Hinduism and other religions
Encyclopedia
In the field of comparative religion
, some have sought to discover similarities between Hinduism
and other religions.
Hinduism has a history of co-existence with Buddhism
and Jainism
(the Shramana
traditions), and more recently, with Sikhism
, within the Indian subcontinent
. Consequently, these religious traditions share a number terms and concepts such as dharma
and karma
.
) more than on Hinduism proper.
While it is well known that a number of Indian sages visited Constantinople
in Classical Antiquity, claims of significant influence in either direction failed to gain wide acceptance.
The study of Jesus Christ in comparative mythology
has pointed to Krishna
in particular. "Krishnology" is a term coined to express theological parallels between Krishnaism
and the dogmas of Christology
in Christianity. There is some pseudo-scholarly literature postulating that Jesus travelled to India after surviving his crucifixion, beginning with Nicolas Notovitch
's La vie Inconnue du Jesus Christ (1894) and Jesus in India
(1899, 1908, see Roza Bal
, Jesus in Ahmadiyya Islam) and revived in 1980s esotericism (Holger Kersten 1981, 1983).
There also exist notable similarities in Christian and Hindu theology, most notably in that both religions present a trinitarian view of God. The Holy Trinity
of Christianity, consisting of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, is sometimes seen as roughly analogous to the Trimurti
of Hinduism, whose members -- Brahma
, Vishnu
, and Shiva
-- are seen as the three principal manifestations of Brahman
, or Godhead.
In Hinduism (also in Jainism
and Sikhism
), the concept of moksha
is akin to that of Buddhism's nirvana, as well as Christianity's doctrine of salvation
.
Swami Tripurari
states:
Vedanta
from the 19th century has influenced some Christian thinkers
(See also: Pierre Johanns
, Abhishiktananda
, Bede Griffiths
).
Apart from the Goa Inquisition
, there is no history of forced conversion of Hindus to Christianity. The declaration Nostra Aetate
officially established inter-religious dialogue between Catholics and Hindus. It has promoted common values between religions.
There are over 17.3 million Catholics in India, which represents less than 2% of the total population and is the largest Christian Church within India.
(See also: Dalit theology
.
Buddhism, Hinduism and Christianity differ on fundamental beliefs on heaven, hell and reincarnation, to name a few. From the Hindu perspective, heaven (Sanskrit svarga) and hell (naraka) are temporary places, where every soul has to live, either for the good deeds done or for their sins committed. After a soul suffers its due punishment in hell, or after a soul has enjoyed enough in the heaven, it again enters the life-death cycle. There is no concept of 'permanent' hell. "Karma" cycle takes over. Permanent heaven or bliss is " Moksha".
However, there also exist significant similarities in Christian and Hindu theology, most notably in that both religions present a trinitarian view of God. The Holy Trinity of Christianity, consisting of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, is sometimes seen as roughly analogous to the Trimurti of Hinduism, whose members—Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva—are seen as the three principal manifestations of Brahman, or Godhead. Others may consider Brahma to be more similar to the demiurge of Christian gnosticism, in that he (at least initially) wrongly thought himself as the "Creator" and also as the highest or even the only god. In this case, the Hindu version of the Trinity could more accurately be seen as Vishnu (Father), Sankarshan or Shiva (Holy spirit), and Bhahma (Son; anologous to Christ). However there is a Parabrahma i.e. ultimate creator who has created this thrimurthi also.This view is further supported by the perceived intimate connection, or even identity (at least for a time in early and Eastern Christianity) between the feminine Sophia (wisdom) and the gender-neutral Holy Spirit (or, the Virgin Mary in Western Christianity). Sophia is also sometimes seen to represent the Image of God present in the human soul, which is saved from its fallen state by Christ the Logos—in which case there would be a strong similarity between Sophia and Sita in the Ramayana, who is saved by Hanuman (an incarnation of Shiva) from the demon king Ravana to be reunited with her husband Rama, representing God. In either case, Hindu or Christian, a trinity is generally not seen as polytheistic, but rather as representing three mysteriously distinct aspects of one personal God, or Ishvara.
In Hinduism (also in Jainism and Sikhism), the concept of moksha is akin to that of Buddhism's nirvana, as well as Christianity's doctrine of salvation. Most other religions of the world do not have such conceptions, except for that of fana' al-fana, or the experience of Wahdat-ul-Wujood in the Sufi aspect of Islam, and possibly some other examples.
Christian-Hindu relations are a mixed affair. On one hand, Hinduism's natural tendency has been to recognize the divine basis of various other religions, and to revere their founders and saintly practitioners. On the other hand, aggressive proselytism on the part of some Christian groups have led to incidents of anti-Christian rhetoric, often fueled by Hindu nationalist political parties. In Western countries, Vedanta has influenced some Christian thinkers, while others in the anti-cult movement have reacted against the activities of immigrant gurus and their followers. (See also: Pierre Johanns, Abhishiktananda, Bede Griffiths, Dalit theology.)
Hinduism and Islam
, from the arrival of the Arabs as far back as the 8th century AD, has had a checkered history. During the Muslim conquests Islam gained many converts on the Indian sub-continent primarily from Hinduism or Buddhism ; the two dominant local religions through terror and intimidation by Islamic invaders. Prominent examples of these are Mahmud of Ghazni
and the Mughal
emperor Aurangzeb
on either end of the timeline for Islamic rulers. Inter-marriage and immigration of Muslims from elsewhere is also led to the growth of Muslim populations in India. Muslims in India follow a caste system that divided the Arab-descended "Ashraf" Muslims and the "Ajlaf" converts, with the "Arzal" untouchables at the lowest rung The term "Arzal"
stands for "degraded" and the Arzal castes are further subdivided into Bhanar, Halalkhor, Hijra, Kasbi, Lalbegi, Maugta, Mehtar etc.
Sheikh Muhammad was a Sufi saint who embraced the Hindu God Rama
as his chosen bhakti ideal. Kabir
wrote poetry and preached to the people, advocating a blend of philosophy and spiritual practices challenging the religious clergy of both Islam and Hinduism and claiming to be neither Hindu, nor Muslim.
The synergy between certain Sufis and Bhaktas in many regions of India led to Muslim and Hindu laity worshiping together at a mazar
(Sufi shrine) attended by a Vaishnav priest.
Comparative religion
Comparative religion is a field of religious studies that analyzes the similarities and differences of themes, myths, rituals and concepts among the world's religions...
, some have sought to discover similarities between Hinduism
Hinduism
Hinduism is the predominant and indigenous religious tradition of the Indian Subcontinent. Hinduism is known to its followers as , amongst many other expressions...
and other religions.
Hinduism has a history of co-existence with Buddhism
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
and Jainism
Jainism
Jainism is an Indian religion that prescribes a path of non-violence towards all living beings. Its philosophy and practice emphasize the necessity of self-effort to move the soul towards divine consciousness and liberation. Any soul that has conquered its own inner enemies and achieved the state...
(the Shramana
Shramana
A shramana is a wandering monk in certain ascetic traditions of ancient India including Jainism, Buddhism, and Ājīvikism. Famous śramaṇas include Mahavira and Gautama Buddha....
traditions), and more recently, with Sikhism
Sikhism
Sikhism is a monotheistic religion founded during the 15th century in the Punjab region, by Guru Nanak Dev and continued to progress with ten successive Sikh Gurus . It is the fifth-largest organized religion in the world and one of the fastest-growing...
, within the Indian subcontinent
Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent, also Indian Subcontinent, Indo-Pak Subcontinent or South Asian Subcontinent is a region of the Asian continent on the Indian tectonic plate from the Hindu Kush or Hindu Koh, Himalayas and including the Kuen Lun and Karakoram ranges, forming a land mass which extends...
. Consequently, these religious traditions share a number terms and concepts such as dharma
Dharma
Dharma means Law or Natural Law and is a concept of central importance in Indian philosophy and religion. In the context of Hinduism, it refers to one's personal obligations, calling and duties, and a Hindu's dharma is affected by the person's age, caste, class, occupation, and gender...
and karma
Karma
Karma in Indian religions is the concept of "action" or "deed", understood as that which causes the entire cycle of cause and effect originating in ancient India and treated in Hindu, Jain, Buddhist and Sikh philosophies....
.
Hinduism and Christianity
There has been some debate on historical connections between Christianity and Indian religion, although this has focussed on Buddhism and Christianity (via Greco-BuddhismGreco-Buddhism
Greco-Buddhism, sometimes spelled Graeco-Buddhism, refers to the cultural syncretism between Hellenistic culture and Buddhism, which developed between the 4th century BCE and the 5th century CE in the area covered by the Indian sub-continent, and modern Afghanistan, Pakistan and north-western...
) more than on Hinduism proper.
While it is well known that a number of Indian sages visited Constantinople
Constantinople
Constantinople was the capital of the Roman, Eastern Roman, Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman Empires. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and wealthiest city.-Names:...
in Classical Antiquity, claims of significant influence in either direction failed to gain wide acceptance.
The study of Jesus Christ in comparative mythology
Jesus Christ in comparative mythology
The study of Jesus from a mythographical perspective is the examination of the narrative of Jesus, the Christ of the gospels, Christian theology and folk Christianity as a central part of Christian mythology....
has pointed to Krishna
Krishna
Krishna is a central figure of Hinduism and is traditionally attributed the authorship of the Bhagavad Gita. He is the supreme Being and considered in some monotheistic traditions as an Avatar of Vishnu...
in particular. "Krishnology" is a term coined to express theological parallels between Krishnaism
Krishnaism
Krishnaism is a group of Hindu denominations within Vaishnavism, centered on devotion to Radha Krishna or other forms of Krishna, identified with Vishnu.The central text of Krishnaism is the Bhagavad Gita....
and the dogmas of Christology
Christology
Christology is the field of study within Christian theology which is primarily concerned with the nature and person of Jesus Christ as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament. Primary considerations include the relationship of Jesus' nature and person with the nature...
in Christianity. There is some pseudo-scholarly literature postulating that Jesus travelled to India after surviving his crucifixion, beginning with Nicolas Notovitch
Nicolas Notovitch
Nicolas Notovitch was a Russian aristocrat, Cossack officer, spy and journalist known for his contention that during the years of Jesus Christ's life missing from the Bible, he followed travelling merchants abroad into India and the Hemis Monastery in Ladakh, India, where he studied Buddhism.-Life...
's La vie Inconnue du Jesus Christ (1894) and Jesus in India
Jesus in India (book)
thumb|leftJesus in India is a treatise written by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, the founder of the Ahmadiyya Movement. It discusses at length Jesus’ possible survival from crucifixion and his subsequent migration towards Kashmir in order to preach to the 'Lost Tribes of Israel'...
(1899, 1908, see Roza Bal
Roza Bal
Roza Bal is the name of a shrine located in the Khanyar area of district Srinagar, in Kashmir, India, venerated by some Muslims, Hindus and Buddhists. Some people identify the sage buried there with one Yuz Asaf, that is Jesus of Nazareth, whom they allege to have arrived in Kashmir after...
, Jesus in Ahmadiyya Islam) and revived in 1980s esotericism (Holger Kersten 1981, 1983).
There also exist notable similarities in Christian and Hindu theology, most notably in that both religions present a trinitarian view of God. The Holy Trinity
Trinity
The Christian doctrine of the Trinity defines God as three divine persons : the Father, the Son , and the Holy Spirit. The three persons are distinct yet coexist in unity, and are co-equal, co-eternal and consubstantial . Put another way, the three persons of the Trinity are of one being...
of Christianity, consisting of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, is sometimes seen as roughly analogous to the Trimurti
Trimurti
The Trimurti is a concept in Hinduism "in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified by the forms of Brahmā the creator, Vishnu the maintainer or preserver, and Śhiva the destroyer or transformer," These three deities have been called "the Hindu triad" or...
of Hinduism, whose members -- Brahma
Brahma
Brahma is the Hindu god of creation and one of the Trimurti, the others being Vishnu and Shiva. According to the Brahma Purana, he is the father of Mānu, and from Mānu all human beings are descended. In the Ramayana and the...
, Vishnu
Vishnu
Vishnu is the Supreme god in the Vaishnavite tradition of Hinduism. Smarta followers of Adi Shankara, among others, venerate Vishnu as one of the five primary forms of God....
, and Shiva
Shiva
Shiva is a major Hindu deity, and is the destroyer god or transformer among the Trimurti, the Hindu Trinity of the primary aspects of the divine. God Shiva is a yogi who has notice of everything that happens in the world and is the main aspect of life. Yet one with great power lives a life of a...
-- are seen as the three principal manifestations of Brahman
Brahman
In Hinduism, Brahman is the one supreme, universal Spirit that is the origin and support of the phenomenal universe. Brahman is sometimes referred to as the Absolute or Godhead which is the Divine Ground of all being...
, or Godhead.
In Hinduism (also in Jainism
Jainism
Jainism is an Indian religion that prescribes a path of non-violence towards all living beings. Its philosophy and practice emphasize the necessity of self-effort to move the soul towards divine consciousness and liberation. Any soul that has conquered its own inner enemies and achieved the state...
and Sikhism
Sikhism
Sikhism is a monotheistic religion founded during the 15th century in the Punjab region, by Guru Nanak Dev and continued to progress with ten successive Sikh Gurus . It is the fifth-largest organized religion in the world and one of the fastest-growing...
), the concept of moksha
Moksha
Within Indian religions, moksha or mukti , literally "release" , is the liberation from samsara and the concomitant suffering involved in being subject to the cycle of repeated death and reincarnation or rebirth.-Origins:It is highly probable that the concept of moksha was first developed in...
is akin to that of Buddhism's nirvana, as well as Christianity's doctrine of salvation
Salvation
Within religion salvation is the phenomenon of being saved from the undesirable condition of bondage or suffering experienced by the psyche or soul that has arisen as a result of unskillful or immoral actions generically referred to as sins. Salvation may also be called "deliverance" or...
.
Swami Tripurari
Swami Tripurari
Tripurari Swami, also known as Swami B.V. Tripurari and Swami Tripurari, is "an author, poet and guru. As a prominent master in the Gaudiya Vaishnava lineage, he is one of the leading practitioners of Bhakti-yoga in the West."-Biography:...
states:
... in theory the sinners of the world are the beneficiaries of Christ’s sacrifice, but it is God the father for whose pleasure Christ underwent the crucifixion, even when the father’s joy in this scenario lies in the salvation of sinners. Christ represents the intermediary between God and humanity, and his life aptly illustrates the fact that it is sacrifice by which we come to meet our maker. Thus in Christ the Divine teaches us “the way” more than he does the goal. The Christ conception represents “the way” in the sense that the way is sacrifice, out of which love arises. The KrishnaKrishnaKrishna is a central figure of Hinduism and is traditionally attributed the authorship of the Bhagavad Gita. He is the supreme Being and considered in some monotheistic traditions as an Avatar of Vishnu...
conception represents that for which we not only should, but must sacrifice, compelled by the Godhead’s irresistible attributes, etc. depicted therein.
Vedanta
Vedanta
Vedānta was originally a word used in Hindu philosophy as a synonym for that part of the Veda texts known also as the Upanishads. The name is a morphophonological form of Veda-anta = "Veda-end" = "the appendix to the Vedic hymns." It is also speculated that "Vedānta" means "the purpose or goal...
from the 19th century has influenced some Christian thinkers
(See also: Pierre Johanns
Pierre Johanns
Pierre Johanns was a Luxemburger Jesuit priest, missionary in India and Indologist.-Education:...
, Abhishiktananda
Abhishiktananda
Abhishiktananda was the name taken by the French Benedictine monk Henri le Saux, whose religious experience in India led him to become a bridge between Hindu and Christian spirituality.From childhood he seemed destined for a religious life and entered 'minor seminary' at the age of 11, becoming a...
, Bede Griffiths
Bede Griffiths
Bede Griffiths OSB Cam , born Alan Richard Griffiths and also known, by the end of his life, as Swami Dayananda , was a British-born Indian Benedictine monk who lived in ashrams in South India and became a noted yogi...
).
Apart from the Goa Inquisition
Goa Inquisition
The Goa Inquisition was the office of the Inquisition acting in the Indian state of Goa and the rest of the Portuguese empire in Asia. It was established in 1560, briefly suppressed from 1774–1778, and finally abolished in 1812. The Goan Inquisition is considered a blot on the history of...
, there is no history of forced conversion of Hindus to Christianity. The declaration Nostra Aetate
Nostra Aetate
Nostra Aetate is the Declaration on the Relation of the Church with Non-Christian Religions of the Second Vatican Council. Passed by a vote of 2,221 to 88 of the assembled bishops, this declaration was promulgated on October 28, 1965, by Pope Paul VI.The first draft, entitled "Decretum de...
officially established inter-religious dialogue between Catholics and Hindus. It has promoted common values between religions.
There are over 17.3 million Catholics in India, which represents less than 2% of the total population and is the largest Christian Church within India.
(See also: Dalit theology
Dalit theology
Dalit theology is a branch of Christian theology that emerged among the Dalit caste in India in the 1980s. It shares a number of themes with liberation theology, which arose two decades earlier, including a self-identity as a people undergoing Exodus. Dalit theology sees hope in the "Nazareth...
.
Buddhism, Hinduism and Christianity differ on fundamental beliefs on heaven, hell and reincarnation, to name a few. From the Hindu perspective, heaven (Sanskrit svarga) and hell (naraka) are temporary places, where every soul has to live, either for the good deeds done or for their sins committed. After a soul suffers its due punishment in hell, or after a soul has enjoyed enough in the heaven, it again enters the life-death cycle. There is no concept of 'permanent' hell. "Karma" cycle takes over. Permanent heaven or bliss is " Moksha".
However, there also exist significant similarities in Christian and Hindu theology, most notably in that both religions present a trinitarian view of God. The Holy Trinity of Christianity, consisting of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, is sometimes seen as roughly analogous to the Trimurti of Hinduism, whose members—Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva—are seen as the three principal manifestations of Brahman, or Godhead. Others may consider Brahma to be more similar to the demiurge of Christian gnosticism, in that he (at least initially) wrongly thought himself as the "Creator" and also as the highest or even the only god. In this case, the Hindu version of the Trinity could more accurately be seen as Vishnu (Father), Sankarshan or Shiva (Holy spirit), and Bhahma (Son; anologous to Christ). However there is a Parabrahma i.e. ultimate creator who has created this thrimurthi also.This view is further supported by the perceived intimate connection, or even identity (at least for a time in early and Eastern Christianity) between the feminine Sophia (wisdom) and the gender-neutral Holy Spirit (or, the Virgin Mary in Western Christianity). Sophia is also sometimes seen to represent the Image of God present in the human soul, which is saved from its fallen state by Christ the Logos—in which case there would be a strong similarity between Sophia and Sita in the Ramayana, who is saved by Hanuman (an incarnation of Shiva) from the demon king Ravana to be reunited with her husband Rama, representing God. In either case, Hindu or Christian, a trinity is generally not seen as polytheistic, but rather as representing three mysteriously distinct aspects of one personal God, or Ishvara.
In Hinduism (also in Jainism and Sikhism), the concept of moksha is akin to that of Buddhism's nirvana, as well as Christianity's doctrine of salvation. Most other religions of the world do not have such conceptions, except for that of fana' al-fana, or the experience of Wahdat-ul-Wujood in the Sufi aspect of Islam, and possibly some other examples.
Christian-Hindu relations are a mixed affair. On one hand, Hinduism's natural tendency has been to recognize the divine basis of various other religions, and to revere their founders and saintly practitioners. On the other hand, aggressive proselytism on the part of some Christian groups have led to incidents of anti-Christian rhetoric, often fueled by Hindu nationalist political parties. In Western countries, Vedanta has influenced some Christian thinkers, while others in the anti-cult movement have reacted against the activities of immigrant gurus and their followers. (See also: Pierre Johanns, Abhishiktananda, Bede Griffiths, Dalit theology.)
Hinduism and Islam
- See also: Islam in IndiaIslam in IndiaIslam is the second-most practiced religion in the Republic of India after Hinduism, with more than 13.4% of the country's population ....
, Islamic conquest of South Asia
Hinduism and Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
, from the arrival of the Arabs as far back as the 8th century AD, has had a checkered history. During the Muslim conquests Islam gained many converts on the Indian sub-continent primarily from Hinduism or Buddhism ; the two dominant local religions through terror and intimidation by Islamic invaders. Prominent examples of these are Mahmud of Ghazni
Mahmud of Ghazni
Mahmud of Ghazni , actually ', was the most prominent ruler of the Ghaznavid dynasty who ruled from 997 until his death in 1030 in the eastern Iranian lands. Mahmud turned the former provincial city of Ghazni into the wealthy capital of an extensive empire which covered most of today's Iran,...
and the Mughal
Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire , or Mogul Empire in traditional English usage, was an imperial power from the Indian Subcontinent. The Mughal emperors were descendants of the Timurids...
emperor Aurangzeb
Aurangzeb
Abul Muzaffar Muhy-ud-Din Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir , more commonly known as Aurangzeb or by his chosen imperial title Alamgir , was the sixth Mughal Emperor of India, whose reign lasted from 1658 until his death in 1707.Badshah Aurangzeb, having ruled most of the Indian subcontinent for nearly...
on either end of the timeline for Islamic rulers. Inter-marriage and immigration of Muslims from elsewhere is also led to the growth of Muslim populations in India. Muslims in India follow a caste system that divided the Arab-descended "Ashraf" Muslims and the "Ajlaf" converts, with the "Arzal" untouchables at the lowest rung The term "Arzal"
stands for "degraded" and the Arzal castes are further subdivided into Bhanar, Halalkhor, Hijra, Kasbi, Lalbegi, Maugta, Mehtar etc.
Sheikh Muhammad was a Sufi saint who embraced the Hindu God Rama
Rama
Rama or full name Ramachandra is considered to be the seventh avatar of Vishnu in Hinduism, and a king of Ayodhya in ancient Indian...
as his chosen bhakti ideal. Kabir
Kabir
Kabīr was a mystic poet and saint of India, whose writings have greatly influenced the Bhakti movement...
wrote poetry and preached to the people, advocating a blend of philosophy and spiritual practices challenging the religious clergy of both Islam and Hinduism and claiming to be neither Hindu, nor Muslim.
The synergy between certain Sufis and Bhaktas in many regions of India led to Muslim and Hindu laity worshiping together at a mazar
Mazar
A Mazār is a tomb or mausoleum ; the word deriving from the Arabic verb zāra , 'to visit', whence also comes the noun ziyārah , 'a visit', or 'visiting the tomb of a saint for blessings.'. Though the word is Arabic in origin, it has been borrowed by a number of eastern languages, including Persian...
(Sufi shrine) attended by a Vaishnav priest.
Further reading
- Elst, KoenraadKoenraad ElstKoenraad Elst is a Belgian writer and orientalist .He was an editor of the New Right Flemish nationalist journal Teksten, Kommentaren en Studies from 1992 to 1995, focusing on criticism of Islam, various other conservative and Flemish separatist publications such as Nucleus, t Pallieterke,...
: Who is a Hindu?Who is a Hindu?Who is a Hindu? is a book by Koenraad Elst published in 2001 by Voice of India.In the first part of the book, Elst tries to give a definition to the term "Hindu", although he writes that "there is no simple solution for the complex question, “Who is a Hindu?”" He also compares Hinduism with...
(2001) http://koenraadelst.voiceofdharma.com/books/wiah/index.htm ISBN 81-85990-74-3 - Harsh NarainHarsh NarainHarsh Narain is an Indian author. He has a Ph.D. from Lucknow University, and was a professor at Benares Hindu University, Aligarh Muslim University and North Eastern Hill University....
: Myths of Composite Culture and Equality of Religions. Voice of India, Delhi 1991. - The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and BuddhismThe Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and BuddhismThe Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Butthism, also known as just The Religion of India, is a book on the sociology of religion written by Maximilian Weber, a German economist and sociologist of the early twentieth century. The original edition was in German...