor of the crown colony of the Straits Settlements
Straits Settlements
The Straits Settlements were a group of British territories located in Southeast Asia.Originally established in 1826 as part of the territories controlled by the British East India Company, the Straits Settlements came under direct British control as a crown colony on 1 April 1867...
, based in Singapore
Singapore
Singapore , officially the Republic of Singapore, is a Southeast Asian city-state off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, north of the equator. An island country made up of 63 islands, it is separated from Malaysia by the Straits of Johor to its north and from Indonesia's Riau Islands by the...
, doubled as High Commissioner of the Federated Malay States
Federated Malay States
The Federated Malay States was a federation of four protected states in the Malay Peninsula—Selangor, Perak, Negeri Sembilan and Pahang—established by the British government in 1895, which lasted until 1946, when they, together with the Straits Settlements and the Unfederated Malay...
, and had authority over the Resident-General in Kuala Lumpur
Kuala Lumpur
Kuala Lumpur is the capital and the second largest city in Malaysia by population. The city proper, making up an area of , has a population of 1.4 million as of 2010. Greater Kuala Lumpur, also known as the Klang Valley, is an urban agglomeration of 7.2 million...
, who in turn was responsible for the various Residents
Resident (title)
A Resident, or in full Resident Minister, is a government official required to take up permanent residence in another country. A representative of his government, he officially has diplomatic functions which are often seen as a form of indirect rule....
appointed to the native rulers of the Malay states under British protection.
The British Western Pacific Territories
British Western Pacific Territories
The British Western Pacific Territories was the name of a colonial entity, created in 1877, for the administration, under a single representative of the British Crown, styled High Commissioner, of a series of relatively minor Pacific islands in and around Oceania...
were permanently governed as a group of minor insular colonial territories, under one single, not even full time, Western Pacific High Commissioner (1905–1953), an office attached first to the governorship of Fiji
Fiji
Fiji , officially the Republic of Fiji , is an island nation in Melanesia in the South Pacific Ocean about northeast of New Zealand's North Island...
, and subsequently to that of the Solomon Islands
Solomon Islands
Solomon Islands is a sovereign state in Oceania, east of Papua New Guinea, consisting of nearly one thousand islands. It covers a land mass of . The capital, Honiara, is located on the island of Guadalcanal...
, represented in each of the other islands units: by a Resident Commissioner
Resident Commissioner
Resident Commissioner is the title of several, quite different types of Commissioner in overseas possession or protectorate of the British Crown or of the United States.-British English:...
, Consul (representative)
Consul (representative)
The political title Consul is used for the official representatives of the government of one state in the territory of another, normally acting to assist and protect the citizens of the consul's own country, and to facilitate trade and friendship between the peoples of the two countries...
or other official (on tiny Pitcairn a mere Chief Magistrate
Chief Magistrate
Chief Magistrate is a generic designation for a public official whose office—individual or collegial—is the highest in his or her class, in either of the fundamental meanings of Magistrate : as a major political and administrative office , and/or as a judge Chief Magistrate is a generic designation...
).
Currently, there is still one High Commissioner who also serves in an additional capacity as a Governor
Governor
A governor is a governing official, usually the executive of a non-sovereign level of government, ranking under the head of state...
: the British High Commissioner to New Zealand
New Zealand
New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...
serves ex officio as British colonial Governor of the Pitcairn Islands
Governor of the Pitcairn Islands
The Governor of the Pitcairn Islands is the representative of the British crown in the Pitcairn Islands, which are the last remaining British territory in the Pacific Ocean...
.
Other (mainly former, colonial) empires & protectorates
In the (post-)colonial sense, some other powers had High Commissioners, or rather the exact equivalent in their languageFrench
Originally the French word Haut Commissaire, or in full Haut Commissaire de la république (High Commissioner of the Republic), was rarely used for governatorial functions, rather (Lieutenant-)gouverneur(-général) and various lower titles. Exceptions were:- since 22 March 1907, the colonial Gouverneur of New CaledoniaNew CaledoniaNew Caledonia is a special collectivity of France located in the southwest Pacific Ocean, east of Australia and about from Metropolitan France. The archipelago, part of the Melanesia subregion, includes the main island of Grande Terre, the Loyalty Islands, the Belep archipelago, the Isle of...
was also appointed as High Commissioner in the Pacific Ocean, to coordinate with the governors of the French Settlements in Oceania and the Governors-general of French IndochinaFrench IndochinaFrench Indochina was part of the French colonial empire in southeast Asia. A federation of the three Vietnamese regions, Tonkin , Annam , and Cochinchina , as well as Cambodia, was formed in 1887....
; the French resident commissionerResident CommissionerResident Commissioner is the title of several, quite different types of Commissioner in overseas possession or protectorate of the British Crown or of the United States.-British English:...
of the Anglo-French condominium Nouvelles Hébrides and the ResidentResident (title)A Resident, or in full Resident Minister, is a government official required to take up permanent residence in another country. A representative of his government, he officially has diplomatic functions which are often seen as a form of indirect rule....
s to the island protectorates of WallisWallis IslandWallis is an island in the Pacific Ocean belonging to the French overseas collectivity of Wallis and Futuna....
and FutunaFutuna Island, Wallis and FutunaFutuna is an island in the Pacific Ocean belonging to the French overseas collectivity of Wallis and Futuna. It is one of the Hoorn Islands or Îles Horne, nearby Alofi being the other...
were subordinated to him- once Charles de Gaulle named someone else as High Commissioner for the French Territory of the Pacific and the Far East, January 1941–1945: Georges Thierry d'ArgenlieuGeorges Thierry d'ArgenlieuGeorges Thierry d'Argenlieu, in religion Louis de la Trinité was a priest, diplomat and French Navy officer and admiral; he became one of the major personalities of the Free French Forces and the Forces navales françaises libres...
(b. 1889 – d. 1964), while in December 1941 the Vichy (pro-German) government named Jean Decoux (b. 1884 – d. 1963) to the post (who in fact was only responsible for Wallis and FutunaWallis and FutunaWallis and Futuna, officially the Territory of the Wallis and Futuna Islands , is a Polynesian French island territory in the South Pacific between Tuvalu to the northwest, Rotuma of Fiji to the west, the main part of Fiji to the southwest, Tonga to the southeast,...
, which was the only Pacific territory not to have rallied to the Free French at that time).
- once Charles de Gaulle named someone else as High Commissioner for the French Territory of the Pacific and the Far East, January 1941–1945: Georges Thierry d'Argenlieu
- In Atlantic waters, from 14 September 1939 till September 1943, four French Possessions in the Americas (French Guiana, GuadeloupeGuadeloupeGuadeloupe is an archipelago located in the Leeward Islands, in the Lesser Antilles, with a land area of 1,628 square kilometres and a population of 400,000. It is the first overseas region of France, consisting of a single overseas department. As with the other overseas departments, Guadeloupe...
and MartiniqueMartiniqueMartinique is an island in the eastern Caribbean Sea, with a land area of . Like Guadeloupe, it is an overseas region of France, consisting of a single overseas department. To the northwest lies Dominica, to the south St Lucia, and to the southeast Barbados...
, all in the Caribbean, as well as Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, off the Canadian coast) were temporarily grouped together (from June 1940 under Vichy France, so remaining on the Allied side). The two consecutive 'High Commissioners in the Antilles' (quite a misleading title: French Guyana is in continental South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon off the Canadian coast, so in North America) held both administrative authority over the local Governors and equivalent officers (rather like a gouverneur général did elsewhere on a permanent basis) and military command in the 'Theater Atlantic West':- 14 September 1939 – 14 July 1943 Georges Robert (b. 1875 – d. 1965)
- 14 July 1943 – September 1943 Henri HoppenotHenri HoppenotHenri Hoppenot was a French diplomat, was commissioner-general in Indochina between 1955 and 1956, and was the last person to hold this post. He also served as the French president of the United Nations Security Council between 1952 and 1955.In August 1914, he started in the Press Office of the...
(b. 1891 – d. 1977)
In the later period of decolonisation, the office of High Commissioner in a colony to become an allied nation was intended to become remarkably analogous to the Commonwealth's 'close relationship diplomats' in President General De Gaulle's project for a French Union
French Union
The French Union was a political entity created by the French Fourth Republic to replace the old French colonial system, the "French Empire" and to abolish its "indigenous" status.-History:...
to match the Commonwealth, but it soon started to fall apart, so they actually just presided over most of the peaceful decolonisation.
- Algérie (AlgeriaAlgeriaAlgeria , officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria , also formally referred to as the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria, is a country in the Maghreb region of Northwest Africa with Algiers as its capital.In terms of land area, it is the largest country in Africa and the Arab...
), once similar to Tunis, but transformed into a French popular colony (most of the time under its own governor-general; then a messy period as native and immigrated European interests were irreconcilable), got its only High commissioner on 19 March 1962: Christian FouchetChristian FouchetChristian Fouchet was a French politician.He was born in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Yvelines.He was the French Minister of National Education from 28 November 1962 to 6 April 1967. He was the colonial head of Algeria from 19 March 1962 to 3 July 1962....
(b. 1911 – d. 1974), until its 3 July 1962 independence from France (Algerian State; 25 September 1962 People's Democratic Algerian Republic ruled by the FLN, the former armed revolt) - in present BeninBeninBenin , officially the Republic of Benin, is a country in West Africa. It borders Togo to the west, Nigeria to the east and Burkina Faso and Niger to the north. Its small southern coastline on the Bight of Benin is where a majority of the population is located...
, since 13 October 1946 DahomeyDahomeyDahomey was a country in west Africa in what is now the Republic of Benin. The Kingdom of Dahomey was a powerful west African state that was founded in the seventeenth century and survived until 1894. From 1894 until 1960 Dahomey was a part of French West Africa. The independent Republic of Dahomey...
overseas territory, on 4 December 1958 granted autonomy as Republic of Dahomey, the last (acting) governor, René Tirant (b. 1907), stayed on as only High commissioner till the 1 August 1960 independence - ChadChadChad , officially known as the Republic of Chad, is a landlocked country in Central Africa. It is bordered by Libya to the north, Sudan to the east, the Central African Republic to the south, Cameroon and Nigeria to the southwest, and Niger to the west...
, since 27 October 1946 an overseas territory of France (part of AEFFrench Equatorial AfricaFrench Equatorial Africa or the AEF was the federation of French colonial possessions in Middle Africa, extending northwards from the Congo River to the Sahara Desert.-History:...
colony) under its own Governor, shortly after it was on 28 November 1958 granted autonomy as Republic of Chad, had a single High Commissioner from 22 January 1959: Daniel Marius Doustin (b. 1920) until its 11 August 1960 independence from France. - Congo-Brazzaville (variously named, often Middle Congo) had a single High commissioner, a bit after it was granted on 28 November 1958 autonomy (as Republic of Congo), 7 January 1959 – 15 August 1960: Guy Noël Georgy (b. 1918 – d. 2003) after many Lieutenant governorLieutenant governorA lieutenant governor or lieutenant-governor is a high officer of state, whose precise role and rank vary by jurisdiction, but is often the deputy or lieutenant to or ranking under a governor — a "second-in-command"...
s since 11 December 1888 (under the governor-general of AEF, except the several cases when he governed the French Congo personally); afterwards it was an independent republic - Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) had two High Commissioners since it was granted autonomy as republic of Ivory Coast:
- 4 December 1958 – 15 July 1960 Ernest de Nattes (b. 1908), the last of the long list of governors since 10 March 1893 (colony till 27 October 1946, then overseas territory)
- 15 July 1960 – 7 August 1960 Yves René Henri Guéna (b. 1922); thereafter it was an independent republic
- GabonGabonGabon , officially the Gabonese Republic is a state in west central Africa sharing borders with Equatorial Guinea to the northwest, Cameroon to the north, and with the Republic of the Congo curving around the east and south. The Gulf of Guinea, an arm of the Atlantic Ocean is to the west...
had two High Commissioners since on 28 November 1958 autonomy was granted (as Gabonese Republic) to the former overseas territory (since 1946)- November 1958 – July 1959 Louis Marius Pascal Sanmarco (b. 1912), also the last of the Governors since 1941 (after various otherwise styled chief executives before; it had since 15 January 1910 been part of French Equatorial Africa, AEF)
- July 1959 – 17 August 1960 Jean Risterucci (b. 1911 – d. 1982); thereafter it was an independent republic
- MauritaniaMauritaniaMauritania is a country in the Maghreb and West Africa. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean in the west, by Western Sahara in the north, by Algeria in the northeast, by Mali in the east and southeast, and by Senegal in the southwest...
had two High commissioners, after having been a protectorate since 12 May 1903 (under a single military Commandant), from 18 October 1904 the French civil territory of Mauritania under a Commissioner (part of French West AfricaFrench West AfricaFrench West Africa was a federation of eight French colonial territories in Africa: Mauritania, Senegal, French Sudan , French Guinea , Côte d'Ivoire , Upper Volta , Dahomey and Niger...
(AOF); under its Governor-general in Dakar, Senegal), and since 12 January 1920 a French colony under a Lieutenant governor (many incumbents, again under Dakar), on 28 November 1958 obtaining autonomy (as Islamic Republic of Mauritania):- 5 October 1958 – February 1959 Henri Joseph Marie Bernard (b. 1920)
- February 1959 – 28 November 1960 Amédée Joseph Émile Jean Pierre Anthonioz (b. 1913 – d. 1996); since independence from France it had its own President (or a juntaMilitary juntaA junta or military junta is a government led by a committee of military leaders. The term derives from the Spanish language junta meaning committee, specifically a board of directors...
chief);
- In NigerNigerNiger , officially named the Republic of Niger, is a landlocked country in Western Africa, named after the Niger River. It borders Nigeria and Benin to the south, Burkina Faso and Mali to the west, Algeria and Libya to the north and Chad to the east...
, since 13 October 1946 an overseas territory of France (part of French West Africa, see Senegal) under a lieutenant-governor, on 19 December 1958 granted autonomy as Republic of Niger, there was a single High commissioner 25 August 1958 – 10 November 1960: Jean Colombani (b. 1903), i.e. still several months after the formal 3 August 1960 independence whilst there was no President - In SenegalSenegalSenegal , officially the Republic of Senegal , is a country in western Africa. It owes its name to the Sénégal River that borders it to the east and north...
, since 27 October 1946 an overseas territory of France, which on 25 November 1958 had obtained autonomy (as Republic of Senegal), the last Governor stayed on as first (and only?) Haut commissaire 25 November 1958 – 20 June 1960: Pierre Auguste Michel Marie Lami (b. 1909); meanwhile on 4 April 1959 the Sudanese Republic (now MaliMaliMali , officially the Republic of Mali , is a landlocked country in Western Africa. Mali borders Algeria on the north, Niger on the east, Burkina Faso and the Côte d'Ivoire on the south, Guinea on the south-west, and Senegal and Mauritania on the west. Its size is just over 1,240,000 km² with...
) and Senegal formed the Mali FederationMali FederationThe Mali Federation was a country in West Africa. It was formed by a union between Senegal and the Sudanese Republic...
and his term ended at the 20 June 1960 independence of that Mali Federation from France (on 20 August 1960 the Republic of Senegal withdrew from the thus dissolved Mali Federation). - in French SudanFrench SudanFrench Sudan was a colony in French West Africa that had two separate periods of existence, first from 1890 to 1899, then from 1920 to 1960, when the territory became the independent nation of Mali.-Colonial establishment:...
, an overseas territory of France since 27 October 1946 (earlier a colony; stayed within French West Africa), which on 24 November 1958 obtained autonomy (as Sudanese Republic), there were two High commissioners:- 3 November 1956 – 24 November 1958 Henri Victor Gipoulon
- 24 November 1958 – 20 June 1960 Jean Charles Sicurani (b. 1915 – d. 1977); during his term on 4 April 1959 this Sudanese Republic and Senegal (cfr. above) united to form the Mali Federation; his office ceased at the 20 June 1960 independence of the Mali Federation from France
- In the Republic of Upper VoltaRepublic of Upper VoltaThe Republic of Upper Volta was established on December 11, 1958, as a self-governing colony within the French Community. Before attaining autonomy it had been French Upper Volta and part of the French Union. On August 5, 1960 it attained full independence from France.Thomas Sankara came to power...
(since 4 January 1947 a French territory; present Burkina Faso, renamed 4 August 1984), since the 11 December 1958 grant of Autonomy as a 'republic', République de Haute-Volta, there were two High commissioners:- 11 December 1958 – February 1959 Max Berthet, who stayed on, having been the last (acting) Governor
- February 1959 – 5 August 1960 Paul Jean Marie Masson (b. 1920), till the Independence from France as the Republic of Upper Volta.
While the colonies above were generally artificially carved creations, Haut commissaires also were appointed by Paris to prepare the (de facto) independence of pre-existing monarchies that had formally been French protectorates, such as:
- TunisiaTunisiaTunisia , officially the Tunisian RepublicThe long name of Tunisia in other languages used in the country is: , is the northernmost country in Africa. It is a Maghreb country and is bordered by Algeria to the west, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Its area...
, known as the RégenceRégenceThe Régence is the period in French history between 1715 and 1723, when King Louis XV was a minor and the land was governed by a Regent, Philippe d'Orléans, the nephew of Louis XIV of France....
(since 3 June 1955 autonomous), where France had a Resident-general (posted with the Basha bey of Tunis, who once the French protectorate was terminated on 20 March 1956 restyled his realm al-Mamlaka at-Tunisiyya 'Tunisian Kingdom'), in stead got a High commissioner from 13 September 1955 to 20 March 1956: Roger Seydoux Fornier de Clausonne (b. 1908 – d. 1985); in continued shortly as independent monarchy, but on 25 July 1957 became the Tunisian Republic.
Yet a colony could achieve independence without a High Commissioner, e.g. Guinée
Guinee
In Vodou, Guinee is the spirit world, a reference to the African homeland that slaves hoped their souls might be returned to after death....
(French Guinea
French Guinea
French Guinea was a French colonial possession in West Africa. Its borders, while changed over time, were in 1958 those of the independent nation of Guinea....
).
In one case a French Haut Commissaire was the exact match and colleague of a British High Commissioner: they represented both powers in the south sea condominium (i.e. territory under joint sovereignty) of the New Hebrides
New Hebrides
New Hebrides was the colonial name for an island group in the South Pacific that now forms the nation of Vanuatu. The New Hebrides were colonized by both the British and French in the 18th century shortly after Captain James Cook visited the islands...
, which became the present republic of Vanuatu
Vanuatu
Vanuatu , officially the Republic of Vanuatu , is an island nation located in the South Pacific Ocean. The archipelago, which is of volcanic origin, is some east of northern Australia, northeast of New Caledonia, west of Fiji, and southeast of the Solomon Islands, near New Guinea.Vanuatu was...
.Current High Commissioner of Vanuatu to USA [5 February 2009] David J. Wilson (b. 1956)
A very special category was the Haut Commissaire as 'liquidator' of a gouvernement-général (the colonial echelon grouping several neighbouring colonies under a Governor-general), notably:
- in Afrique Equatoriale Française (French Equatorial AfricaFrench Equatorial AfricaFrench Equatorial Africa or the AEF was the federation of French colonial possessions in Middle Africa, extending northwards from the Congo River to the Sahara Desert.-History:...
, AEF), three High commissioners:- 4 April 1957 – 29 January 1958 Paul Louis Gabriel Chauvet (b. 1904), also the last of the long list of Governors-general since 28 June 1908 (before it had five Commissioners-general since 27 April 1886)
- 29 January 1958 – 15 July 1958 Pierre Messmer (b. 1916)
- 15 July 1958 – 15 August 1960 Yvon Bourges (b. 1921)
- in Afrique Occidentale Française (AOF), i.e. French West Africa, the last of a long list of Governors-general since 1895 stayed on as first of only two High Commissioners:
- 4 April 1957 – July 1958 Gaston Custin (b. 1903 – d. 1993)
- July 1958 – 22 December 1958 Pierre Messmer (b. 1916)
Another use for the title was found in the rare remaining insulara (formerly no longer colonial) overseas possessions, in these cases still functioning:
- In French PolynesiaFrench PolynesiaFrench Polynesia is an overseas country of the French Republic . It is made up of several groups of Polynesian islands, the most famous island being Tahiti in the Society Islands group, which is also the most populous island and the seat of the capital of the territory...
it is the title of the representative of the French republic in the overseas territory (restyled 'overseas collectivity' in 2003, 'overseas country' on 27 February 2004) since 13 July 1977 (until 14 September 1984 he also presided the local council of ministers, the that got its own president, as the legislature already had) - In New CaledoniaNew CaledoniaNew Caledonia is a special collectivity of France located in the southwest Pacific Ocean, east of Australia and about from Metropolitan France. The archipelago, part of the Melanesia subregion, includes the main island of Grande Terre, the Loyalty Islands, the Belep archipelago, the Isle of...
(Nouvelle Calédonie in French, colonised in 1853; its Governors had been High Commissioners in the Pacific Ocean from 22 March 1907, see above) the title (commonly corrupted to Haussaire) was chosen for the chief executive on 19 December 1981, when it was an overseas territory (since 1946), even before autonomy was granted on 18 November 1984, and maintained after its status was changed on 20 July 1998 to the unique French collectivité sui generis; he represents the Paris government, while there are a native legislature and government.
Greek
On 30 July 1922, the Hellenic kingdom (Greece) declared SmyrnaSmyrna
Smyrna was an ancient city located at a central and strategic point on the Aegean coast of Anatolia. Thanks to its advantageous port conditions, its ease of defence and its good inland connections, Smyrna rose to prominence. The ancient city is located at two sites within modern İzmir, Turkey...
(the Anatolian Izmir district, occupied by Greece since 12 May 1919) a protectorate.
Until on 9 September 1922, when Greece lost Smyrna to Turkey, it had a Greek High Commissioner (21 May 1919 – 8 September 1922): Aristeidis Stergiadis (b. 1861 – d. 1950)
Italian
- while only various military commanders and since 1916 a Secretary for Civil Affairs in AlbaniaAlbaniaAlbania , officially known as the Republic of Albania , is a country in Southeastern Europe, in the Balkans region. It is bordered by Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, the Republic of Macedonia to the east and Greece to the south and southeast. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea...
(Ugo Capialbi) had acted for Rome since Italy invaded on 27 December 1914 (occupying Valorë and parts of Southern Albania; on 3 June 1917 Albanian independence under an Italian protectorate was declared by Italy, opposed by most Albanians; adding in November 1918 the former Austro-Hungarian occupied areas to the Italian zone) only since in 1919 an Albanian provisional government recognized by Italy as the legal government of the protected zone, consecutive High Commissioners for the Crown were appointed until Italy effectively withdraw its troops on 3 September 1920 (as agreed on 22 August 1920 when formally recognizing the total independence of AlbaniaAlbaniaAlbania , officially known as the Republic of Albania , is a country in Southeastern Europe, in the Balkans region. It is bordered by Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, the Republic of Macedonia to the east and Greece to the south and southeast. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea...
):- 1919–1920 ....
- 1920 Fortunato Castoldi
- 1920 – 3 September 1920 Gaetano Conti Manzoni
- two incumbents appointed by the kingdom in Fiume (a former Austrian province; now Rijeka, in CroatiaCroatiaCroatia , officially the Republic of Croatia , is a unitary democratic parliamentary republic in Europe at the crossroads of the Mitteleuropa, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean. Its capital and largest city is Zagreb. The country is divided into 20 counties and the city of Zagreb. Croatia covers ...
), after an extraordinary commissionary, in the 31 December 1920 declared, short-lived "Independent State of Fiume", until the accession of its first President- 13 June 1921–1921 Antonio Foschini (b. 1872 – d. 19..)
- 1921 – 5 October 1921 Luigi Amantea (b. 1869 – d. 19..)
- in SloveniaSloveniaSlovenia , officially the Republic of Slovenia , is a country in Central and Southeastern Europe touching the Alps and bordering the Mediterranean. Slovenia borders Italy to the west, Croatia to the south and east, Hungary to the northeast, and Austria to the north, and also has a small portion of...
, which after 6–17 April 1941 Italian-German occupation, was on 17 April 1941 partitioned between Italy, Hungary and Germany, the Italian portion was named province of LubianaLubianaŁubiana is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Kościerzyna, within Kościerzyna County, Pomeranian Voivodeship, in northern Poland. It lies approximately west of Kościerzyna and south-west of the regional capital Gdańsk....
, from 3 May 1941 under a Civil Commissioner, from 3 May 1941 restyled the first of two High Commissioners:- 18 April 1941–1942 Francesco Saverio Grazioli (b. 1869 – d. 1951)
- 1942–1943 Giuseppe Lombrassa (b. 1906 – d. 1966)
Portuguese
The title Alto Comissário da República (High Commissioner of the Republic) or, simply Alto Comissário, was given to some Portuguese colonial governors to who were given, excepcional, enlarged executive and legislative powers, superiors to those of common Governors. In the Monarchy, before 1910, they were known as Comissários Régios (Royal Commissioners). Altos Comissários (or Comissários Régios when indicated) had been nominated for:- AngolaAngolaAngola, officially the Republic of Angola , is a country in south-central Africa bordered by Namibia on the south, the Democratic Republic of the Congo on the north, and Zambia on the east; its west coast is on the Atlantic Ocean with Luanda as its capital city...
:- Guilherme Augusto de Brito Capelo (Comissário Régio) – 1896–1897
- José Mendes Ribeiro de Norton de Matos – 1921–1923
- Francisco da Cunha Rego Chaves – 1925–1926
- António Vicente Ferreira – 1926–1928
- Filomeno da Câmara Melo Cabral – 1929–1930
- Cabo Verde (Cape Verde):
- Vicente Almeida d'Eça – 30 December 1974-5 July 1975
- Portuguese IndiaPortuguese IndiaThe Portuguese Viceroyalty of India , later the Portuguese State of India , was the aggregate of Portugal's colonial holdings in India.The government started in 1505, six years after the discovery of a sea route to India by Vasco da Gama, with the nomination of the first Viceroy Francisco de...
:- João António de Brissac das Neves Ferreira (Comissário Régio) – 1896–1897
- MozambiqueMozambiqueMozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique , is a country in southeastern Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi and Zambia to the northwest, Zimbabwe to the west and Swaziland and South Africa to the southwest...
:- António Enes (Comissário Régio) – 1895
- José Francisco de Azevedo e Silva – 1911–1912
- Manuel de Brito Camacho – 1921–1923
- Vitor Hugo de Azevedo Coutinho – 1924–1926
- São Tomé and PríncipeSão Tomé and PríncipeSão Tomé and Príncipe, officially the Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe, is a Portuguese-speaking island nation in the Gulf of Guinea, off the western equatorial coast of Central Africa. It consists of two islands: São Tomé and Príncipe, located about apart and about , respectively, off...
:- António Elísio Capelo Pires Veloso – 18 December 1974 (three days before the formal granting of autonomy), actually the last of many governors (since 1753, before both islands were separate), staying on until it became an independent republic on 12 July 1975
- Portuguese TimorPortuguese TimorPortuguese Timor was the name of East Timor when it was under Portuguese control. During this period, Portugal shared the island of Timor with the Netherlands East Indies, and later with Indonesia....
:- José Joaquim Lopes de Lima (Comissário Régio) – 1851–1852
Spanish
Alto comisario was the Spanish title of the official exercing the functions of a governor in the following colonial possessions:- Equatorial GuineaEquatorial GuineaEquatorial Guinea, officially the Republic of Equatorial Guinea where the capital Malabo is situated.Annobón is the southernmost island of Equatorial Guinea and is situated just south of the equator. Bioko island is the northernmost point of Equatorial Guinea. Between the two islands and to the...
had three consecutive High Commissioners:- 15 December 1963–1964 Francisco Núñez Rodríguez (b. 1902 – d. 1972), also the last of many Governors since 7 June 1494
- 1964–1966 Pedro Latorre Alcubierre
- 1966 – 12 October 1968 Víctor Suances Díaz del Río; his term ended when it became an independent republic
The title Alto Comisario was also used for the representative of Spain in its protectorate zone within the Sherifan sultanate of Morocco
Morocco
Morocco , officially the Kingdom of Morocco , is a country located in North Africa. It has a population of more than 32 million and an area of 710,850 km², and also primarily administers the disputed region of the Western Sahara...
(most of the country was under French protectorate), known as el Jalifato after the (Jalifa in Spanish), the Sultan's fully mandated, princely Viceroy in this protectorate, to which the High Commissioner was formally accredited, but whose senior he was in reality.
In 1934–1956 the Governors of the Western Sahara
Western Sahara
Western Sahara is a disputed territory in North Africa, bordered by Morocco to the north, Algeria to the northeast, Mauritania to the east and south, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. Its surface area amounts to . It is one of the most sparsely populated territories in the world, mainly...
(which from 27 November 1912 were also Governors-general of Spanish West Africa) were subordinated to him.
The office itself was however filled by the governors of Spanish West Africa from 1939 to 1956.
United States
- While being a U.S. protectorateProtectorateIn history, the term protectorate has two different meanings. In its earliest inception, which has been adopted by modern international law, it is an autonomous territory that is protected diplomatically or militarily against third parties by a stronger state or entity...
from 1905 to 1941, the Dominican RepublicDominican RepublicThe Dominican Republic is a nation on the island of La Hispaniola, part of the Greater Antilles archipelago in the Caribbean region. The western third of the island is occupied by the nation of Haiti, making Hispaniola one of two Caribbean islands that are shared by two countries...
had first various native regimes, then US military Governors 29 November 1916 – 24 July 1922, and just before it again had the first of its own Presidents on 21 October 1922, a single U.S. High Commissioner, Sumner WellesSumner WellesBenjamin Sumner Welles was an American government official and diplomat in the Foreign Service. He was a major foreign policy adviser to President Franklin D. Roosevelt and served as Under Secretary of State from 1937 to 1943, during FDR's presidency.-Early life:Benjamin Sumner Welles was born in...
, who served from 1922–1924. - HaitiHaitiHaiti , officially the Republic of Haiti , is a Caribbean country. It occupies the western, smaller portion of the island of Hispaniola, in the Greater Antillean archipelago, which it shares with the Dominican Republic. Ayiti was the indigenous Taíno or Amerindian name for the island...
, the other (western) half of the island of HispaniolaHispaniolaHispaniola is a major island in the Caribbean, containing the two sovereign states of the Dominican Republic and Haiti. The island is located between the islands of Cuba to the west and Puerto Rico to the east, within the hurricane belt...
, had a similar experience. It was a U.S. protectorate from 1915 to 1936, after five U.S. Military Commanders, there was one High Commissioner, John H. Russell, Jr.John H. Russell, Jr.John Henry Russell, Jr. was a major general and 16th Commandant of the Marine Corps. His only child was Brooke Astor, a noted philanthropist.-Biography:...
, who served from 11 February 1922 to 16 November 1930. - Following World War IWorld War IWorld War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
, Rear AdmiralRear AdmiralRear admiral is a naval commissioned officer rank above that of a commodore and captain, and below that of a vice admiral. It is generally regarded as the lowest of the "admiral" ranks, which are also sometimes referred to as "flag officers" or "flag ranks"...
Mark Lambert BristolMark Lambert BristolMark Lambert Bristol was a Rear Admiral in the United States Navy.-Biography:He was born on April 17, 1868 in Glassboro, New Jersey. Bristol graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1887. During the Spanish-American War he served aboard Texas and participated in the Battle of Santiago de...
served as United States High Commissioner for TurkeyTurkeyTurkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
from 1919 to 1927. - the PhilippinesPhilippinesThe Philippines , officially known as the Republic of the Philippines , is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam...
became a U.S. territory on 13 August 1898. After gaining autonomy on 15 November 1935, it had the following U.S. High Commissioners:- 1935–1937 Frank William Murphy. Murphy was also the last of the Governors-general.
- 1937–1939 Paul V. McNuttPaul V. McNuttPaul Vories McNutt was an American politician who served as the 34th Governor of Indiana during the Great Depression, high commissioner to the Philippines, administrator of the Federal Security Agency, chairman of the War Manpower Commission and ambassador to the Philippines.-Family and...
(1st commission). - 1939 – 7 September 1942 Francis Bowes Sayers (from 24 December 1941 in U.S. exile during Japanese military occupation).
- 7 September 1942 – 4 July 1946 Paul V. McNutt (2nd commission) (to August 1945 in U.S. exile during Japanese military occupation). McNutt's termed ended with the official independence of the new republic.
- Okinawa and Ryukyu IslandsRyukyu IslandsThe , also known as the , is a chain of islands in the western Pacific, on the eastern limit of the East China Sea and to the southwest of the island of Kyushu in Japan. From about 1829 until the mid 20th century, they were alternately called Luchu, Loochoo, or Lewchew, akin to the Mandarin...
(Japanese archipelago), and later just Okinawa had six U.S. High Commissioners:- 4 July 1957 – 1 May 1958 James Edward MooreJames Edward MooreGeneral James Edward Moore was a United States Army four-star general who served as the U.S. High Commissioner of the Ryukyus after World War II....
. Moore was also the last Deputy governor and Commanding General, Ryukyu Islands Command. - 1 May 1958 – 12 February 1961 Donald Prentice BoothDonald Prentice BoothDonald Prentice Booth was a Lieutenant General in the United States Army. During World War II he was the US Army's youngest theater commander. After World War II he was known for his commands of the 28th Infantry Division, the 9th Infantry Division and the Fourth United States Army...
. - 16 February 1961 – 31 July 1964 Paul Wyatt Caraway.
- 1 August 1964 – 31 October 1966 Albert Watson II.
- 2 November 1966 – 28 January 1968 Ferdinand Thomas Unger.
- 28 January 1968 – 15 May 1972 James Benjamin LampertJames Benjamin LampertJames Benjamin Lampert was a former United States Army Lieutenant General, Superintendent of the United States Military Academy , and early pioneer of nuclear weapons and nuclear power...
. On 15 May 1972 Okinawa reverted to Japanese sovereignty as a prefecture; therefore, the office of U.S. High Commissioner on Okinawa ceased to exist.
- 4 July 1957 – 1 May 1958 James Edward Moore
High Commissioners as Extraordinary Government Agents
In many cases, a political vacuum created by war, occupation or other events discontinuing a country's constitutional government has been filled by those able to do so, one nation or often an alliance, installing a transitional (often minimal) governance administered by, or under supervision of, one or more High Commissioners representing it/them. For example:- 22 November 1918–1919 Alsace-LorraineAlsace-LorraineThe Imperial Territory of Alsace-Lorraine was a territory created by the German Empire in 1871 after it annexed most of Alsace and the Moselle region of Lorraine following its victory in the Franco-Prussian War. The Alsatian part lay in the Rhine Valley on the west bank of the Rhine River and east...
, till then part of the defeated German Empire as Elsaß-Lothringen but just occupied by and restored to France, was under haut commissaire Maringer (it would be only fully reintegrated in 1925, after three Commissioners General)
- When Mussolini's Italy occupied MontenegroMontenegroMontenegro Montenegrin: Crna Gora Црна Гора , meaning "Black Mountain") is a country located in Southeastern Europe. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea to the south-west and is bordered by Croatia to the west, Bosnia and Herzegovina to the northwest, Serbia to the northeast and Albania to the...
17 April 1941 – 10 September 1943, it first appointed a (Nominal) Governor (17 May 1941 – 23 July 1941? Mihajlo Ivanovic), then a Civil Commissioner 29 April 1941 – 22 May 1941 Conte Serafino Mazzolini (b. 1890 – d. 1945), who next stayed on as High Commissioner (from 12 July 1941, also styled RegentRegentA regent, from the Latin regens "one who reigns", is a person selected to act as head of state because the ruler is a minor, not present, or debilitated. Currently there are only two ruling Regencies in the world, sovereign Liechtenstein and the Malaysian constitutive state of Terengganu...
at the proclamation of Nominal independence under Italian control, but exiled King Mihajlo IPrince Michael of MontenegroPrince Michael Petrović-Njegoš of Montenegro was the third son of Prince Mirko Petrović-Njegoš, Grand Voivode of Grahovo and Zeta , and Natalija Konstantinovic, a cousin of Aleksandar Obrenović of Serbia...
refuses the throne, when offered the Montenegrin crown; Prince Roman Petrovich of RussiaPrince Roman Petrovich of RussiaPrince Roman Petrovich of Russia was a member of the House of Romanov.-Russian prince:Prince Roman Petrovich was born in the Peterhof Palace in St. Petersburg the only son of Grand Duke Peter Nikolaevich of Russia and his wife Princess Milica of Montenegro...
(b. 1896 – d. 1978) also refuses to be enthroned) till 23 July 1941 followed by two Governors before the German occupation
Domestic High Commissioners
- In FranceFranceThe French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
, a high commissioner, in French haut-commissaire, is a civil servant appointed by the President of France to some high level position within France:- The High commissioner for atomic energyNuclear powerNuclear power is the use of sustained nuclear fission to generate heat and electricity. Nuclear power plants provide about 6% of the world's energy and 13–14% of the world's electricity, with the U.S., France, and Japan together accounting for about 50% of nuclear generated electricity...
is the head of the CEACommissariat à l'Énergie AtomiqueThe Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives or CEA, is a French “public establishment related to industrial and commercial activities” whose mission is to develop all applications of nuclear power, both civilian and military... - cfr. Haute Autorité.
- The High commissioner for atomic energy
- In PortugalPortugalPortugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
, high commissioner (alto comissário in Portuguese) is the title of certain officials appointed by the PresidentPresident of PortugalPortugal has been a republic since 1910, and since that time the head of state has been the president, whose official title is President of the Portuguese Republic ....
, the Parliament or the GovernmentGovernment of PortugalThe Government is one of the four sovereignty organs of the Portuguese Republic. It is also the organ that conducts politics in general in the country and is also the superior body in public administration...
to deal with special matters of national importance (e.g.: the High Commissioner for Immigration and Intercultural Dialogue is the government official responsible for the immigrationImmigrationImmigration is the act of foreigners passing or coming into a country for the purpose of permanent residence...
and ethnic minorities affairs).
Representing an international alliance
- After the naval blockade of CreteCreteCrete is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, and one of the thirteen administrative regions of Greece. It forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece while retaining its own local cultural traits...
in 1898 by France, Italy, Russia and the United Kingdom, Crete became autonomous within the Ottoman Empire. These protecting powers appointed the following as High Commissioner (or "Armostis") until 1908 when the Cretan Assembly unilaterally declared union with Greece (with Crete subsequently formally becoming part of Greece in 1913):- 1898–1906 Prince George of GreecePrince George of Greece and Denmarkalign=right| Prince George of Greece and Denmark was the second son of King George I of the Hellenes and Grand Duchess Olga, and is remembered chiefly for having saved the life of a future Emperor of Russia, Nicholas II...
- September 18, 1906 – September 24, 1908 Alexandros ZaimisAlexandros ZaimisAlexandros Zaimis was a former Greek Prime Minister, Minister of the Interior, Minister of Justice, and High Commissioner of Crete. He served as Prime Minister six times.-Early Life and Family:...
- 1898–1906 Prince George of Greece
- Even shortly before on 8 December 1918 the Allied occupation of the BosporusBosporusThe Bosphorus or Bosporus , also known as the Istanbul Strait , is a strait that forms part of the boundary between Europe and Asia. It is one of the Turkish Straits, along with the Dardanelles...
, the DardanellesDardanellesThe Dardanelles , formerly known as the Hellespont, is a narrow strait in northwestern Turkey connecting the Aegean Sea to the Sea of Marmara. It is one of the Turkish Straits, along with its counterpart the Bosphorus. It is located at approximately...
, the eastern coast of the Sea of MarmaraSea of MarmaraThe Sea of Marmara , also known as the Sea of Marmora or the Marmara Sea, and in the context of classical antiquity as the Propontis , is the inland sea that connects the Black Sea to the Aegean Sea, thus separating Turkey's Asian and European parts. The Bosphorus strait connects it to the Black...
, the islands of Imros, LemnosLemnosLemnos is an island of Greece in the northern part of the Aegean Sea. Administratively the island forms a separate municipality within the Lemnos peripheral unit, which is part of the North Aegean Periphery. The principal town of the island and seat of the municipality is Myrina...
, SamothraceSamothraceSamothrace is a Greek island in the northern Aegean Sea. It is a self-governing municipality within the Evros peripheral unit of Thrace. The island is long and is in size and has a population of 2,723 . Its main industries are fishing and tourism. Resources on the island includes granite and...
and TenedosTenedosTenedos or Bozcaada or Bozdja-Ada is a small island in the Aegean Sea, part of the Bozcaada district of Çanakkale province in Turkey. , Tenedos has a population of about 2,354. The main industries are tourism, wine production and fishing...
and 15 km deep into eastern and the eastern shores; entire area demilitarized (Zone of the Straits; complemented 16 March – 10 August 1920 as the allies occupy the Ottoman capital Istanbul) was a military fact, in November 1918 a double post was created: until the termination of allied occupation on 22 October 1923, there were at all times one British Senior Allied High Commissioner and one (junior) Allied High Commissioner (incumbents from France, thrice, Italy and the US, each twice).
Often the main/locally concerned members of an alliance would not set up a joint occupation authority (as in Italy after the Nazi defeat) but simply each appoint one for each of the zones into which they physically divided amongst themselves an occupied state or territory, e.g. after World War II:
- in AustriaAustriaAustria , officially the Republic of Austria , is a landlocked country of roughly 8.4 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Slovakia and Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the...
, until 27 July 1955 when Allied occupation ends, restoring Austrian sovereignty, it was administered as a British Zone (6 consecutive High Commissioners, July 1945), a US Zone (4 incumbents from 5 July 1945), a Soviet Zone (4 from July 1945; only this had first been under a Military Governor from 8 April 1945) and a French Zone (2, from 8 July 1945); - in GermanyGermanyGermany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
there were also four major occupation zonesAllied Occupation Zones in GermanyThe Allied powers who defeated Nazi Germany in World War II divided the country west of the Oder-Neisse line into four occupation zones for administrative purposes during 1945–49. In the closing weeks of fighting in Europe, US forces had pushed beyond the previously agreed boundaries for the...
: the British Zone (after three consecutive Military governors from 22 May 1945, the last stayed on as first of three consecutive High Commissioners 21 September 1949 – 5 May 1955), the US Zone (after five Military governors from 8 May 1945, four High Commissioners 2 September 1949 – 5 May 1955), the Soviet Zone (after a military commander April 1945 – 9 June 1945 who stayed as first of three Military governors 9 June 1945 – 10 October 1949, the last of whom stayed on as only Chairman of the Soviet Control Commission 10 October 1949 – 28 May 1953, two High commissioners 28 May 1953 – 20 September 1955) and the French Zone (after a Military commander from May 1945 and a Military governor from July 1945, a single High commissioner 21 September 1949 – 5 May 1955); the Nazi capital, BerlinBerlinBerlin is the capital city of Germany and is one of the 16 states of Germany. With a population of 3.45 million people, Berlin is Germany's largest city. It is the second most populous city proper and the seventh most populous urban area in the European Union...
, enclaved in the Soviet zone, is separately quartered under four military City Commanders; only the small Dutch zone by the border is destined for annexation in 1949, so it is divided up in two districts, each under a landdrostLanddrostLanddrost was the title of various officials with local jurisdiction. It is of Dutch origin, with land- corresponding to the English meaning of an area, suggesting a somewhat larger jurisdiction than just a village or estate; and drost being a short form of Drossaard, one of many similar titles in...
(Tudderen, attached to the province of (Dutch) Limburg and EltenEltenElten is a small German town located in Northrhine-Westfalia. It has a population of around 4,500. Since 1975, it is part of the town Emmerich am Rhein. Between 1949 and 1963, Elten was part of the Netherlands . There is a substantial minority of Dutch citizens.- External links :*...
, attached to Gelderland province), but returned to Germany after compensation payments and minor border corrections on 11 August 1963
Representing an international organization
- As the 'world community' became a widely accepted ideal in diplomacy and was embodied first in the League of NationsLeague of NationsThe League of Nations was an intergovernmental organization founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first permanent international organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace...
and later the United NationsUnited NationsThe United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace...
, these often came to play a key role in extraordinary situations that would earlier probably have been dealt with by states as above, sometimes reflected in the appointment of High Commissioners under their auspices, sometimes just from the same leading powers, sometimes rather from 'neutral' member states. - The title of High Commissioner was specifically used for the administrators during the 'emancipation from colonial rule' of League of Nations mandateLeague of Nations mandateA League of Nations mandate was a legal status for certain territories transferred from the control of one country to another following World War I, or the legal instruments that contained the internationally agreed-upon terms for administering the territory on behalf of the League...
s and United Nations Trust TerritoriesUnited Nations Trust TerritoriesUnited Nations trust territories were the successors of the remaining League of Nations mandates and came into being when the League of Nations ceased to exist in 1946. All of the trust territories were administered through the UN Trusteeship Council...
, i.e. non-sovereign states under a 'transitional' regime established under the authority of the League of Nations or the UN, respectively, to prepare them for full independence.
These 'guardianships' most often were simply awarded to the former colonial power or if that was a loser in the preceding World War, to the 'liberating' Allied victor(s).
Mandate territories
- The British Mandate of Iraq High Commissioners – After Ottoman IraqOttoman IraqOttoman Iraq refers to the period of the history of Iraq between 1534 and 1920 when the region was ruled by the Ottoman Empire.Ottoman Iraq was divided into the three vilayets.* Mosul Vilayet* Baghdad Vilayet* Basra Vilayet...
was conquered by British forces, the mandate territory had four incumbents, after a single civilian Administrator (10 January 1919 – 1 October 1920 Sir Arnold Talbot WilsonArnold WilsonSir Arnold Talbot Wilson KCIE CSI CMG DSO was the British civil commissioner in Baghdad in 1918-1920. Wilson became publicly known for his role as the colonial administrator of Mesopotamia during and after the First World War. His high-handedness arguably led to an Iraqi revolt in 1920. He was...
), continuing ten years after the accession to the throne and most of the rule of the country's first MalikMalikMalik is an Arabic word meaning "king, chieftain".It has been adopted in various other, mainly Islamized or Arabized, Asian languages for their ruling princes and to render kings elsewhere. It is also sometimes used in derived meanings...
(King, reigned 23 August 1921 – 8 September 1933) Faysal IFaisal I of IraqFaisal bin Hussein bin Ali al-Hashemi, was for a short time King of the Arab Kingdom of Syria or Greater Syria in 1920, and was King of the Kingdom of Iraq from 23 August 1921 to 1933...
(b. 1885 – d. 1933) :- 1 October 1920 – 4 May 1923 Sir Percy Zachariah Cox (b. 1864 – d. 1937)
- 4 May 1923 – October 1928 Sir Henry Robert Conway DobbsHenry DobbsSir Henry Robert Conway Dobbs, GBE, KCSI, KCMG, KCIE was an administrator in British India, he served as the Chief Commissioner of Balochistan. He later served as High Commissioner to the Kingdom of Iraq from 1923 to 1929, the longest time this position was held by anyone during the course of the...
(acting to 15 September 1923) (b. 1871 – d. 1934) - October 1928 – 11 September 1929 Sir Gilbert Falkingham Clayton (b. 1875 – d. 1929)
- 3 October 1929 – 3 October 1932 Sir Francis Henry HumphrysFrancis HumphrysLieutenant-Colonel Sir Francis Henry Humphrys, GCMG, GCVO, KBE, CIE was a colonial administrator, diplomat and cricketer....
(b. 1879 – d. 1971)
- The British Mandate of Palestine High Commissioners
- 1 July 1920–1925 Sir Herbert Louis SamuelHerbert Samuel, 1st Viscount SamuelHerbert Louis Samuel, 1st Viscount Samuel GCB OM GBE PC was a British politician and diplomat.-Early years:...
(1879–1963), until the 1922 establishment of the mandate actually the first civilian who took over, already as High Commissioner, from the three consecutive military administrators since the 1917 conquest by British forces - 1925 Sir Gilbert Falkingham Clayton (acting) (1875–1929)
- 25 August 1925 – August 1928 Herbert Charles Onslow Plumer, Baron PlumerHerbert Plumer, 1st Viscount PlumerField Marshal Herbert Charles Onslow Plumer, 1st Viscount Plumer, GCB, GCMG, GCVO, GBE was a British colonial official and soldier born in Torquay who commanded the British Second Army in World War I and later served as High Commissioner of the British Mandate for Palestine.-Military...
(1857–1932) - August 1928 – 6 December 1928 Sir Harry Charles LukeHarry Charles LukeSir Harry Charles Luke KCMG, GCStJ, D.Litt. of Oxford and honorary LLD of Malta, was an official in the British Colonial Office. He served in Barbados, Cyprus, Transcaucasia, Sierra Leone, Palestine, Malta, the British Western Pacific Territories and Fiji...
(acting) (1884–1969) - 6 December 1928–1931 Sir John Robert Chancellor (1870–1952)
- 1931–1932 Mark Aitchison YoungMark Aitchison YoungSir Mark Aitchison Young, GCMG was a British administrator who became the Governor of Hong Kong during the years immediately before and after the Japanese occupation of the territory.-Early life, service in war:...
(acting) (1886–1974) - 1932 – September 1937 Sir Arthur Grenfell WauchopeArthur Grenfell WauchopeGeneral Sir Arthur Grenfell Wauchope GCB GCMG CIE DSO was a British soldier and colonial administrator.-Military career:Educated at Repton School, Wauchope was commissioned into the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders in 1893. He transferred to 2 Bn Black Watch in 1896.He served in World War I as...
(1874–1947) - September 1937 – March 1938 William Denis Battershill (acting) (1896–1959)
- 3 March 1938 – 3 September 1944 Sir Harold Alfred MacMichaelHarold MacMichaelSir Harold Alfred MacMichael, GCMG, DSO , was a British colonial administrator.-Early service:MacMichael graduated with a first from Magdalene College, Cambridge. After passing his civil service exam, he entered the service of the British Empire in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan...
(1882–1969) - 3 September 1944 – 21 November 1945 John Standish Surtees Prendergast Vereker, Viscount GortJohn Vereker, 6th Viscount GortField Marshal John Standish Surtees Prendergast Vereker, 6th Viscount Gort, VC, GCB, CBE, DSO & Two Bars, MVO, MC , was a British and Anglo-Irish soldier. As a young officer in World War I he won the Victoria Cross at the Battle of the Canal du Nord. During the 1930s he served as Chief of the...
(1886–1946) - 21 November 1945 – 14 May 1948 Sir Alan Gordon CunninghamAlan Gordon CunninghamGeneral Sir Alan Gordon Cunningham GCMG, KCB, DSO, MC was a British Army officer, noted for victories over Italian forces in the East African Campaign during the Second World War. Later he was the seventh and last High Commissioner of Palestine...
(1887–1983)
- 1 July 1920–1925 Sir Herbert Louis Samuel
UN Trust Territories
- In TogoTogoTogo, officially the Togolese Republic , is a country in West Africa bordered by Ghana to the west, Benin to the east and Burkina Faso to the north. It extends south to the Gulf of Guinea, on which the capital Lomé is located. Togo covers an area of approximately with a population of approximately...
, once a German colony, then a League of Nations mandate, * three High commissioners- 21 September 1956 – 23 March 1957 Jean Louis Philippe Bérard (b. 1910), in fact the last of many CommissionerCommissionerCommissioner is in principle the title given to a member of a commission or to an individual who has been given a commission ....
s since 4 September 1916 - 23 March 1957 – June 1957 Joseph Édouard Georges Rigal (acting)
- June 1957 – 27 April 1960 Georges Léon Spénale (b. 1913 – d. 1983); next it was an independent republic.
- 21 September 1956 – 23 March 1957 Jean Louis Philippe Bérard (b. 1910), in fact the last of many Commissioner
- The UN Trust Territory of the Pacific IslandsTrust Territory of the Pacific IslandsThe Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands was a United Nations trust territory in Micronesia administered by the United States from 1947 to 1986.-History:...
(originally comprising Marshall IslandsMarshall IslandsThe Republic of the Marshall Islands , , is a Micronesian nation of atolls and islands in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, just west of the International Date Line and just north of the Equator. As of July 2011 the population was 67,182...
, MicronesiaMicronesiaMicronesia is a subregion of Oceania, comprising thousands of small islands in the western Pacific Ocean. It is distinct from Melanesia to the south, and Polynesia to the east. The Philippines lie to the west, and Indonesia to the southwest....
, Northern Mariana IslandsNorthern Mariana IslandsThe Northern Mariana Islands, officially the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands , is a commonwealth in political union with the United States, occupying a strategic region of the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of 15 islands about three-quarters of the way from Hawaii to the Philippines...
and PalauPalauPalau , officially the Republic of Palau , is an island nation in the Pacific Ocean, east of the Philippines and south of Tokyo. In 1978, after three decades as being part of the United Nations trusteeship, Palau chose independence instead of becoming part of the Federated States of Micronesia, a...
), after Allied military occupations, since 18 July 1947, had a dozen high commissionersHigh Commissioner of the Trust Territory of the Pacific IslandsThe following is a list of the High Commissioners of the United Nations Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, administered by the United States.-Military Governors:*John H. Hoover...
, also presiding over the splitting off of PalauPalauPalau , officially the Republic of Palau , is an island nation in the Pacific Ocean, east of the Philippines and south of Tokyo. In 1978, after three decades as being part of the United Nations trusteeship, Palau chose independence instead of becoming part of the Federated States of Micronesia, a...
and Marshall IslandsMarshall IslandsThe Republic of the Marshall Islands , , is a Micronesian nation of atolls and islands in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, just west of the International Date Line and just north of the Equator. As of July 2011 the population was 67,182...
in 1980 and the 10 May 1979 granting of autonomy to the Federated States of MicronesiaFederated States of MicronesiaThe Federated States of Micronesia or FSM is an independent, sovereign island nation, made up of four states from west to east: Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei and Kosrae. It comprises approximately 607 islands with c...
(former PonapePohnpeiNot to be confused with Pompeii, the ancient city destroyed by Vesuvius in AD 79.Pohnpei "upon a stone altar " is the name of one of the four states in the Federated States of Micronesia , situated among the Senyavin Islands which are part of the larger Caroline Islands group...
, Truk and YapYapYap, also known as Wa'ab by locals, is an island in the Caroline Islands of the western Pacific Ocean. It is a state of the Federated States of Micronesia. Yap's indigenous cultures and traditions are still strong compared to other neighboring islands. The island of Yap actually consists of four...
districts of the Trust Territory) until on 3 November 1986 the Trust Territory was dissolved by the U.S. (a single Director of the Office of Transition, Charles Jordan, stepped in from 3 November 1986 – 30 September 1991, a while after the 22 December 1990 proclamation of final independence as the UN Security Council ratified the termination of US trusteeship).
Other UN administration
- After the former Italian colony of EritreaEritreaEritrea , officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in the Horn of Africa. Eritrea derives it's name from the Greek word Erethria, meaning 'red land'. The capital is Asmara. It is bordered by Sudan in the west, Ethiopia in the south, and Djibouti in the southeast...
had been under victor Britain's administration since 5 May 1941, a specific United Nations administration, under Britain, was installed on 19 February 1951, under a UN High Commissioner, Edoardo Anze Matienzo (Bolivian, b. 1902), whose office ceased on 15 September 1952 when it was Federated with Ethiopia under the sovereignty of the Ethiopian emperor.
Representing the world universally
At the United Nations
United Nations
The United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace...
and affiliated global organisations, a High Commissioner serves as the permanent chief executive of a commission
Committee
A committee is a type of small deliberative assembly that is usually intended to remain subordinate to another, larger deliberative assembly—which when organized so that action on committee requires a vote by all its entitled members, is called the "Committee of the Whole"...
composed of representatives of various member nation
Nation
A nation may refer to a community of people who share a common language, culture, ethnicity, descent, and/or history. In this definition, a nation has no physical borders. However, it can also refer to people who share a common territory and government irrespective of their ethnic make-up...
s.
- the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, who has the rank of Under-secretary-general, serves the United Nations Human Rights Commission. In fact in 2005, the US Ambassador at the UN complained that the incumbent, as a 'civil servant', was not authorized to act upon information (in this case world wide press reports on abnormal detention forms in the 'war against terrorism' suspected to breech the rights of the suspects) not obtained by the organisation's official channels.
- the UN High Commissioner for Refugees heads the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)