History of Goa
Encyclopedia
Goa
is a small state on the western coast of India
. Though the smallest Indian state, Goa has played an influential role in Indian history. Goa was one of the major trade centers in India, thus it had always been attracting the influential dynasties, seafarers, merchants, traders, monks and missionaries since its earliest known history. Throughout its history Goa has undergone continual transformation, leaving an indelible impression on various aspects of its cultural and socio-economic development.
as Gomanta
which translates as the region of cows.
Despite a lack of archaeological and historical evidence, Hindu scriptures mention Parashurama
, as its creator(see:Skanda Purana
:Sahyadrikhanda
). He is said to have settled ten sages in this land and performed fire sacrifices. Another legend has that after performing the penance, the seven sages named the Saptarshi
s were blessed by Lord Shiva
; thereafter the sages were known as the Saptakoteshwar
. Further Lord Shiva is believed to have taken up temporary residence after a dispute with his consort Parvati
. Yet another legend states Lord Krishna
defeated Jarasandha
, the king of Magadha
on Gomanchal Mountain in Goa. (see:Hari Vamsha purana)
In Suta Samhita Govapuri or Goa is associated with spiritually cleansing touch:...The very sight of Govapuri destroys any sin committed in former existence just as sunrise dispels darkness... Certainly there is no other kshetra equal to Govapuri
A similar hymn praising Govapuri city is found in Sahyadrikhanda of Skanda Purana, which says the extent of Goapuri was about seven Yojana
s.
According to the Parshurama legend, Parashurama, the sixth reincarnation of Vishnu
faced with an order of banishment from the lands that he had once conquered, sets seven arrows fly from the Sahydris to push back the sea and create a stretch of land which he could claim for himself. The sea-god is believed to have acceded his to wish and crated a region Shurparaka, which translates literally to winnowing fan. This region is also known as Parashurama Kshetra. The legend further tells us that having created Goa, Parashurama brought Brahmins from the North and settled them in this land.(See:Shree Scanda Puran (Sayadri Khandha) -Ed. Dr. Jarson D. Kunha, Marathi version Ed. By Gajanan shastri Gaytonde).
and Mesolithic
period was highly debated. The discovery of rock art
engravings on lateritic platforms and granite boulders from Usgalimal on the banks of west-flowing river Kushavati River
, has shed light on the prehistory
of Goa. The rock shelter at Usgalimal has enough space for 25 to 30 people. The perennial stream in the vicinity which might have served Stone age
man for centuries as a source of water. An anthropomorphic figure of Mother goddess
and tectiforms resembling tree-like motifs have been found. This site was discovered by Dr P.P.Shirodkar
. Exploration of several Mesolithic sites of the Mandovi-Zuari basin, at other sites such as Keri
, Thane
, Anjuna
, Mauxim, Kazur in Quepem
, Virdi, has led to the discovery of several scrapers, points, bores, cones, et cetera. A hand axe
has also been found at Usgalimal. Further unifacial choppers were recovered on a flat-based pebble of quartzite from a pebble conglomerate at Shigaon on the Dudhsagar River
. Shirodakar made a detailed study of the rock engravings and dated them to Upper paleolithic
and Mesolithic phases, or to 8000-6000 BC. These discoveries have demonstrated that the region had been supporting a population of hunter-gatherers well before the advent of agriculture.
Evidence of Palaeolithic cave existence can be seen at Dabolim, Adkon, Shigaon, Fatorpa, Arli, Maulinguinim, Diwar, Sanguem, Pilerne, Aquem-Margaon et cetera. Difficulty in carbon dating the laterite rock compounds has posed a problem in determining the exact time period.
in south-eastern Goa. According to Dr. Kamat, these are evidence of a prehistoric Goan shamanistic
practice. For hundreds of years the Kushavati rock art gallery of Goa was known locally as goravarakhnyachi chitram or pictures made by the local cowherds. But people did not know of the works' origins in antiquity nor any could interpret them. After thorough study of these forms, it was concluded that these petroglyphs differ from those found elsewhere in Goa. Deeper studies and analysis over a period of ten years showed, these petroglyphs were an exquisitely carved ocular labyrinth
, one of the best in India and Asia. Its ocular nature also reinforced the evidence of prehistoric shamanism. The studies have shown that the Kushavati culture was a hunter-gatherer
culture embedded in the knowledge of local natural resources and processes - water, fish, plants, game, animal breeding cycles, seasons and natural calamities. The Kushavati culture was greatly concerned with water security, so the camp was set up near the stream. The Kushavati found food security in the jungle near the steam ensured plentiful food. It was also confronting the mysteries of illness, death and birth. This culture dates back around 8000-6000 BC. On basis of recent DNA based work on human migration Dr. Nandkumar Kamat has ruled out the possibility of Kushavati shamans belonging to the first wave of humans to step in Goa. They were not negritoes or austrics. Most probably they were the earliest Mediterraneans
who had descended the Western Ghats
probably in their search for sea salt on Goa’s coast. As the Kushavati transitioned into a Neolithic society, they began the domestication of animals and were in the last phase of using stone tools – the entire realm of shamanism underwent a radical transition. Today evidence of the metamorphosis in masked dance drama Perni jagor can be seen in the same cultural region.
. During this period tribes of Austric origin such as the Kols, Mundaris and Kharvis may have settled Goa, living on hunting, fishing and a primitive form of agriculture since 3500 BC. According to Goan historian Anant Ramakrishna Dhume, the Gauda and Kunbi
and other such castes are modern descendants of ancient Mundari tribes. In Dhume's work he mentions several words of Mundari origin in the Konkani language
. Dhume also elaborates on the deities worshipped by the ancient tribes, their customs, methods of farming and its overall impact on modern day Goan society The Negroids
were in an Neolithic stage of primitive culture and were food-gatherers. Traces of Negroid physical characteristics can be found in parts of Goa, up to at least the middle of the first millennium. The Proto-Australoid
tribe known as the Konkas, from whom is derived the name of the region, Kongvan or Konkan
with the other mentioned tribes formed reportedly the earliest settlers in the territory. Agriculture had not fully developed at this stage and was only just shaping up. The Kols and Mundaris might have been using stone and wood implements as iron implements were used by the megalithic tribes as late as 1200 BC. The Kol tribe is believed to have migrated from Gujarat.
During this period worship began of a mother goddess in the form of anthill or Santer.The Anthill is called Roen(Konkani
:रोयण), which is derived from the Austric word Rono meaning with holes. The later Indo-Aryan and Dravidian settlers also adopted anthill worship, which was translated into Prakrit Santara. They also worshipped the mother earth by the name of Bhumika in Prakrit. The anthill worship still continues in Goa, not only by the descendants of these ancients settlers, but by all the Goans.
settled in Goa about 2400 BC. Some of these migrants might have been followers of the Vedic religion
. They were known to speak the earliest form of Prakrit
or Vedic Sanskrit
vernacular. This migration of the northerners is mainly attributed to the drying up of the mighty Sarasvati River
. Historians claim only Gowda Saraswat Brahmins and few of the other Brahmins to be their descendants. This hypothesis is not authoritative according to some historians. Balakrishna Dattaram Kamat Satoskar, a Goan Indologist and historian, in his work Gomantak prakruti ani sanskruti Volume I, explains that the original Sarasvat tribe
consisted of people of all the folds who followed the Vedic fourfold system and not just Brahmins, as the caste system was not fully developed then and did not play an important role at the time. (see Gomantak prakruti ani sanskruti,Volume I).
Some historians have proposed a theory of migration of the Bhargava
tribe to Goa from Gujarat. This tribe was named after their clan symbol of an axe. This theory links the Parashurama myth with the history. According to this theory the Bhargava clan is connected to the Phrygians in Asia Minor
, and Parashurama, also known as Bhargavarama, was one of their clan leaders. These Bhargavas might have started their sea-expedition before the Mahabharata War. The Angiras tribe is also thought to have migrated from the north-western India during this time.
Dhume maintains that the first wave of Aryans did not introduce any radical changes into the existing religious systems and that the changes which took place were effected by the Sumerians. Thus the modern historians have concluded that there is no connection between the migrations from the North and the Parashurama legend.
during Sumer
ian times when the King Gudea
of Lagash
called Goa Gubio. This was around 2200 BC and Sumerians had established trade contacts with Goa. Many Sumerians settled in Goa and along the Konkan coast. Sumerians are thought to have designed the fields of Goa because as these follow their measure till date. Unlike 0.46 m unit generally prevalent elsewhere in India, it is pointed out that the positioning in Goa agrees with Sumerian 12 cubits to a pole, and 0.495 of a meter to a cubit. Later the Phoenicians became extensive settlers of Goa around 1775 BC. Several Cuneiform inscriptions have been found in Goa and an Oracle
plate dedicated to Inana has been recovered from Savoi Verem
. Sumerians are believed to have modified many local customs and introduce their own systems such as their style of temple architecture, the Devadasi
system; the Sumerians also influenced the language, caste system, and the kinship practices to some extent. Sumerian influence in Goa can also be seen in the entertainment and games of the region.
, when it overlapped with the practices of the locals. The agricultural land was jointly owned by the group of villagers, they had right to auction the land, this rent was used for development, and the remainder was distributed amongst the Gavkars. Sumerians view that the village land must belong to the village god or goddess, this was the main feature of the Gavkari system where the village's preeminent deity's temple was the center of all the activities. It consisted of definite boundaries of land from village to village with its topographic detail, its management and social, religious and cultural interaction. Gavkari thus were in existence long before constitution of the state of Goa itself.
Thus even before any king ruled the territory, oligarchic democracy in the form of Gavkari existed in Goa. This form of village-administration was called as Gaunponn(Konkani
:गांवपण), and despite the periodic change of sovereigns, the Gaunponn always remained, hence the attachment and fidelity of the Goans to their village has always surpassed their loyalty to their rulers (most of them were extraterritorial). This system for governance became further systematized and fortified, and it has continued to exist ever since. Even today 223 comunidades are still functioning in Goa, though not in the true sense.
people moved to Lothal
probably around 1600 BC to escape submergence of their civilization which thrived on sea-trade. With the admixture of several cultures, customs, religions, dialects and beliefs, led to revolutionary change in early Goan society.
in which these records are written with the evolution of this script, which may be dated fairly correctly. It is possible to infer from the places mentioned in these records and their discovery locations that at its zenith, the Western Maurya Kingdom comprised the Lata or South Gujarat, coastal Maharashtra, Goa, and half of the North Kanara district. After the Maurya Empire had passed its meridian in 2 nd century BC its satrap in Aparanta made himself independent. A scion of the imperial Mauryas, the dynasty he founded ruled over the west coast for nearly four centuries from its capital Shurparaka or modern Sopara
. This dynasty was known as the Konkan Mauryas. Goa was called as Sunaparant by the Mauryas.
Chandragupta Maurya
incorporated the west coast of India in his province of Aparanta
, and the impact of Magadhan Prakrit, the official language of the Mauryan Empire, on the local dialects resulted in the formation of early Konkani
, as was the case with other Aryan vernaculars. During this era Buddhism
was introduced to Goa. Similarly a native goan named Purna, also known as Punna in Pali
, who traveled to Sarnath
is considered a direct disciple of Buddha
, who popularized Buddhism in Goa in 5th century BC.
s of Karwar
. This period is estimated to have lasted from around the 2nd century BC to 100 AD. The Satavahanas had established maritime power and their contacts with Roman empire
from the coastal trade from Sindh
to Saurashtra
, from Bharuch
to Sopara to Goa, where Greek
and Roman ships would halt during voyages. The Bhojas fortified themselves after the end of Satavahana Empire. With the fall of the Satavahanas, the lucrative seaborne trade declined. Many Greek converts to Buddhism settled in Goa during this period. Buddha statues in Greek styles have been found in Goa. It can be seen that they ruled a very small part of Goa. Maharashtri
prakrit was their language of administration, which influenced medieval Konkani to a great extent.
was defeated by his son-in-law, the Kshatrapa
King Rudradaman I
who established his rule over Goa. This dynasty ruled the territory until 249AD. Thereafter the dynasty's power seems to have been weakened by their generals, the Abhiras
s ruled Goa for more than 500 years, annexing the entirety of Goa.
The earliest known record of the Bhoja Empire from Goa dates from the 3 rd century BC, it was found in the town of Shiroda
in Goa. According to Puranik, by tradition the Bhojas belonged to the clan of Yadavas, who may have migrated to Goa via Dwaraka after the Mahabharata war. Two Bhoja copperplates
grants dating back 3rd century BC were unearthed from Bandora
village,written by King Prithvimallavarman. Many other copper plates, have also been recovered from other places in Goa which date from 3rd century BC to 8th century AD. Ancient Chandrapur, modern day Chandor
, was the capital of the Bhoja Empire; the Bhojas ruled Goa
, Belgaum
and North Canara.
From the Bhoja inscriptions found in Goa and Konkan, it is evidenced that the Bhojas used Sanskrit
and Prakrit
for administration.
According to Vithal Raghavendra Mitragotri, many Brahmin
s and Vaishya
s arrived with Kshatriyas Bhojas from the north. The Kshatriya
Bhojas patronized Buddhism
and employed many Buddhist converts of Greek
and Persian
origin.
During this time, Goa was not ruled as a singular kingdom. Parts of this territory were ruled by several different kingdoms. The boundaries of these kingdoms were not clearly defined and the kings were content to consider their dominions as extending over many villages, which paid tribute and owed them allegiance.
This was a tumultuous period in Goan history. The Goa Shilahara
power was waning and the Arab traders gained increasing control of the overseas trade and enjoyed autonomy from the Shilaharas. In order to control this decline, Kadamba King Guhalladeva I, ruling from Chandor
only, established secular, political, and economic partnerships with these Arab states. After the Chalukyas defeated the Rashtrakutas, exploiting this situation to their advantage the Kadamba King Shashthadeva II firmly planted his rule in Goa.
and a small part of Konkan. They ruled from Chandor, over a large part, but the port of Gopakpattana was not a part in the beginning. The Goa Kadambas were the later scions of the main Kadamba Dynasty, whose modern descendants still live in Goa.
, Bengal
, Gujarat and Sri Lanka
(mentioned as Zaguva,Gauda,Gurjara,Simhala in the Sanskrit text). The city has been described in the contemporary records not only as aesthetically pleasing, but spiritually cleansing as well. On account of its commercial nature, Gopakapattna possessed a cosmopolitan look. The capital was served by an important highway called Rajvithi or Rajpath which linked it with Ela
, the ruins of which can still be seen. For more than 300 years it remained a nucleus of intra-coastal and trans-oceanic trade from Africa to Malaya. Later in the 14th century the port was looted by Khilji
general Malik Kafur
, and the capitol was shifted to Chandor and then back to Gopakapattna because of Muhammad bin Tughluq
's attack on Chandor.
Guhalladeva III,Jayakeshi II, Shivachitta Paramadideva, Vinshuchitta II and Jayakeshi III dominated Goa's political scene in the 12th century.
During the rule of Kadambas, the name and fame of Goapuri had reached it zenith. Goa's religion, culture, trade and arts flourished under the rule of these kings. The Kings and their queens built many Shiva
temples as they were devote Shaivites. They assumed titles like Konkanadhipati,Saptakotisha Ladbha Varaveera,Gopakapura varadhishva,Konkanmahacharavarti,Panchamahashabda. The Kings had matrimonial relationships with the Kings of Saurashtra, and even the local chieftains. The Kings patronized Vedic religion
and performed major fire sacrifices like the horse sacrifice or Ashvamedha
. They popularised Shaivsm in Goa.
Though their language of administration was Sanskrit
and Kannada, Konkani and Marathi
were also prevalent. They introduced Kannada language to Goa, which had a very profound influence on the local tongue. Nagari script
, Kadamba script
, Halekannada script and Goykanadi scripts
were very popular.
It is known from another inscription of Kadamba Tribhuvanamalla, saka 1028 or AD 1106, that he established a Brahmapuri at Gopaka. Brahmapuris were ancient universities run by the Brahmins where the Vedas, astrology, philosophy, medicine, and other miscellaneous subjects were studied.(see:Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu: district Volume 1). Such Brahampuris were found in many places in Goa, Savoi verem, Gauli moula and other places.
Kadambas ruled Goa for more than 400 years until they lost power to Devagiri Yadavas. After the Muslim invasions, the Kadamba Dynasty was lost forever. Ruins of the palaces, mansions, temples and markets can be still seen in Chandor village.
. However in 1370, the Vijayanagar empire, a resurgent Hindu empire situated at modern day Hampi
, reconquered the area. The Vijayanagar rulers held on to Goa for nearly a century, during which time its harbours were important port of arrival for Arabian horse
s on their way to Hampi to strengthen the Vijaynagar cavalry. In 1469 Goa was reconquered by the Bahmani Sultans
of Gulbarga
. When this Sultanate broke up in 1492, Goa became a part of Adil Shah's Bijapur Sultanate, which established Goa Velha
as its second capital. The former Secretariat building in Panaji is a former Adil Shahi palace, later taken over by the Portuguese
Viceroys as their official residence.
In 1498, Vasco da Gama
rounded the Cape of Good Hope
and landed at Calicut
. In 1510, Portuguese Qdmiral Afonso de Albuquerque
attacked Goa at the behest of the local cheftian Thimayya. After losing the city briefly to its former ruler, Ismail Adil Shah
, the Muslim King of Bijapur, Albuquerque returned in force on November 25, with a fully renovated fleet. In less than a day, the Portuguese fleet took possession of Goa from Ismail Adil Shah and his Ottoman allies, who surrendered on December 10. It is estimated that 6,000 of the 9,000 Muslim defenders of the city died, either in the battle in the streets or while trying to escape. He gained the support of the Hindu population, although this frustrated the initial expectations Thimayya who aspired to gain the city. Afonso de Albuquerque rewarded him by appointing him chief "Aguazil" of the city, an administrator and representative of the Hindu and Muslim people and as a learned interpreter of the local customs. de Albuquerque then made an agreement to lower yearly dues and taxes. In spite of constant attacks, Goa became the center of Portuguese India, with the conquest triggering the compliance of neighboring kingdoms, the Sultan of Gujarat and the Zamorin of Calicut dispatched embassies, offering alliances and local concessions to be fortified.
In Goa Albuquerque started the first Portuguese mint
in the East, after complaints from merchants and Timoja about the scarcity of currency, taking it as an opportunity to announce the territorial conquest. The new coin
, based on the existing local coins, bore a cross on one side and the design of an armillary sphere
(or "espera"), King Manuel's badge, on the reverse. Gold, silver and bronze coins were issued, respectively gold cruzados or manueis, esperas and alf-esperas, and "leais". More mints would follow in Malacca in 1511.
Albuquerque and his successors left the customs and constitutions of the thirty village communities on the island almost untouched, only abolishing the rite of sati
, or widow-burning. A register of these customs (Foral de usos e costumes) was published in 1526; it is among the most valuable historical documents pertaining to Goan customs.
Goa was the base for Albuquerque's conquest of Malacca
in 1511 and Hormuz
in 1515. Albuquerque intended it to be a colony and a naval base, distinct from the fortified factories established in certain Indian seaports. Goa was made capital of the Portuguese Vice-Kingdom in Asia, and the other Portuguese possessions in India
, Malacca
and other bases in Indonesia
, East Timor
, the Persian Gulf
, Macau
in China
and trade bases in Japan
were under the suzerainty of its Viceroy
. By mid–16th century, the area under occupation had expanded to most of present-day limits.
Goa was granted the same civic privileges as Lisbon
. Its senate or municipal chamber maintained direct communications with the king and paid a special representative to attend to its interests at court. In 1563 the governor even proposed to make Goa the seat of a parliament representing all parts of the Portuguese east, but this was rejected by the King.
The Portuguese set up a base in Goa to further consolidate their control the spice trade. Goods from all parts of the East were displayed in its bazaar
, and separate streets were designated for the sale of different classes of goods — Bahrain
pearls and coral, Chinese
porcelain and silk, Portuguese velvet and piece-goods, and drugs and spices from the Malay Archipelago
.
In 1542, St. Francis Xavier
mentions the architectural splendour of the city; but it reached the climax of its prosperity between 1575 and 1625. Travellers marvelled at Goa Dourada, or Golden Goa, and there was a Portuguese proverb, "He who has seen Goa need not see Lisbon
."
In the main street, slaves were sold by auction. The houses of the rich were surrounded by gardens and palm groves; they were built of stone and painted red or white. Instead of glass, their balconied windows had thin polished oyster-shells set in lattice-work. The social life of Goa's rulers befitted the capitol of the viceregal court, the army and navy, and the church; luxury and ostentation became a byword before the end of the 16th century.
Almost all manual labor was performed by slaves; common soldiers assumed high-sounding titles, and it was even customary for the poor noblemen who congregated together in boarding-houses to subscribe for a few silken cloaks, a silken umbrella and a common man-servant, so that each could take his turn to promenade the streets, fashionably attired and with a proper escort.
Around 1583, missionary activity in Cuncolim
first led to small skirmishes and finally to the murder of all the missionaries. The Portuguese authorities called the sixteen chieftains of each ward or vado of the Cuncolim village to the Assolna Fort, ostensibly to form a peace pact with the villagers. At the fort the chieftains were slain, except for two who jumped from the fort into the Arabian Sea and presumably swam to Karwar. The villagers were left without their traditional leaders while the Portuguese began confiscating the land of the locals and initiated the Goa Inquisition
.
The Goa Inquisition was the office of the Inquisition acting within the Indian state of Goa and the rest of the Portuguese empire in Asia. It was established in 1560, briefly suppressed from 1774–1778, and finally abolished in 1812. The Goan Inquisition is considered a blot on the history of Roman Catholic Christianity in India both by Christians and non-Christians alike. Based on the records that survive, H. P. Salomon and I. S. D. Sassoon state that between the Inquisition's beginning in 1561 and its temporary abolition in 1774, some 16,202 persons were brought to trial by the Inquisition. Of this number, it is known that 57 were sentenced to death and executed in person; another 64 were burned in effigy. Others were subjected to lesser punishments or penanced, but the fate of many of the Inquisition's victims is unknown.
The Inquisition was established to punish relapsed New Christians – Jews and Muslims who converted to Catholicism, as well as their descendants – who were now suspected of practicing their ancestral religion in secret.
In Goa the Inquisition also turned its attention to Indian converts from Hinduism or Islam who were thought to have returned to their original ways. In addition, the Inquisition prosecuted non-converts who broke prohibitions against the observance of Hindu or Muslim rites or interfered with Portuguese attempts to convert non-Christians to Catholicism. While its ostensible aim was to preserve the Catholic faith, the Inquisition was used against Indian Catholics and Hindus as an instrument of social control, as well as a method of confiscating victims' property and enriching the Inquisitors.
Most of the Goa Inquisition's records were destroyed after its abolition in 1812, and it is thus impossible to know the exact number of the Inquisition's victims.
in Indian waters was followed by the gradual ruin of Goa. In 1603 and 1639, the city was blockaded by Dutch fleets, though never captured. In 1635 Goa was ravaged by an epidemic. With the situation already volatile, Maratha
troops entered parts of Bicholim
in 1641 and began the minor Bicholim conflict
, which ended in peace treaty between the Portuguese and Maratha Empire
.
Trade was gradually monopolised by the Jesuits. Jean de Thévenot
in 1666, Baldaeus in 1672, Fryer in 1675 describe its ever-increasing poverty and decay.
After escaping from Agra
, Shivaji slowly started gaining the areas which he lost in Treaty of Purendar to Moghuls. In this he conquered most of the area adjoining to Old Conquestas of Goa. He captured Pernem
, Bicholim, Sattari
, Ponda, Sanguem
, Quepem
, Cancona. Sawantwadi Bonsale and Saudekar Rajas became his vassals.
In 1683 Chatrapati Sambhaji, the son of Shivaji, tried to conquer the entirety of Goa, including the areas in then in Portuguese control. He almost ousted the Portuguese, but to their surprise a Mughal
army prevented the city's capture by the Marathas. In 1739 the whole territory of Bardez
was attacked by the Marathas again in order to pressure the northern Portuguese possession at Vasai, but the conquest could not be completed because of the unexpected arrival of a new viceroy with a fleet.
Following the Third Battle of Panipat
, Peshawa control over Maratha Empire was weakened. The Portuguese then defeated Rajas of Sawantwadi and Raja of Sunda to conquer area stretched from Pernem till Cancona. This formed the Novas Conquistas and thus the present day Goa is formed.
In the same year the viceroy transferred his residence from the vicinity of Goa city to New Goa (in Portuguese
Nova Goa), today's Panaji, which became the official seat of government in 1843 and effecting a move which had been discussed as early as 1684. Old Goa
city's population fell steeply during the 18th century as Europeans moved to the new city.
In 1757, King Joseph I of Portugal issued a decree penned by his prime minister, the Marquês de Pombal, granting the Portuguese citizenship and representation to all subjects in the Portuguese Indies. The enclaves of Goa, Damão, Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli became collectively known as the Estado da Índia Portuguesa, and had representation in the Portuguese parliament.
In 1787, there was a rebellion started by some priests against Portuguese rule. It became famous as the Conspiracy of the Pintos
. Goa was peacefully occupied by the British
between 1812-1815 in the context of the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance
during the Napoleonic Wars
.
During the tenure of Marquês de Pombal, the Act of 1761 was promulgated whereby all Portuguese subjects born in Portuguese India were considered Portuguese citizens, and as suc, Goans had the right to elect their representatives to the Portuguese Parliament. The first election was held in Goa on 14 Jan 1822, electing 3 locals as members of Parliament.
Because Portugal was neutral the British was unable to take any official action against these ships, however the SOE
Indian mission organised a covert raid using members of the Calcutta Light Horse, a part-time unit made up of civilians who were not eligible for normal war service. The Light Horse embarked on an ancient Calcutta riverboat, the Phoebe, and sailed round India to Goa, where they sunk the Ehrenfels, and the other ships scuttled themselves, fearing that they were about to be seized.
The story of this raid was the subject of James Leasor
's book, Boarding Party, which in turn was made into a film, The Sea Wolves
, starring Gregory Peck
, David Niven
and Roger Moore
in 1980. Because of the potential political ramifications of the fact that Britain had violated Portuguese neutrality, the raid remained secret until James Leasor's book was published in 1978.
insisted that Goa, along with a few other minor Portuguese holdings, be turned over to India. However Portugal refused. France, which also had small enclaves in India (most notably Pondicherry, surrendered its Indian possession
gave them up.
In 1954, unarmed Indians took over the tiny land-locked enclaves of Dadra and Nagar-Haveli. This incident led the Portuguese to lodge a complaint against India in the International Court of Justice
at The Hague
. The final judgement on this case, given in 1960, held that the Portuguese had a right to the enclaves, but that India equally had a right to deny Portugal access to the enclaves over Indian territory.
In 1955 a group of unarmed civilians, satyagrahis demonstrated against Portugal. At least twenty-two of them were killed by Portuguese gunfire.
Later the same year, the Satyagrahis took over a fort at Tiracol and hoisted the Indian flag. They were driven away by the Portuguese with a number of casualties. On 1 September 1955, the Indian consulate in Goa was closed. In 1955 also Jawaharlal Nehru
declared his government would not tolerate Portuguese presence in Goa. India then instituted a blockade against Goa, Damão, and Diu in an effort to force a Portuguese departure. Goa was then given its own airline by the Portuguese, the Transportes Aéreos da Índia Portuguesa
to overcome the blockade.
On December 16, 1961, Indian troops crossed the border into Goa. 'Operation Vijay' involved sustained land, sea, and air strikes for more than 36 hours; it resulted in the unconditional surrender of Portuguese forces on December 19. A United Nations resolution condemning the invasion was proposed by the United States
and the United Kingdom
in the United Nations Security Council
, but it was vetoed by the USSR. Under Indian rule, Goan voters went to the polls in a referendum and voted to become an autonomous, federally administered territory. Goa was admitted to Indian statehood in 1987.
After re-joining India, the territory of Goa was under military rule for five months, however the previous civil service was soon restored and the area became a federally administered territory. Goa celebrates its "Liberation Day" on December 19 every year, which is also a state holiday.
First Goa was a union territory of India which afterwards changed to state.(?)
Goa
Goa , a former Portuguese colony, is India's smallest state by area and the fourth smallest by population. Located in South West India in the region known as the Konkan, it is bounded by the state of Maharashtra to the north, and by Karnataka to the east and south, while the Arabian Sea forms its...
is a small state on the western coast of India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
. Though the smallest Indian state, Goa has played an influential role in Indian history. Goa was one of the major trade centers in India, thus it had always been attracting the influential dynasties, seafarers, merchants, traders, monks and missionaries since its earliest known history. Throughout its history Goa has undergone continual transformation, leaving an indelible impression on various aspects of its cultural and socio-economic development.
Mythological origins
The first literary reference to Goa is in the Bhishma Parva of MahabharataMahabharata
The Mahabharata is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India and Nepal, the other being the Ramayana. The epic is part of itihasa....
as Gomanta
Gomanta Kingdom
Gomanta was a kingdom mentioned in the epic Mahabharata. It was an extension of the kingdom of Yadavas at Dwaraka. It is identified to be the Goa state of India, situated in the western coast...
which translates as the region of cows.
Despite a lack of archaeological and historical evidence, Hindu scriptures mention Parashurama
Parashurama
Parashurama , is the sixth avatar of Vishnu and belongs to the treta yuga, and is the son of a Brahmin father Jamadagni and mother Renuka. He is considered one of the seven immortal human. He received an axe after undertaking a terrible penance to please Shiva, from whom he learned the methods of...
, as its creator(see:Skanda Purana
Skanda Purana
The Skanda Purana is the largest Mahapurana, a genre of eighteen Hindu religious texts. The text is devoted mainly to the lilas of Kartikeya , a son of Shiva and Parvati. It also contains a number of legends about Shiva, and the holy places associated with him...
:Sahyadrikhanda
Sahyadrikhanda
Sahyādrikhaṇḍa or Sahyadri Khand, written in Sanskrit, is claimed as a part of Skandapurāṇa. From the old records it can be seen that Sahyādrikhaṇḍa is a later inclusion in the original Skandapurāṇa...
). He is said to have settled ten sages in this land and performed fire sacrifices. Another legend has that after performing the penance, the seven sages named the Saptarshi
Saptarshi
The Saptarishi are the seven rishis who are extolled at many places in the Vedas and Hindu literature. The Vedic Samhitas never actually enumerate these rishis by name, though later Vedic texts such as the Brahmanas and Upanisads do so. They are regarded in the Vedas as the patriarchs of the...
s were blessed by Lord Shiva
Shiva
Shiva is a major Hindu deity, and is the destroyer god or transformer among the Trimurti, the Hindu Trinity of the primary aspects of the divine. God Shiva is a yogi who has notice of everything that happens in the world and is the main aspect of life. Yet one with great power lives a life of a...
; thereafter the sages were known as the Saptakoteshwar
Saptakoteshwar
The Saptakotishwar temple at Narve, Goa, India is considered to be one of the six great sites of temples of Lord Shiva in the Konkan area.-History:...
. Further Lord Shiva is believed to have taken up temporary residence after a dispute with his consort Parvati
Parvati
Parvati is a Hindu goddess. Parvati is Shakti, the wife of Shiva and the gentle aspect of Mahadevi, the Great Goddess...
. Yet another legend states Lord Krishna
Krishna
Krishna is a central figure of Hinduism and is traditionally attributed the authorship of the Bhagavad Gita. He is the supreme Being and considered in some monotheistic traditions as an Avatar of Vishnu...
defeated Jarasandha
Jarasandha
Jarasandha was a great and legendary king of Magadha. He was the son of a vedic king named Brihadratha. He was also a great devotee of Lord Shiva. But he is generally held in negative light owing to his enmity with the Yadav clan in the Mahābhārata....
, the king of Magadha
Magadha
Magadha formed one of the sixteen Mahājanapadas or kingdoms in ancient India. The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar south of the Ganga; its first capital was Rajagriha then Pataliputra...
on Gomanchal Mountain in Goa. (see:Hari Vamsha purana)
In Suta Samhita Govapuri or Goa is associated with spiritually cleansing touch:...The very sight of Govapuri destroys any sin committed in former existence just as sunrise dispels darkness... Certainly there is no other kshetra equal to Govapuri
A similar hymn praising Govapuri city is found in Sahyadrikhanda of Skanda Purana, which says the extent of Goapuri was about seven Yojana
Yojana
A Yojana is a Vedic measure of distance used in ancient India. The exact measurement is disputed amongst scholars with distances being given between 6 to 15 kilometers ....
s.
According to the Parshurama legend, Parashurama, the sixth reincarnation of Vishnu
Vishnu
Vishnu is the Supreme god in the Vaishnavite tradition of Hinduism. Smarta followers of Adi Shankara, among others, venerate Vishnu as one of the five primary forms of God....
faced with an order of banishment from the lands that he had once conquered, sets seven arrows fly from the Sahydris to push back the sea and create a stretch of land which he could claim for himself. The sea-god is believed to have acceded his to wish and crated a region Shurparaka, which translates literally to winnowing fan. This region is also known as Parashurama Kshetra. The legend further tells us that having created Goa, Parashurama brought Brahmins from the North and settled them in this land.(See:Shree Scanda Puran (Sayadri Khandha) -Ed. Dr. Jarson D. Kunha, Marathi version Ed. By Gajanan shastri Gaytonde).
The Parashurama legend personifies the geological process of elevation of submerged land along the west coast, which must have taken place around 12,000 BC. There is evidence to support this theory as indicated by presence of marine fossilsFossilFossils are the preserved remains or traces of animals , plants, and other organisms from the remote past...
, buried seashells and other features of reclaimed topographyTopographyTopography is the study of Earth's surface shape and features or those ofplanets, moons, and asteroids...
in the coastal belt. The evidence provided by the conch (Shankh) at SurlaSurlaSurla is a village located in Ganjam district of Orissa, India at Andhra-Orissa border on National Highway-5. On one side of Andhra-Orissa border on NH-5, village Purushottamapuram under Ichchapuram municipality limits is located an on other side, village Surla of Ganjam district is located...
Village, fossilized marine conches discovered in 1863, petrified roots, fossilied branches have been found later in many villages on the foothills of the Sahyadri dating back more than 10,000 BC. Thus the geologists concluded that Goa has risen up from seabed as a result of violent tectonic movementsTectonicsTectonics is a field of study within geology concerned generally with the structures within the lithosphere of the Earth and particularly with the forces and movements that have operated in a region to create these structures.Tectonics is concerned with the orogenies and tectonic development of...
. At the decline of the intensity of pluviationPluvialIn geology and climatology, a pluvial was an extended period of abundant rainfall lasting many thousands of years. Pluvial is also applied to the sediments of these periods . The term is especially applied to such periods during the Pleistocene Epoch...
in the last Pleistocenic agePleistoceneThe Pleistocene is the epoch from 2,588,000 to 11,700 years BP that spans the world's recent period of repeated glaciations. The name pleistocene is derived from the Greek and ....
around 10.000 BC, the bottom of Deccan plateauDeccan PlateauThe Deccan Plateau is a large plateau in India, making up the majority of the southern part of the country. It rises a hundred meters high in the north, rising further to more than a kilometers high in the south, forming a raised triangle nested within the familiar downward-pointing triangle of...
was lifted up and out of sea-waters by the tectonic movements, formed the West-coast of India, Goa being a part thereof.
Paleolithic and Mesolithic era
Until 1993 the existence of Homo sapiens in Goa during the PaleolithicPaleolithic
The Paleolithic Age, Era or Period, is a prehistoric period of human history distinguished by the development of the most primitive stone tools discovered , and covers roughly 99% of human technological prehistory...
and Mesolithic
Mesolithic
The Mesolithic is an archaeological concept used to refer to certain groups of archaeological cultures defined as falling between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic....
period was highly debated. The discovery of rock art
Rock art
Rock art is a term used in archaeology for any human-made markings made on natural stone. They can be divided into:*Petroglyphs - carvings into stone surfaces*Pictographs - rock and cave paintings...
engravings on lateritic platforms and granite boulders from Usgalimal on the banks of west-flowing river Kushavati River
Kushavati
*Kushavati was a city in Kosala Kingdom as per epic Ramayana. The king of Kosala Raghava Rama installed his son Lava at Sravasti and Kusha at Kushavati. The city is identified to be Kushinagar a town near Gorakhpur....
, has shed light on the prehistory
Prehistory
Prehistory is the span of time before recorded history. Prehistory can refer to the period of human existence before the availability of those written records with which recorded history begins. More broadly, it refers to all the time preceding human existence and the invention of writing...
of Goa. The rock shelter at Usgalimal has enough space for 25 to 30 people. The perennial stream in the vicinity which might have served Stone age
Stone Age
The Stone Age is a broad prehistoric period, lasting about 2.5 million years , during which humans and their predecessor species in the genus Homo, as well as the earlier partly contemporary genera Australopithecus and Paranthropus, widely used exclusively stone as their hard material in the...
man for centuries as a source of water. An anthropomorphic figure of Mother goddess
Mother goddess
Mother goddess is a term used to refer to a goddess who represents motherhood, fertility, creation or embodies the bounty of the Earth. When equated with the Earth or the natural world such goddesses are sometimes referred to as Mother Earth or as the Earth Mother.Many different goddesses have...
and tectiforms resembling tree-like motifs have been found. This site was discovered by Dr P.P.Shirodkar
Prakashchandra Pandurang Shirodkar
Dr Prakāścandra Pāṇḍuraṅga Śiroḍakara,eldest son of late Pāṇḍuraṅga Puruṣottama Śiroḍakara,one of the most prominent freedom fighters of Goa and the first Speaker of the Goa, Daman and Diu Legislative.He worked as the director of Directorate of Archives,Archaeology and Museum,Goa for over two...
. Exploration of several Mesolithic sites of the Mandovi-Zuari basin, at other sites such as Keri
Keri
Keri is a Hebrew term which literally means "happenstance", "frivolity" or "contrariness" and has come to mean "seminal emission". The term is generally used in Jewish law to refer specifically to the regulations and rituals concerning the emission of semen, whether by nocturnal emission, or by...
, Thane
Thane
Thane , is a city in Maharashtra, India, part of the Mumbai Metropolitan Region, northeastern suburb of Mumbai at the head of the Thane Creek. It is the administrative headquarters of Thane district. On 16 April 1853, G.I.P...
, Anjuna
Anjuna
Anjuna is a village in Goa, one of the twelve Brahmin comunidades of Bardez.Its church, St. Michael's Church, Anjuna, founded in 1595, is dedicated to S. Miguel, and celebrates the feasts of S. Miguel and Nossa Senhora Advogada . There are three large chapels in the parish: the one to S...
, Mauxim, Kazur in Quepem
Quepem
Quepem is a town and a municipal council in South Goa district in the Indian state of Goa.The town is the administrative capital for the Quepem district. Curchorem and Sanvordem are the a major towns located in the Quepem District.-Geography:...
, Virdi, has led to the discovery of several scrapers, points, bores, cones, et cetera. A hand axe
Axe
The axe, or ax, is an implement that has been used for millennia to shape, split and cut wood; to harvest timber; as a weapon; and as a ceremonial or heraldic symbol...
has also been found at Usgalimal. Further unifacial choppers were recovered on a flat-based pebble of quartzite from a pebble conglomerate at Shigaon on the Dudhsagar River
Dudhsagar Falls
Dudhsagar Falls is a tiered waterfall located on the Mandovi River in the state of Goa, India, on Goa's border with the state of Karnataka...
. Shirodakar made a detailed study of the rock engravings and dated them to Upper paleolithic
Upper Paleolithic
The Upper Paleolithic is the third and last subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe, Africa and Asia. Very broadly it dates to between 40,000 and 10,000 years ago, roughly coinciding with the appearance of behavioral modernity and before the advent of...
and Mesolithic phases, or to 8000-6000 BC. These discoveries have demonstrated that the region had been supporting a population of hunter-gatherers well before the advent of agriculture.
Evidence of Palaeolithic cave existence can be seen at Dabolim, Adkon, Shigaon, Fatorpa, Arli, Maulinguinim, Diwar, Sanguem, Pilerne, Aquem-Margaon et cetera. Difficulty in carbon dating the laterite rock compounds has posed a problem in determining the exact time period.
Kushavati Shamanic culture
Dr. Nandkumar Kamat from the University of Goa discovered the prehistoric petroglyphs of Goa.For pictures of prehistoric Kushavati culture visit:Kushavati Shamanic culture in Goa More than 125 forms were found scattered on the banks of river KushavatiKushavati
*Kushavati was a city in Kosala Kingdom as per epic Ramayana. The king of Kosala Raghava Rama installed his son Lava at Sravasti and Kusha at Kushavati. The city is identified to be Kushinagar a town near Gorakhpur....
in south-eastern Goa. According to Dr. Kamat, these are evidence of a prehistoric Goan shamanistic
Shamanism
Shamanism is an anthropological term referencing a range of beliefs and practices regarding communication with the spiritual world. To quote Eliade: "A first definition of this complex phenomenon, and perhaps the least hazardous, will be: shamanism = technique of ecstasy." Shamanism encompasses the...
practice. For hundreds of years the Kushavati rock art gallery of Goa was known locally as goravarakhnyachi chitram or pictures made by the local cowherds. But people did not know of the works' origins in antiquity nor any could interpret them. After thorough study of these forms, it was concluded that these petroglyphs differ from those found elsewhere in Goa. Deeper studies and analysis over a period of ten years showed, these petroglyphs were an exquisitely carved ocular labyrinth
Labyrinth
In Greek mythology, the Labyrinth was an elaborate structure designed and built by the legendary artificer Daedalus for King Minos of Crete at Knossos...
, one of the best in India and Asia. Its ocular nature also reinforced the evidence of prehistoric shamanism. The studies have shown that the Kushavati culture was a hunter-gatherer
Hunter-gatherer
A hunter-gatherer or forage society is one in which most or all food is obtained from wild plants and animals, in contrast to agricultural societies which rely mainly on domesticated species. Hunting and gathering was the ancestral subsistence mode of Homo, and all modern humans were...
culture embedded in the knowledge of local natural resources and processes - water, fish, plants, game, animal breeding cycles, seasons and natural calamities. The Kushavati culture was greatly concerned with water security, so the camp was set up near the stream. The Kushavati found food security in the jungle near the steam ensured plentiful food. It was also confronting the mysteries of illness, death and birth. This culture dates back around 8000-6000 BC. On basis of recent DNA based work on human migration Dr. Nandkumar Kamat has ruled out the possibility of Kushavati shamans belonging to the first wave of humans to step in Goa. They were not negritoes or austrics. Most probably they were the earliest Mediterraneans
Mediterranean race
The Mediterranean race was one of the three sub-categories into which the Caucasian race and the people of Europe were divided by anthropologists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, following the publication of William Z. Ripley's book The Races of Europe...
who had descended the Western Ghats
Western Ghats
The Western Ghats, Western Ghauts or the Sahyādri is a mountain range along the western side of India. It runs north to south along the western edge of the Deccan Plateau, and separates the plateau from a narrow coastal plain along the Arabian Sea. The Western Ghats block rainfall to the Deccan...
probably in their search for sea salt on Goa’s coast. As the Kushavati transitioned into a Neolithic society, they began the domestication of animals and were in the last phase of using stone tools – the entire realm of shamanism underwent a radical transition. Today evidence of the metamorphosis in masked dance drama Perni jagor can be seen in the same cultural region.
Neolithic period
Archaeological evidence in the form of polished stone axes, suggest the first settlements of Neolithic man in Goa. These axes have been found in Goa VelhaGoa Velha
Goa Velha is a census town in North Goa district in the Indian state of Goa. It should not be confused with the World Heritage Site Velha Goa . St. Andrew's church is its parish church...
. During this period tribes of Austric origin such as the Kols, Mundaris and Kharvis may have settled Goa, living on hunting, fishing and a primitive form of agriculture since 3500 BC. According to Goan historian Anant Ramakrishna Dhume, the Gauda and Kunbi
Gauda and Kunbi
Gaudas and Kunbis are aboriginal people residing in the coastal Indian state of Goa. They are of Proto-Australoid stock and are believed to be the original inhabitants of Konkan...
and other such castes are modern descendants of ancient Mundari tribes. In Dhume's work he mentions several words of Mundari origin in the Konkani language
Konkani language
KonkaniKonkani is a name given to a group of several cognate dialects spoken along the narrow strip of land called Konkan, on the west coast of India. This is, however, somewhat an over-generalisation. Geographically, Konkan is defined roughly as the area between the river Damanganga to the north...
. Dhume also elaborates on the deities worshipped by the ancient tribes, their customs, methods of farming and its overall impact on modern day Goan society The Negroids
Negroid race
Negroid is a term sometimes used by forensic anthropologists and physical anthropologists to refer to populations that share certain phenotypic traits such as high Melanin levels and skeletal features associated with ancestry from Sub-saharan Africa.It was introduced by early Racial science used...
were in an Neolithic stage of primitive culture and were food-gatherers. Traces of Negroid physical characteristics can be found in parts of Goa, up to at least the middle of the first millennium. The Proto-Australoid
Proto-Australoid
The Proto-Australoids are a hypothesized group of ancient hunter-gather people descended from the first major wave of modern humans to leave sub-Saharan Africa ~100,000 years ago...
tribe known as the Konkas, from whom is derived the name of the region, Kongvan or Konkan
Konkan
The Konkan also called the Konkan Coast or Karavali is a rugged section of the western coastline of India from Raigad to Mangalore...
with the other mentioned tribes formed reportedly the earliest settlers in the territory. Agriculture had not fully developed at this stage and was only just shaping up. The Kols and Mundaris might have been using stone and wood implements as iron implements were used by the megalithic tribes as late as 1200 BC. The Kol tribe is believed to have migrated from Gujarat.
During this period worship began of a mother goddess in the form of anthill or Santer.The Anthill is called Roen(Konkani
Konkani language
KonkaniKonkani is a name given to a group of several cognate dialects spoken along the narrow strip of land called Konkan, on the west coast of India. This is, however, somewhat an over-generalisation. Geographically, Konkan is defined roughly as the area between the river Damanganga to the north...
:रोयण), which is derived from the Austric word Rono meaning with holes. The later Indo-Aryan and Dravidian settlers also adopted anthill worship, which was translated into Prakrit Santara. They also worshipped the mother earth by the name of Bhumika in Prakrit. The anthill worship still continues in Goa, not only by the descendants of these ancients settlers, but by all the Goans.
The Indo-Aryan migrations to Goa
The first wave of Indo-AryansIndo-Aryans
Indo-Aryan is an ethno-linguistic term referring to the wide collection of peoples united as native speakers of the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-Iranian family of Indo-European languages...
settled in Goa about 2400 BC. Some of these migrants might have been followers of the Vedic religion
Vedic religion
Vedic religion may refer to:*the historical Vedic religion- Vedic Hinduism **Vedic mythology*Shrauta, surviving conservative traditions within HinduismIn wider meanings of the term "Vedic"*Vedanta*Hinduism in general...
. They were known to speak the earliest form of Prakrit
Prakrit
Prakrit is the name for a group of Middle Indic, Indo-Aryan languages, derived from Old Indic dialects. The word itself has a flexible definition, being defined sometimes as, "original, natural, artless, normal, ordinary, usual", or "vernacular", in contrast to the literary and religious...
or Vedic Sanskrit
Vedic Sanskrit
Vedic Sanskrit is an old Indo-Aryan language. It is an archaic form of Sanskrit, an early descendant of Proto-Indo-Iranian. It is closely related to Avestan, the oldest preserved Iranian language...
vernacular. This migration of the northerners is mainly attributed to the drying up of the mighty Sarasvati River
Sarasvati River
The Sarasvati River is one of the chief Rigvedic rivers mentioned in ancient Hindu texts. The Nadistuti hymn in the Rigveda mentions the Sarasvati between the Yamuna in the east and the Sutlej in the west, and later Vedic texts like Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahmanas as well as the Mahabharata...
. Historians claim only Gowda Saraswat Brahmins and few of the other Brahmins to be their descendants. This hypothesis is not authoritative according to some historians. Balakrishna Dattaram Kamat Satoskar, a Goan Indologist and historian, in his work Gomantak prakruti ani sanskruti Volume I, explains that the original Sarasvat tribe
Rigvedic tribes
The Indo-Aryan tribes mentioned in the Rigveda are described as semi-nomadic pastoralists; when not on the move, they were subdivided into temporary settlements . They were headed by a tribal chief assisted by a priestly caste...
consisted of people of all the folds who followed the Vedic fourfold system and not just Brahmins, as the caste system was not fully developed then and did not play an important role at the time. (see Gomantak prakruti ani sanskruti,Volume I).
Some historians have proposed a theory of migration of the Bhargava
Bhargava
Bhargava is a common surname in Northern India and Maharashtra, mainly around Nashik. In Maharashtra, it is pronounced as Bhargave instead of Bhargava. It is also used as a first name in parts of southern India....
tribe to Goa from Gujarat. This tribe was named after their clan symbol of an axe. This theory links the Parashurama myth with the history. According to this theory the Bhargava clan is connected to the Phrygians in Asia Minor
Asia Minor
Asia Minor is a geographical location at the westernmost protrusion of Asia, also called Anatolia, and corresponds to the western two thirds of the Asian part of Turkey...
, and Parashurama, also known as Bhargavarama, was one of their clan leaders. These Bhargavas might have started their sea-expedition before the Mahabharata War. The Angiras tribe is also thought to have migrated from the north-western India during this time.
Dhume maintains that the first wave of Aryans did not introduce any radical changes into the existing religious systems and that the changes which took place were effected by the Sumerians. Thus the modern historians have concluded that there is no connection between the migrations from the North and the Parashurama legend.
The advent of Sumerians 2200 BC
The first written reference to Goa appear in CuneiformCuneiform
Cuneiform can refer to:*Cuneiform script, an ancient writing system originating in Mesopotamia in the 4th millennium BC*Cuneiform , three bones in the human foot*Cuneiform Records, a music record label...
during Sumer
Sumer
Sumer was a civilization and historical region in southern Mesopotamia, modern Iraq during the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age....
ian times when the King Gudea
Gudea
Gudea was a ruler of the state of Lagash in Southern Mesopotamia who ruled ca. 2144 - 2124 BC. He probably did not come from the city, but had married Ninalla, daughter of the ruler Urbaba of Lagash, thus gaining entrance to the royal house of Lagash...
of Lagash
Lagash
Lagash is located northwest of the junction of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers and east of Uruk, about east of the modern town of Ash Shatrah. Lagash was one of the oldest cities of the Ancient Near East...
called Goa Gubio. This was around 2200 BC and Sumerians had established trade contacts with Goa. Many Sumerians settled in Goa and along the Konkan coast. Sumerians are thought to have designed the fields of Goa because as these follow their measure till date. Unlike 0.46 m unit generally prevalent elsewhere in India, it is pointed out that the positioning in Goa agrees with Sumerian 12 cubits to a pole, and 0.495 of a meter to a cubit. Later the Phoenicians became extensive settlers of Goa around 1775 BC. Several Cuneiform inscriptions have been found in Goa and an Oracle
Oracle
In Classical Antiquity, an oracle was a person or agency considered to be a source of wise counsel or prophetic predictions or precognition of the future, inspired by the gods. As such it is a form of divination....
plate dedicated to Inana has been recovered from Savoi Verem
Savoi Verem
Savoi verem is a census village in Ponda taluk, North Goa district in the state of Goa,India....
. Sumerians are believed to have modified many local customs and introduce their own systems such as their style of temple architecture, the Devadasi
Devadasi
In Hinduism, the devadasi tradition is a religious tradition in which girls are "married" and dedicated to a deity or to a temple and includes performance aspects such as those that take place in the temple as well as in the courtly and mujuvani [telegu] or home context. Dance and music were...
system; the Sumerians also influenced the language, caste system, and the kinship practices to some extent. Sumerian influence in Goa can also be seen in the entertainment and games of the region.
The Formations of Gavkaris and the self rule
The theocratic democracy of Sumer was transformed into the oligarchic democracy of village-administration in Goa known as GavkariComunidade
The Comunidades of Goa are a unique and age-old collective land-ownership pattern that has been predominating in the state of Goa, India.-Codified by the Portuguese:...
, when it overlapped with the practices of the locals. The agricultural land was jointly owned by the group of villagers, they had right to auction the land, this rent was used for development, and the remainder was distributed amongst the Gavkars. Sumerians view that the village land must belong to the village god or goddess, this was the main feature of the Gavkari system where the village's preeminent deity's temple was the center of all the activities. It consisted of definite boundaries of land from village to village with its topographic detail, its management and social, religious and cultural interaction. Gavkari thus were in existence long before constitution of the state of Goa itself.
Thus even before any king ruled the territory, oligarchic democracy in the form of Gavkari existed in Goa. This form of village-administration was called as Gaunponn(Konkani
Konkani language
KonkaniKonkani is a name given to a group of several cognate dialects spoken along the narrow strip of land called Konkan, on the west coast of India. This is, however, somewhat an over-generalisation. Geographically, Konkan is defined roughly as the area between the river Damanganga to the north...
:गांवपण), and despite the periodic change of sovereigns, the Gaunponn always remained, hence the attachment and fidelity of the Goans to their village has always surpassed their loyalty to their rulers (most of them were extraterritorial). This system for governance became further systematized and fortified, and it has continued to exist ever since. Even today 223 comunidades are still functioning in Goa, though not in the true sense.
The later migrations
The second wave of Indo-Aryans arrived sometime between 1700 to 1400 BC. This second wave migration was accompanied by Dravidians from the Deccan plateau. A wave of Kusha or HarappanHarappan
Harappan can refer to:* Aspects related to Harappa an archaeological site and city in northeast Pakistan* The Indus Valley Civilization that thrived along Indus River...
people moved to Lothal
Lothal
Lothal is one of the most prominent cities of the ancient Indus valley civilization. Located in Bhāl region of the modern state of Gujarāt and dating from 2400 BCE. Discovered in 1954, Lothal was excavated from February 13, 1955 to May 19, 1960 by the Archaeological Survey of India...
probably around 1600 BC to escape submergence of their civilization which thrived on sea-trade. With the admixture of several cultures, customs, religions, dialects and beliefs, led to revolutionary change in early Goan society.
The Mauryas
The history of the Mauryas is almost a non-extant. The existing records disclose the names of only three of the dynasty's kings, namely Suketavarvan who ruled some time in the 4 th or 5 centuries BC, Chandravarman in the 6 th century BC and Ajitavarman in the 7 th century BC, who ruled from Kumardvipa or modern Kumarjuve, but beyond that the records provide no clue as to their mutual relationship. These dates were determined by comparing the style of the Nagari scriptNagari script
The Nāgarī script is the ancestor of Devanagari, Assamese, Bengali and other variants, and was first used to write Prakrit and Sanskrit. It was in vogue from before the 10th century...
in which these records are written with the evolution of this script, which may be dated fairly correctly. It is possible to infer from the places mentioned in these records and their discovery locations that at its zenith, the Western Maurya Kingdom comprised the Lata or South Gujarat, coastal Maharashtra, Goa, and half of the North Kanara district. After the Maurya Empire had passed its meridian in 2 nd century BC its satrap in Aparanta made himself independent. A scion of the imperial Mauryas, the dynasty he founded ruled over the west coast for nearly four centuries from its capital Shurparaka or modern Sopara
Sopara
Sopara or Soparaka was an ancient port town and the capital of the ancient Aparanta. The site of this ancient town is located near the present day Nala Sopara town in the Thane district of the state Maharashtra, India.Nala Sopara is one of the busiest western suburbs of Mumbai city...
. This dynasty was known as the Konkan Mauryas. Goa was called as Sunaparant by the Mauryas.
Chandragupta Maurya
Chandragupta Maurya
Chandragupta Maurya , was the founder of the Maurya Empire. Chandragupta succeeded in conquering most of the Indian subcontinent. Chandragupta is considered the first unifier of India and its first genuine emperor...
incorporated the west coast of India in his province of Aparanta
Aparanta
Aparanta, or Aparantaka was a geographical region of ancient India, variously corresponding to the northern Konkan, northern Gujarat, Kathiawar, Kachch and Sindh....
, and the impact of Magadhan Prakrit, the official language of the Mauryan Empire, on the local dialects resulted in the formation of early Konkani
Konkani language
KonkaniKonkani is a name given to a group of several cognate dialects spoken along the narrow strip of land called Konkan, on the west coast of India. This is, however, somewhat an over-generalisation. Geographically, Konkan is defined roughly as the area between the river Damanganga to the north...
, as was the case with other Aryan vernaculars. During this era Buddhism
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
was introduced to Goa. Similarly a native goan named Purna, also known as Punna in Pali
Páli
- External links :* *...
, who traveled to Sarnath
Sarnath
Sarnath or Sārnātha is the deer park where Gautama Buddha first taught the Dharma, and where the Buddhist Sangha came into existence through the enlightenment of Kondanna. Sarnath is located 13 kilometres north-east of Varanasi, in Uttar Pradesh, India...
is considered a direct disciple of Buddha
Buddha
In Buddhism, buddhahood is the state of perfect enlightenment attained by a buddha .In Buddhism, the term buddha usually refers to one who has become enlightened...
, who popularized Buddhism in Goa in 5th century BC.
The Shatavahanas
The Satavahanas dynasty began as vassals of the Mauryan Empire, but declared independence as the Mauryan Empire declined. The Satavahana dynasty ruled Goa through their coastal vassals, the ChutuChutu
The Chutu kingdom was located in the Deccan region of South India in the 3d and 4th centuries AD. Its capital was in Banavasi and it was ruled by a feudatory dynasty of the Satavahanas...
s of Karwar
Karwar
Karwar is the administrative headquarters of Uttara Kannada district in Karnataka, India. It is a seaside town situated on the banks of the Kali river which is on the west coast of the Indian peninsula. The town lies about 15 kilometres south of the Karnataka–Goa border and 519 km north-west...
. This period is estimated to have lasted from around the 2nd century BC to 100 AD. The Satavahanas had established maritime power and their contacts with Roman empire
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
from the coastal trade from Sindh
Sindh
Sindh historically referred to as Ba'ab-ul-Islam , is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and historically is home to the Sindhi people. It is also locally known as the "Mehran". Though Muslims form the largest religious group in Sindh, a good number of Christians, Zoroastrians and Hindus can...
to Saurashtra
Saurashtra
Saurashtra is a region of western India, located on the Arabian Sea coast of Gujarat state. It is a peninsula also called Kathiawar after the Kathi Darbar who ruled part of the region once. The Peninsula is shared with the Kachchh region which occupies the north, Saurashtra or Sorath forming the...
, from Bharuch
Bharuch
Bharuch , also known as Broach, is the oldest city in Gujarat, situated at the mouth of the holy river Narmada. Bharuch is the administrative headquarters of Bharuch District and a municipality of more than 1,50,000 inhabitants. As Bharuch is a major seaport city, a number of trade activities have...
to Sopara to Goa, where Greek
Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece is a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Included in Ancient Greece is the...
and Roman ships would halt during voyages. The Bhojas fortified themselves after the end of Satavahana Empire. With the fall of the Satavahanas, the lucrative seaborne trade declined. Many Greek converts to Buddhism settled in Goa during this period. Buddha statues in Greek styles have been found in Goa. It can be seen that they ruled a very small part of Goa. Maharashtri
Maharashtri
Maharastri or Maharastri Prakrit, SIL: Mahārāṣṭri Prākrit , is a language of ancient and medieval India which is the ancestor of Marathi, Konkani, Sinhala and the Maldivian language as well. It is one of the many languages of a complex called Prakrit, and the chief Dramatic Prakrit...
prakrit was their language of administration, which influenced medieval Konkani to a great extent.
Goa under the Western Kshatrapas
In the year 150AD, Vashishtiputra SatakarniVashishtiputra Satakarni
Vashishtiputra Sātakarni , was a Satavahana king in Central India, who ruled during the 2nd century century CE. He was the brother of Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi Vashishtiputra Sātakarni (r. 130-160 CE), was a Satavahana king in Central India, who ruled during the 2nd century century CE. He was the...
was defeated by his son-in-law, the Kshatrapa
Western Kshatrapas
The Western Satraps, Western Kshatrapas, or Kshaharatas were Saka rulers of the western and central part of India...
King Rudradaman I
Rudradaman I
Rudradaman I was a Saka ruler from the Western Kshatrapas dynasty. He was the grandson of the celebrated Sah king Chastana. Rudradaman I was instrumental in the decline of the Satavahana Empire.- Mahakshatrapa :...
who established his rule over Goa. This dynasty ruled the territory until 249AD. Thereafter the dynasty's power seems to have been weakened by their generals, the Abhiras
Bhojas
First existing as vassals of the Mauryan Empire and later as an independent empire, the BhojaBhoja
Bhoja was a philosopher king and polymath of medieval India, who ruled the kingdom of Malwa in central India from about 1000 to 1050 CE. Also known as Raja Bhoja Of Dhar, he belonged to the Paramara dynasty...
s ruled Goa for more than 500 years, annexing the entirety of Goa.
The earliest known record of the Bhoja Empire from Goa dates from the 3 rd century BC, it was found in the town of Shiroda
Shiroda
Shiroda may refer to:* Shiroda , village in Maharashtra, India* Shiroda, North Goa, village in Ponda taluk, North Goa district, Goa, India...
in Goa. According to Puranik, by tradition the Bhojas belonged to the clan of Yadavas, who may have migrated to Goa via Dwaraka after the Mahabharata war. Two Bhoja copperplates
Indian copper plate inscriptions
Indian copper plate inscriptions play an important role in the reconstruction of the history of India. Prior to their discovery, historians were forced to rely on ambiguous archaeological findings such as religious text of uncertain origin and interpretations of bits of surviving traditions,...
grants dating back 3rd century BC were unearthed from Bandora
Bandora
The Bandora or Bandore is a large long-necked plucked string-instrument that can be regarded as a bass cittern though it does not have the "re-entrant" tuning typical of the cittern. Probably first built by John Rose in England around 1560, it remained popular for over a century...
village,written by King Prithvimallavarman. Many other copper plates, have also been recovered from other places in Goa which date from 3rd century BC to 8th century AD. Ancient Chandrapur, modern day Chandor
Chandor
Chandor is a village in South Goa district, Goa, India, on the banks of the river Kushavati, 10 km east from Margao.-History:...
, was the capital of the Bhoja Empire; the Bhojas ruled Goa
Goa
Goa , a former Portuguese colony, is India's smallest state by area and the fourth smallest by population. Located in South West India in the region known as the Konkan, it is bounded by the state of Maharashtra to the north, and by Karnataka to the east and south, while the Arabian Sea forms its...
, Belgaum
Belgaum
Belgaum is a city and a municipal corporation in Belgaum district in the state of Karnataka, India. It is the fourth largest city of the state of Karnataka, the first three being Bangalore, Mysore, Hubli-Dharwad....
and North Canara.
From the Bhoja inscriptions found in Goa and Konkan, it is evidenced that the Bhojas used Sanskrit
Sanskrit
Sanskrit , is a historical Indo-Aryan language and the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.Buddhism: besides Pali, see Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Today, it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand...
and Prakrit
Prakrit
Prakrit is the name for a group of Middle Indic, Indo-Aryan languages, derived from Old Indic dialects. The word itself has a flexible definition, being defined sometimes as, "original, natural, artless, normal, ordinary, usual", or "vernacular", in contrast to the literary and religious...
for administration.
According to Vithal Raghavendra Mitragotri, many Brahmin
Brahmin
Brahmin Brahman, Brahma and Brahmin.Brahman, Brahmin and Brahma have different meanings. Brahman refers to the Supreme Self...
s and Vaishya
Vaishya
Vaishya is one of the four varnas of the Hindu social order. According to Vedic tradition, this caste primarily comprises merchants, farmers, cattle-herders and artisans.-Duties of Vaishyas:...
s arrived with Kshatriyas Bhojas from the north. The Kshatriya
Kshatriya
*For the Bollywood film of the same name see Kshatriya Kshatriya or Kashtriya, meaning warrior, is one of the four varnas in Hinduism...
Bhojas patronized Buddhism
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
and employed many Buddhist converts of Greek
Greeks
The Greeks, also known as the Hellenes , are a nation and ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighboring regions. They also form a significant diaspora, with Greek communities established around the world....
and Persian
Persian people
The Persian people are part of the Iranian peoples who speak the modern Persian language and closely akin Iranian dialects and languages. The origin of the ethnic Iranian/Persian peoples are traced to the Ancient Iranian peoples, who were part of the ancient Indo-Iranians and themselves part of...
origin.
Medieval period
Goa was ruled by several dynasties of various origins from 1st century BC to 1500 AD. Since Goa had been under the sway of several dynasties there was no organised judicial or policing system prevalent in those days, except for traditional arrangements governed by absolute rulers and local chieftains. Muslim rule may have brought a little more order than before.During this time, Goa was not ruled as a singular kingdom. Parts of this territory were ruled by several different kingdoms. The boundaries of these kingdoms were not clearly defined and the kings were content to consider their dominions as extending over many villages, which paid tribute and owed them allegiance.
| Name of the ruler | Reign |
|---|---|
| Indo-Parthians | 2-4th century AD |
| Abhiras,Batapuras, Bhoja Bhoja Bhoja was a philosopher king and polymath of medieval India, who ruled the kingdom of Malwa in central India from about 1000 to 1050 CE. Also known as Raja Bhoja Of Dhar, he belonged to the Paramara dynasty... s |
4-6th century AD |
| Chalukyas of Badami | 6-8th century AD |
| Rashtrakutas of Malkhed | 8-10th century AD |
| Kadambas Kadambas The Kadamba Dynasty was an ancient royal family of Karnataka that ruled from Banavasi in present day Uttara Kannada district. The dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the Chalukya and the Rashtrakuta empires for over five hundred years during which time they... |
1006-1356 AD |
| Yadavas of Devagiri | 12th and 13th century AD |
| Vijayanagar Empire | 14th and 15th century AD |
| Bahmani Sultanate Bahmani Sultanate The Bahmani Sultanate was a Muslim state of the Deccan in southern India and one of the great medieval Indian kingdoms... |
15th century |
This was a tumultuous period in Goan history. The Goa Shilahara
Shilahara
The Shilahara Dynasty was a feudal clan that established itself in northern and southern Konkan and southern Maharashtra during the Rashtrakuta period...
power was waning and the Arab traders gained increasing control of the overseas trade and enjoyed autonomy from the Shilaharas. In order to control this decline, Kadamba King Guhalladeva I, ruling from Chandor
Chandor
Chandor is a village in South Goa district, Goa, India, on the banks of the river Kushavati, 10 km east from Margao.-History:...
only, established secular, political, and economic partnerships with these Arab states. After the Chalukyas defeated the Rashtrakutas, exploiting this situation to their advantage the Kadamba King Shashthadeva II firmly planted his rule in Goa.
The Kadambas of Goa
The Kadambas ruled Goa over 10th to 14th century AD. In the beginning the Kadambas ruled only SashtiSalcette
Salcette , is a taluka of South Goa District in the Indian state of Goa. Its administrative and economic headquarters is Margao. It is largely coterminous with a region called Sashti , which comprised, by local tradition, sixty-six villages, hence the name. However, it also includes the taluka of...
and a small part of Konkan. They ruled from Chandor, over a large part, but the port of Gopakpattana was not a part in the beginning. The Goa Kadambas were the later scions of the main Kadamba Dynasty, whose modern descendants still live in Goa.
The port of Goapakapattna
Later King Shashthadeva conquered the island of Goa such as the port Gopakpattana and Kapardikadvipa, and annexed a large part of South Konkan to his kingdom, and made Gopakpattana as his secondary capital. The next King Jayakeshi I further expanded the Goan kingdom. Sanskrit Jain text Dvayashraya mentions the extent of his capital. Port Gopakapattna had trade contacts with ZanzibarZanzibar
Zanzibar ,Persian: زنگبار, from suffix bār: "coast" and Zangi: "bruin" ; is a semi-autonomous part of Tanzania, in East Africa. It comprises the Zanzibar Archipelago in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of the mainland, and consists of numerous small islands and two large ones: Unguja , and Pemba...
, Bengal
Bengal
Bengal is a historical and geographical region in the northeast region of the Indian Subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. Today, it is mainly divided between the sovereign land of People's Republic of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal, although some regions of the previous...
, Gujarat and Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka is a country off the southern coast of the Indian subcontinent. Known until 1972 as Ceylon , Sri Lanka is an island surrounded by the Indian Ocean, the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait, and lies in the vicinity of India and the...
(mentioned as Zaguva,Gauda,Gurjara,Simhala in the Sanskrit text). The city has been described in the contemporary records not only as aesthetically pleasing, but spiritually cleansing as well. On account of its commercial nature, Gopakapattna possessed a cosmopolitan look. The capital was served by an important highway called Rajvithi or Rajpath which linked it with Ela
Old Goa
Old Goa or Velha Goa is a historical city in North Goa district in the Indian state of Goa. The city was constructed by the Bijapur Sultanate in the 15th century, and served as capital of Portuguese India from the 16th century until its abandonment in the 18th century due to plague...
, the ruins of which can still be seen. For more than 300 years it remained a nucleus of intra-coastal and trans-oceanic trade from Africa to Malaya. Later in the 14th century the port was looted by Khilji
Khilji dynasty
The Khilji Sultanate was a dynasty of Turko-Afghan Khalaj origin who ruled large parts of South Asia from 1290 - 1320. They were the second dynasty to rule the Delhi Sultanate of India...
general Malik Kafur
Malik Kafur
Malik Kafur, General , or Chand Ram as his name was originally, was a slave who became a head general in the army of Alauddin Khilji, ruler of the Delhi sultanate from 1296 to 1316 AD. He was originally seized by Alauddin's army after the army conquered the city of Khambhat...
, and the capitol was shifted to Chandor and then back to Gopakapattna because of Muhammad bin Tughluq
Muhammad bin Tughluq
Muhammad bin Tughluq was the Turkic Sultan of Delhi from 1325 to 1351. He was the eldest son of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq.He was born in Kotla Tolay Khan in Multan. His wife was daughter of the raja of Dipalpur...
's attack on Chandor.
Guhalladeva III,Jayakeshi II, Shivachitta Paramadideva, Vinshuchitta II and Jayakeshi III dominated Goa's political scene in the 12th century.
During the rule of Kadambas, the name and fame of Goapuri had reached it zenith. Goa's religion, culture, trade and arts flourished under the rule of these kings. The Kings and their queens built many Shiva
Shiva
Shiva is a major Hindu deity, and is the destroyer god or transformer among the Trimurti, the Hindu Trinity of the primary aspects of the divine. God Shiva is a yogi who has notice of everything that happens in the world and is the main aspect of life. Yet one with great power lives a life of a...
temples as they were devote Shaivites. They assumed titles like Konkanadhipati,Saptakotisha Ladbha Varaveera,Gopakapura varadhishva,Konkanmahacharavarti,Panchamahashabda. The Kings had matrimonial relationships with the Kings of Saurashtra, and even the local chieftains. The Kings patronized Vedic religion
Vedic religion
Vedic religion may refer to:*the historical Vedic religion- Vedic Hinduism **Vedic mythology*Shrauta, surviving conservative traditions within HinduismIn wider meanings of the term "Vedic"*Vedanta*Hinduism in general...
and performed major fire sacrifices like the horse sacrifice or Ashvamedha
Ashvamedha
The Ashvamedha was one of the most important royal rituals of Vedic religion, described in detail in the Yajurveda...
. They popularised Shaivsm in Goa.
Though their language of administration was Sanskrit
Sanskrit
Sanskrit , is a historical Indo-Aryan language and the primary liturgical language of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.Buddhism: besides Pali, see Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Today, it is listed as one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and is an official language of the state of Uttarakhand...
and Kannada, Konkani and Marathi
Marathi language
Marathi is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by the Marathi people of western and central India. It is the official language of the state of Maharashtra. There are over 68 million fluent speakers worldwide. Marathi has the fourth largest number of native speakers in India and is the fifteenth most...
were also prevalent. They introduced Kannada language to Goa, which had a very profound influence on the local tongue. Nagari script
Nagari script
The Nāgarī script is the ancestor of Devanagari, Assamese, Bengali and other variants, and was first used to write Prakrit and Sanskrit. It was in vogue from before the 10th century...
, Kadamba script
Kadamba script
The Kadamba script marks the birth of a dedicated Kannada script that was used for Kannada language. It is a descendant of the Brahmi script. The Kadamba script was developed during the reign of the Kadambas in the 4th - 6th centuries. The Kadamba script is also known as Pre-Old-Kannada script...
, Halekannada script and Goykanadi scripts
Goykanadi
' is an extinct script used in the territory of Goa .This script was also called as and .This script was similar to the Halekannada and Kadamba script and was extensively used to write Konkani and sometimes Marathi. Similarly this was used by the trading Saraswat and Daivajna families along with...
were very popular.
It is known from another inscription of Kadamba Tribhuvanamalla, saka 1028 or AD 1106, that he established a Brahmapuri at Gopaka. Brahmapuris were ancient universities run by the Brahmins where the Vedas, astrology, philosophy, medicine, and other miscellaneous subjects were studied.(see:Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu: district Volume 1). Such Brahampuris were found in many places in Goa, Savoi verem, Gauli moula and other places.
Kadambas ruled Goa for more than 400 years until they lost power to Devagiri Yadavas. After the Muslim invasions, the Kadamba Dynasty was lost forever. Ruins of the palaces, mansions, temples and markets can be still seen in Chandor village.
Muslim rule
In 1350 AD, Goa was conquered by the Bahmani SultanateBahmani Sultanate
The Bahmani Sultanate was a Muslim state of the Deccan in southern India and one of the great medieval Indian kingdoms...
. However in 1370, the Vijayanagar empire, a resurgent Hindu empire situated at modern day Hampi
Hampi
Hampi is a village in northern Karnataka state, India. It is located within the ruins of Vijayanagara, the former capital of the Vijayanagara Empire. Predating the city of Vijayanagara, it continues to be an important religious centre, housing the Virupaksha Temple, as well as several other...
, reconquered the area. The Vijayanagar rulers held on to Goa for nearly a century, during which time its harbours were important port of arrival for Arabian horse
Arabian horse
The Arabian or Arab horse is a breed of horse that originated on the Arabian Peninsula. With a distinctive head shape and high tail carriage, the Arabian is one of the most easily recognizable horse breeds in the world. It is also one of the oldest breeds, with archaeological evidence of horses...
s on their way to Hampi to strengthen the Vijaynagar cavalry. In 1469 Goa was reconquered by the Bahmani Sultans
Bahmani Sultanate
The Bahmani Sultanate was a Muslim state of the Deccan in southern India and one of the great medieval Indian kingdoms...
of Gulbarga
Gulbarga
Gulbarga is a city in the Indian state of Karnataka. It is the administrative headquarters of Gulbarga District. It was formerly part of Nizam's Hyderabad state...
. When this Sultanate broke up in 1492, Goa became a part of Adil Shah's Bijapur Sultanate, which established Goa Velha
Goa Velha
Goa Velha is a census town in North Goa district in the Indian state of Goa. It should not be confused with the World Heritage Site Velha Goa . St. Andrew's church is its parish church...
as its second capital. The former Secretariat building in Panaji is a former Adil Shahi palace, later taken over by the Portuguese
Portugal
Portugal , officially the Portuguese Republic is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal is the westernmost country of Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the...
Viceroys as their official residence.
Portuguese conquest and colonisation
Vasco da Gama
Vasco da Gama, 1st Count of Vidigueira was a Portuguese explorer, one of the most successful in the Age of Discovery and the commander of the first ships to sail directly from Europe to India...
rounded the Cape of Good Hope
Cape of Good Hope
The Cape of Good Hope is a rocky headland on the Atlantic coast of the Cape Peninsula, South Africa.There is a misconception that the Cape of Good Hope is the southern tip of Africa, because it was once believed to be the dividing point between the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. In fact, the...
and landed at Calicut
History of Kozhikode
Kozhikode , also known as Calicut, is a city in the southern Indian state of Kerala. It is the third largest city in Kerala and the headquarters of Kozhikode district....
. In 1510, Portuguese Qdmiral Afonso de Albuquerque
Afonso de Albuquerque
Afonso de Albuquerque[p][n] was a Portuguese fidalgo, or nobleman, an admiral whose military and administrative activities as second governor of Portuguese India conquered and established the Portuguese colonial empire in the Indian Ocean...
attacked Goa at the behest of the local cheftian Thimayya. After losing the city briefly to its former ruler, Ismail Adil Shah
Ismail Adil Shah
Isamail Adil Shah was the king of Bijapur who spent most of his time extending his territory. His short lived reign helped the dynasty establish a strong hold in the deccan.-Early years:...
, the Muslim King of Bijapur, Albuquerque returned in force on November 25, with a fully renovated fleet. In less than a day, the Portuguese fleet took possession of Goa from Ismail Adil Shah and his Ottoman allies, who surrendered on December 10. It is estimated that 6,000 of the 9,000 Muslim defenders of the city died, either in the battle in the streets or while trying to escape. He gained the support of the Hindu population, although this frustrated the initial expectations Thimayya who aspired to gain the city. Afonso de Albuquerque rewarded him by appointing him chief "Aguazil" of the city, an administrator and representative of the Hindu and Muslim people and as a learned interpreter of the local customs. de Albuquerque then made an agreement to lower yearly dues and taxes. In spite of constant attacks, Goa became the center of Portuguese India, with the conquest triggering the compliance of neighboring kingdoms, the Sultan of Gujarat and the Zamorin of Calicut dispatched embassies, offering alliances and local concessions to be fortified.
In Goa Albuquerque started the first Portuguese mint
Mint (coin)
A mint is an industrial facility which manufactures coins for currency.The history of mints correlates closely with the history of coins. One difference is that the history of the mint is usually closely tied to the political situation of an era...
in the East, after complaints from merchants and Timoja about the scarcity of currency, taking it as an opportunity to announce the territorial conquest. The new coin
Portuguese Indian rupia
From The rupia was the currency of Portuguese India until 1958.-History:Before 1871, the rupia was subdivided into 750 bazarucos, 600 réis , 20 pardaus or 10 tangas, with the xerafim worth 2 rupias. After 1871, 960 réis or 16 tangas equalled 1 rupia. The rupia was equal in value to the Indian rupee...
, based on the existing local coins, bore a cross on one side and the design of an armillary sphere
Armillary sphere
An armillary sphere is a model of objects in the sky , consisting of a spherical framework of rings, centred on Earth, that represent lines of celestial longitude and latitude and other astronomically important features such as the ecliptic...
(or "espera"), King Manuel's badge, on the reverse. Gold, silver and bronze coins were issued, respectively gold cruzados or manueis, esperas and alf-esperas, and "leais". More mints would follow in Malacca in 1511.
Albuquerque and his successors left the customs and constitutions of the thirty village communities on the island almost untouched, only abolishing the rite of sati
Sati (practice)
For other uses, see Sati .Satī was a religious funeral practice among some Indian communities in which a recently widowed woman either voluntarily or by use of force and coercion would have immolated herself on her husband’s funeral pyre...
, or widow-burning. A register of these customs (Foral de usos e costumes) was published in 1526; it is among the most valuable historical documents pertaining to Goan customs.
Goa was the base for Albuquerque's conquest of Malacca
Malacca
Malacca , dubbed The Historic State or Negeri Bersejarah among locals) is the third smallest Malaysian state, after Perlis and Penang. It is located in the southern region of the Malay Peninsula, on the Straits of Malacca. It borders Negeri Sembilan to the north and the state of Johor to the south...
in 1511 and Hormuz
Hormuz
Hormuz is distorted from the Persian Ohrmuzd, meaning Ahura Mazda. It can refer to:* The Strait of Hormuz in the Persian Gulf* Hormuz Island, an Iranian island in the Persian Gulf* Hormuz District, an administrative subdivision of Iran...
in 1515. Albuquerque intended it to be a colony and a naval base, distinct from the fortified factories established in certain Indian seaports. Goa was made capital of the Portuguese Vice-Kingdom in Asia, and the other Portuguese possessions in India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
, Malacca
Malacca
Malacca , dubbed The Historic State or Negeri Bersejarah among locals) is the third smallest Malaysian state, after Perlis and Penang. It is located in the southern region of the Malay Peninsula, on the Straits of Malacca. It borders Negeri Sembilan to the north and the state of Johor to the south...
and other bases in Indonesia
Indonesia
Indonesia , officially the Republic of Indonesia , is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 13,000 islands. It has 33 provinces with over 238 million people, and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an...
, East Timor
East Timor
The Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, commonly known as East Timor , is a state in Southeast Asia. It comprises the eastern half of the island of Timor, the nearby islands of Atauro and Jaco, and Oecusse, an exclave on the northwestern side of the island, within Indonesian West Timor...
, the Persian Gulf
Persian Gulf
The Persian Gulf, in Southwest Asia, is an extension of the Indian Ocean located between Iran and the Arabian Peninsula.The Persian Gulf was the focus of the 1980–1988 Iran-Iraq War, in which each side attacked the other's oil tankers...
, Macau
Macau
Macau , also spelled Macao , is, along with Hong Kong, one of the two special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China...
in China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
and trade bases in Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
were under the suzerainty of its Viceroy
Viceroy
A viceroy is a royal official who runs a country, colony, or province in the name of and as representative of the monarch. The term derives from the Latin prefix vice-, meaning "in the place of" and the French word roi, meaning king. A viceroy's province or larger territory is called a viceroyalty...
. By mid–16th century, the area under occupation had expanded to most of present-day limits.
Goa was granted the same civic privileges as Lisbon
Lisbon
Lisbon is the capital city and largest city of Portugal with a population of 545,245 within its administrative limits on a land area of . The urban area of Lisbon extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of 3 million on an area of , making it the 9th most populous urban...
. Its senate or municipal chamber maintained direct communications with the king and paid a special representative to attend to its interests at court. In 1563 the governor even proposed to make Goa the seat of a parliament representing all parts of the Portuguese east, but this was rejected by the King.
The Portuguese set up a base in Goa to further consolidate their control the spice trade. Goods from all parts of the East were displayed in its bazaar
Bazaar
A bazaar , Cypriot Greek: pantopoula) is a permanent merchandising area, marketplace, or street of shops where goods and services are exchanged or sold. The term is sometimes also used to refer to the "network of merchants, bankers and craftsmen" who work that area...
, and separate streets were designated for the sale of different classes of goods — Bahrain
Bahrain
' , officially the Kingdom of Bahrain , is a small island state near the western shores of the Persian Gulf. It is ruled by the Al Khalifa royal family. The population in 2010 stood at 1,214,705, including 235,108 non-nationals. Formerly an emirate, Bahrain was declared a kingdom in 2002.Bahrain is...
pearls and coral, Chinese
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
porcelain and silk, Portuguese velvet and piece-goods, and drugs and spices from the Malay Archipelago
Malay Archipelago
The Malay Archipelago refers to the archipelago between mainland Southeastern Asia and Australia. The name was derived from the anachronistic concept of a Malay race....
.
In 1542, St. Francis Xavier
Francis Xavier
Francis Xavier, born Francisco de Jasso y Azpilicueta was a pioneering Roman Catholic missionary born in the Kingdom of Navarre and co-founder of the Society of Jesus. He was a student of Saint Ignatius of Loyola and one of the first seven Jesuits, dedicated at Montmartre in 1534...
mentions the architectural splendour of the city; but it reached the climax of its prosperity between 1575 and 1625. Travellers marvelled at Goa Dourada, or Golden Goa, and there was a Portuguese proverb, "He who has seen Goa need not see Lisbon
Lisbon
Lisbon is the capital city and largest city of Portugal with a population of 545,245 within its administrative limits on a land area of . The urban area of Lisbon extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of 3 million on an area of , making it the 9th most populous urban...
."
In the main street, slaves were sold by auction. The houses of the rich were surrounded by gardens and palm groves; they were built of stone and painted red or white. Instead of glass, their balconied windows had thin polished oyster-shells set in lattice-work. The social life of Goa's rulers befitted the capitol of the viceregal court, the army and navy, and the church; luxury and ostentation became a byword before the end of the 16th century.
Almost all manual labor was performed by slaves; common soldiers assumed high-sounding titles, and it was even customary for the poor noblemen who congregated together in boarding-houses to subscribe for a few silken cloaks, a silken umbrella and a common man-servant, so that each could take his turn to promenade the streets, fashionably attired and with a proper escort.
Around 1583, missionary activity in Cuncolim
Cuncolim
Cuncolim is a city and a municipal council in South Goa district in the state of Goa, India.-Etymology:The name Cuncolim is derived from the fact that the village was known as Kumkumahalli .-Geography:Cuncolim is located at...
first led to small skirmishes and finally to the murder of all the missionaries. The Portuguese authorities called the sixteen chieftains of each ward or vado of the Cuncolim village to the Assolna Fort, ostensibly to form a peace pact with the villagers. At the fort the chieftains were slain, except for two who jumped from the fort into the Arabian Sea and presumably swam to Karwar. The villagers were left without their traditional leaders while the Portuguese began confiscating the land of the locals and initiated the Goa Inquisition
Goa Inquisition
The Goa Inquisition was the office of the Inquisition acting in the Indian state of Goa and the rest of the Portuguese empire in Asia. It was established in 1560, briefly suppressed from 1774–1778, and finally abolished in 1812. The Goan Inquisition is considered a blot on the history of...
.
The Goa Inquisition was the office of the Inquisition acting within the Indian state of Goa and the rest of the Portuguese empire in Asia. It was established in 1560, briefly suppressed from 1774–1778, and finally abolished in 1812. The Goan Inquisition is considered a blot on the history of Roman Catholic Christianity in India both by Christians and non-Christians alike. Based on the records that survive, H. P. Salomon and I. S. D. Sassoon state that between the Inquisition's beginning in 1561 and its temporary abolition in 1774, some 16,202 persons were brought to trial by the Inquisition. Of this number, it is known that 57 were sentenced to death and executed in person; another 64 were burned in effigy. Others were subjected to lesser punishments or penanced, but the fate of many of the Inquisition's victims is unknown.
The Inquisition was established to punish relapsed New Christians – Jews and Muslims who converted to Catholicism, as well as their descendants – who were now suspected of practicing their ancestral religion in secret.
In Goa the Inquisition also turned its attention to Indian converts from Hinduism or Islam who were thought to have returned to their original ways. In addition, the Inquisition prosecuted non-converts who broke prohibitions against the observance of Hindu or Muslim rites or interfered with Portuguese attempts to convert non-Christians to Catholicism. While its ostensible aim was to preserve the Catholic faith, the Inquisition was used against Indian Catholics and Hindus as an instrument of social control, as well as a method of confiscating victims' property and enriching the Inquisitors.
Most of the Goa Inquisition's records were destroyed after its abolition in 1812, and it is thus impossible to know the exact number of the Inquisition's victims.
Decline
The appearance of the DutchNetherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
in Indian waters was followed by the gradual ruin of Goa. In 1603 and 1639, the city was blockaded by Dutch fleets, though never captured. In 1635 Goa was ravaged by an epidemic. With the situation already volatile, Maratha
Maratha Empire
The Maratha Empire or the Maratha Confederacy was an Indian imperial power that existed from 1674 to 1818. At its peak, the empire covered much of South Asia, encompassing a territory of over 2.8 million km²....
troops entered parts of Bicholim
Bicholim
Bicholim is a city and a municipal council in North Goa district in the state of Goa, India. It is a town in the territory of Goa, and the headquarters of the concelho of the same name; the Concelho of Bicholim, located in the north-east quarter is one of the seven that make up the Novas...
in 1641 and began the minor Bicholim conflict
Bicholim conflict
The Bicholim Conflict of 1640–1641 was a period of armed conflict between the Portuguese rulers of Goa and the Maratha Empire led by Shivaji Bhonsle in the northern regions of Goa, particularly in the Bicholim region...
, which ended in peace treaty between the Portuguese and Maratha Empire
Maratha Empire
The Maratha Empire or the Maratha Confederacy was an Indian imperial power that existed from 1674 to 1818. At its peak, the empire covered much of South Asia, encompassing a territory of over 2.8 million km²....
.
Trade was gradually monopolised by the Jesuits. Jean de Thévenot
Jean de Thévenot
Jean de Thévenot was a French traveller in the East, who wrote extensively about his journeys. He was also a linguist, natural scientist and botanist....
in 1666, Baldaeus in 1672, Fryer in 1675 describe its ever-increasing poverty and decay.
After escaping from Agra
Agra
Agra a.k.a. Akbarabad is a city on the banks of the river Yamuna in the northern state of Uttar Pradesh, India, west of state capital, Lucknow and south from national capital New Delhi. With a population of 1,686,976 , it is one of the most populous cities in Uttar Pradesh and the 19th most...
, Shivaji slowly started gaining the areas which he lost in Treaty of Purendar to Moghuls. In this he conquered most of the area adjoining to Old Conquestas of Goa. He captured Pernem
Pernem
Pernem is a northmost administrative region or Taluka in North Goa. It is also the name of the town of Pernem, which is its headquarters. It has a Municipal Council...
, Bicholim, Sattari
Sattari
Sattari is a taluka on North East side of Goa known for its greenary and dense forest. Its headquarters is Valpoi . It is the 'Fenny capital' of Goa. The Western Ghats form the eastern part of the Sattari Taluka. The Mhadei River is considered to be the lifeline of Sattari. It has a...
, Ponda, Sanguem
Sanguem
Sanguem is a city and a municipal council in South Goa district in the Indian state of Goa.Notable landmarks include the Sagameshwar Temple, Bhagwan Mahaveer Sanctuary and Mollem National Park and the Salaulim Dam.-Geography:...
, Quepem
Quepem
Quepem is a town and a municipal council in South Goa district in the Indian state of Goa.The town is the administrative capital for the Quepem district. Curchorem and Sanvordem are the a major towns located in the Quepem District.-Geography:...
, Cancona. Sawantwadi Bonsale and Saudekar Rajas became his vassals.
In 1683 Chatrapati Sambhaji, the son of Shivaji, tried to conquer the entirety of Goa, including the areas in then in Portuguese control. He almost ousted the Portuguese, but to their surprise a Mughal
Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire , or Mogul Empire in traditional English usage, was an imperial power from the Indian Subcontinent. The Mughal emperors were descendants of the Timurids...
army prevented the city's capture by the Marathas. In 1739 the whole territory of Bardez
Bardez
Bardez is the name of a region and taluka in North Goa. The name is credited to the Brahmin immigrants who migrated to the Konkan via Magadha in Gangetic India from Aryavarta, in the north-western part of the Indian sub-continent. Bardez or more properly Bara desh means "twelve countries"...
was attacked by the Marathas again in order to pressure the northern Portuguese possession at Vasai, but the conquest could not be completed because of the unexpected arrival of a new viceroy with a fleet.
Following the Third Battle of Panipat
Third battle of Panipat
The Third Battle of Panipat took place on 14 January 1761, at Panipat , about 60 miles north of Delhi between a northern expeditionary force of the Maratha Confederacy and a coalition of the King of Afghanistan, Ahmad Shah Abdali with 2 Indian Muslim allies—the Rohilla Afghans of the Doab, and the...
, Peshawa control over Maratha Empire was weakened. The Portuguese then defeated Rajas of Sawantwadi and Raja of Sunda to conquer area stretched from Pernem till Cancona. This formed the Novas Conquistas and thus the present day Goa is formed.
In the same year the viceroy transferred his residence from the vicinity of Goa city to New Goa (in Portuguese
Portuguese language
Portuguese is a Romance language that arose in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, nowadays Galicia and Northern Portugal. The southern part of the Kingdom of Galicia became independent as the County of Portugal in 1095...
Nova Goa), today's Panaji, which became the official seat of government in 1843 and effecting a move which had been discussed as early as 1684. Old Goa
Old Goa
Old Goa or Velha Goa is a historical city in North Goa district in the Indian state of Goa. The city was constructed by the Bijapur Sultanate in the 15th century, and served as capital of Portuguese India from the 16th century until its abandonment in the 18th century due to plague...
city's population fell steeply during the 18th century as Europeans moved to the new city.
In 1757, King Joseph I of Portugal issued a decree penned by his prime minister, the Marquês de Pombal, granting the Portuguese citizenship and representation to all subjects in the Portuguese Indies. The enclaves of Goa, Damão, Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli became collectively known as the Estado da Índia Portuguesa, and had representation in the Portuguese parliament.
In 1787, there was a rebellion started by some priests against Portuguese rule. It became famous as the Conspiracy of the Pintos
Conspiracy Of The Pintos
Conspiracy of the Pintos, also known as Conspiracy of Goa, the Pinto Revolt or the Pinto Conspiracy, and in Portuguese as A Conjuração dos Pintos, was a rebellion against Portuguese rule in Goa in 1787...
. Goa was peacefully occupied by the British
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
between 1812-1815 in the context of the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance
Anglo-Portuguese Alliance
The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance, ratified at the Treaty of Windsor in 1386, between England and Portugal is claimed to be the oldest alliance in the world which is still in force — with the earliest treaty dating back to the Anglo-Portuguese Treaty of 1373.This alliance, which goes back to the...
during the Napoleonic Wars
Napoleonic Wars
The Napoleonic Wars were a series of wars declared against Napoleon's French Empire by opposing coalitions that ran from 1803 to 1815. As a continuation of the wars sparked by the French Revolution of 1789, they revolutionised European armies and played out on an unprecedented scale, mainly due to...
.
During the tenure of Marquês de Pombal, the Act of 1761 was promulgated whereby all Portuguese subjects born in Portuguese India were considered Portuguese citizens, and as suc, Goans had the right to elect their representatives to the Portuguese Parliament. The first election was held in Goa on 14 Jan 1822, electing 3 locals as members of Parliament.
The Second World War
Because Portugal stayed neutral in the Second World War, Goa was too. As a result, at the outbreak of hostilities a number of Axis ships sought refuge in Goa rather than face the likelihood of interception by the British Royal Navy. There were three German ships, the Ehrenfels, the Drachenfels and the Braunfels, as well as an Italian ship. The British discovered that the Ehrenfels was transmitting information on Allied ship movements to U-boats in the Indian Ocean, with extremely damaging consequences for British shipping.Because Portugal was neutral the British was unable to take any official action against these ships, however the SOE
SOE
- Organizations :* Special Operations Executive, a British World War II covert military organisation* State-owned enterprise, a government-owned business* Sega of Europe, a computer game developer* Sony Online Entertainment, a computer game developer...
Indian mission organised a covert raid using members of the Calcutta Light Horse, a part-time unit made up of civilians who were not eligible for normal war service. The Light Horse embarked on an ancient Calcutta riverboat, the Phoebe, and sailed round India to Goa, where they sunk the Ehrenfels, and the other ships scuttled themselves, fearing that they were about to be seized.
The story of this raid was the subject of James Leasor
James Leasor
James Leasor was a prolific British author, who wrote historical books and thrillers. Leasor's 1978 book, Boarding Party, about an incident that took place in the Second World War, was turned into a film, The Sea Wolves, starring Gregory Peck, Roger Moore and David Niven.-Biography:Leasor was born...
's book, Boarding Party, which in turn was made into a film, The Sea Wolves
The Sea Wolves
The Sea Wolves is a 1980 war film starring Gregory Peck, Roger Moore and David Niven. The film is based on the book Boarding Party by James Leasor, which itself is based on a real incident which took place in World War II...
, starring Gregory Peck
Gregory Peck
Eldred Gregory Peck was an American actor.One of 20th Century Fox's most popular film stars from the 1940s to the 1960s, Peck continued to play important roles well into the 1980s. His notable performances include that of Atticus Finch in the 1962 film To Kill a Mockingbird, for which he won an...
, David Niven
David Niven
James David Graham Niven , known as David Niven, was a British actor and novelist, best known for his roles as Phileas Fogg in Around the World in 80 Days and Sir Charles Lytton, a.k.a. "the Phantom", in The Pink Panther...
and Roger Moore
Roger Moore
Sir Roger George Moore KBE , is an English actor, perhaps best known for portraying British secret agent James Bond in seven films from 1973 to 1985. He also portrayed Simon Templar in the long-running British television series The Saint.-Early life:Moore was born in Stockwell, London...
in 1980. Because of the potential political ramifications of the fact that Britain had violated Portuguese neutrality, the raid remained secret until James Leasor's book was published in 1978.
After the independence of India
When India became independent in 1947, Goa remained under Portuguese control. The Indian government of Jawaharlal NehruJawaharlal Nehru
Jawaharlal Nehru , often referred to with the epithet of Panditji, was an Indian statesman who became the first Prime Minister of independent India and became noted for his “neutralist” policies in foreign affairs. He was also one of the principal leaders of India’s independence movement in the...
insisted that Goa, along with a few other minor Portuguese holdings, be turned over to India. However Portugal refused. France, which also had small enclaves in India (most notably Pondicherry, surrendered its Indian possession
French India
French India is a general name for the former French possessions in India These included Pondichéry , Karikal and Yanaon on the Coromandel Coast, Mahé on the Malabar Coast, and Chandannagar in Bengal...
gave them up.
In 1954, unarmed Indians took over the tiny land-locked enclaves of Dadra and Nagar-Haveli. This incident led the Portuguese to lodge a complaint against India in the International Court of Justice
International Court of Justice
The International Court of Justice is the primary judicial organ of the United Nations. It is based in the Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands...
at The Hague
The Hague
The Hague is the capital city of the province of South Holland in the Netherlands. With a population of 500,000 inhabitants , it is the third largest city of the Netherlands, after Amsterdam and Rotterdam...
. The final judgement on this case, given in 1960, held that the Portuguese had a right to the enclaves, but that India equally had a right to deny Portugal access to the enclaves over Indian territory.
In 1955 a group of unarmed civilians, satyagrahis demonstrated against Portugal. At least twenty-two of them were killed by Portuguese gunfire.
Later the same year, the Satyagrahis took over a fort at Tiracol and hoisted the Indian flag. They were driven away by the Portuguese with a number of casualties. On 1 September 1955, the Indian consulate in Goa was closed. In 1955 also Jawaharlal Nehru
Jawaharlal Nehru
Jawaharlal Nehru , often referred to with the epithet of Panditji, was an Indian statesman who became the first Prime Minister of independent India and became noted for his “neutralist” policies in foreign affairs. He was also one of the principal leaders of India’s independence movement in the...
declared his government would not tolerate Portuguese presence in Goa. India then instituted a blockade against Goa, Damão, and Diu in an effort to force a Portuguese departure. Goa was then given its own airline by the Portuguese, the Transportes Aéreos da Índia Portuguesa
Transportes Aéreos da Índia Portuguesa
TAIP - Transportes Aéreos da Índia Portuguesa was an airline which operated from Portuguese India from 1955 to 1961...
to overcome the blockade.
On December 16, 1961, Indian troops crossed the border into Goa. 'Operation Vijay' involved sustained land, sea, and air strikes for more than 36 hours; it resulted in the unconditional surrender of Portuguese forces on December 19. A United Nations resolution condemning the invasion was proposed by the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
and the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
in the United Nations Security Council
United Nations Security Council
The United Nations Security Council is one of the principal organs of the United Nations and is charged with the maintenance of international peace and security. Its powers, outlined in the United Nations Charter, include the establishment of peacekeeping operations, the establishment of...
, but it was vetoed by the USSR. Under Indian rule, Goan voters went to the polls in a referendum and voted to become an autonomous, federally administered territory. Goa was admitted to Indian statehood in 1987.
After re-joining India, the territory of Goa was under military rule for five months, however the previous civil service was soon restored and the area became a federally administered territory. Goa celebrates its "Liberation Day" on December 19 every year, which is also a state holiday.
First Goa was a union territory of India which afterwards changed to state.(?)
See also
- Goa liberation movementGoa liberation movementThe Goa liberation movement was a movement that sought to end the Portuguese colonial rule in Portuguese India. It began in the early 20th century and gained strength between 1940 to 1961. It was preceded by many smaller revolts...