Hu Shih
Encyclopedia
Hu Shih born Hu Hung-hsing , was a Chinese philosopher, essayist and diplomat
. His courtesy name was Shih-chih . Hu is widely recognized today as a key contributor to Chinese liberalism
and language reform
in his advocacy for the use of written vernacular Chinese. He was also an influential Redology
scholar and held the famous Jiaxu manuscript for many years until his death.
to Hu Chuan and Feng Shundi . His ancestors were from Jixi, Anhui
. In January 1904, his family established an arranged marriage for Hu with Chiang Tung-hsiu , an illiterate girl with bound feet who was one year older than he was. The marriage took place in December 1917. Hu received his fundamental education in Jixi
and Shanghai
.
Hu became a "national scholar" through funds appropriated from the Boxer Indemnity Scholarship Program. On 16 August 1910, he was sent to study agriculture at Cornell University
in the United States
. In 1912 he changed his major to philosophy and literature. After receiving his undergraduate degree, he went to Columbia University
to study philosophy. At Columbia he was greatly influenced by his professor, John Dewey
, and Hu became Dewey's translator and a lifelong advocate of pragmatic evolutionary change
, helping Dewey in his 1919-1921 lectures series in China. He returned to lecture in Peking University
. During his tenure there, he received support from Chen Duxiu
, editor of the influential journal New Youth
, quickly gaining much attention and influence. Hu soon became one of the leading and influential intellectuals during the May Fourth Movement
and later the New Culture Movement
.
He quit New Youth
in the 1920s and published several political newspapers and journals with his friends. His most important contribution was the promotion of vernacular Chinese
in literature to replace Classical Chinese
, which ideally made it easier for the ordinary person to read. The significance of this for Chinese culture was great—as John Fairbank put it, "the tyranny of the classics had been broken". Hu devoted a great deal of energy, however, to rooting his linguistic reforms in China's traditional culture rather than relying on imports from the west. As his biographer Jerome Grieder put it, Hu's approach to China's "distinctive civilization" was "thoroughly critical but by no means contemptuous." For instance, he made a major contribution to the textual study of the Chinese classical novel, especially the 18th century novel Dream of the Red Chamber
, as a way of establishing the vocabulary for modern "national language" (guoyu 國語).
Hu was the Republic of China
's ambassador to the United States of America between 1938 and 1942. He was recalled in September 1942 and was replaced by Wei Tao-ming, who had previously represented the ROC in Vichy
France
. Hu then served as chancellor of Peking University
between 1946 and 1948, and later (1957) president of the Academia Sinica
in Taipei
, where he remained until his death. He was also chief executive of the Free China Journal
, which was eventually shut down for criticizing Chiang Kai-shek
. He died of heart attack
in Nankang, Taipei at the age of 70, and is buried in a tomb in Hu Shih Park, by the Academia Sinica campus.
Hu Shih's work fell into disrepute in mainland China until a 1986 article, written by Ji Xianlin
, "A Few Words for Hu Shi", advocated acknowledging not only Hu Shih's mistakes, but also his contributions to modern Chinese literature. His article was sufficiently convincing to many scholars that it caused a re-evaluation of the development of modern Chinese literature and the role of Hu Shih.
in the Republic of China, unlike other fellow intellectuals such as Liang Qichao
and Chen Duxiu
, Hu was a staunch supporter of pragmatism
. Hu Shih himself translated it into Chinese as , literally meaning experimentalism
, since he strived to study both academic and social problems in the scientific approach (in the general sense), and advocated cultural reform under the guidance of pragmatism.
The second translation as was crafted long after pragmatism became popular in China at that time due to Hu's endeavor. This secondary translation has become dominant today, but the intention of such terminology substitution was highly suspected to politically defame Hu for the term 實用 had been evolved into a derogatory sense.
titled "A Preliminary Discussion of Literature Reform", Hu originally emphasized eight guidelines that all Chinese writers should take to heart in writing:
In April of 1918
, Hu published a second article in New Youth, this one titled "Constructive Literary Revolution - A Literature of National Speech". In it, he simplified the original eight points into just four:
The following excerpt is from a poem titled Dream and Poetry, written in vernacular Chinese
by Hu. It illustrates how he applied those guidelines to his own work.
Diplomat
A diplomat is a person appointed by a state to conduct diplomacy with another state or international organization. The main functions of diplomats revolve around the representation and protection of the interests and nationals of the sending state, as well as the promotion of information and...
. His courtesy name was Shih-chih . Hu is widely recognized today as a key contributor to Chinese liberalism
Chinese liberalism
Liberalism in China or 'Chinese liberalism' resulted from the introduction of classical liberalism into China during the period of Western domination towards the end of the Qing Dynasty...
and language reform
Language reform
Language reform is a type of language planning by massive change to a language. The usual tools of language reform are simplification and purification. Simplification makes the language easier to use by regularizing vocabulary and grammar...
in his advocacy for the use of written vernacular Chinese. He was also an influential Redology
Redology
Redology is the study of the novel Dream of the Red Chamber, one of the Four Classics of China. There are many researchers in this field, most can be divided into four general groups. The first group is the commentators, such as Zhou Chun, Xu Fengyi, Chen Yupi, and others. The second group is...
scholar and held the famous Jiaxu manuscript for many years until his death.
Biography
Hu was born in ShanghaiShanghai
Shanghai is the largest city by population in China and the largest city proper in the world. It is one of the four province-level municipalities in the People's Republic of China, with a total population of over 23 million as of 2010...
to Hu Chuan and Feng Shundi . His ancestors were from Jixi, Anhui
Jixi County
Jixi County is a county in Anhui Province, People's Republic of China, under the jurisdiction of Xuancheng City. It has a population of 180,000 and an area of . Jixi borders Lingan in the east, Ningguo and Jingde in the south, and Taiping to the west...
. In January 1904, his family established an arranged marriage for Hu with Chiang Tung-hsiu , an illiterate girl with bound feet who was one year older than he was. The marriage took place in December 1917. Hu received his fundamental education in Jixi
Jixi
Jixi is a city in eastern Heilongjiang Province in the People's Republic of China. At the 2010 census, 1,862,161 people resided within its administrative area of 22,351 square kilometers and 757,647 in its built up area made of 4 out of 6 urban districts...
and Shanghai
Shanghai
Shanghai is the largest city by population in China and the largest city proper in the world. It is one of the four province-level municipalities in the People's Republic of China, with a total population of over 23 million as of 2010...
.
Hu became a "national scholar" through funds appropriated from the Boxer Indemnity Scholarship Program. On 16 August 1910, he was sent to study agriculture at Cornell University
Cornell University
Cornell University is an Ivy League university located in Ithaca, New York, United States. It is a private land-grant university, receiving annual funding from the State of New York for certain educational missions...
in the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
. In 1912 he changed his major to philosophy and literature. After receiving his undergraduate degree, he went to Columbia University
Columbia University
Columbia University in the City of New York is a private, Ivy League university in Manhattan, New York City. Columbia is the oldest institution of higher learning in the state of New York, the fifth oldest in the United States, and one of the country's nine Colonial Colleges founded before the...
to study philosophy. At Columbia he was greatly influenced by his professor, John Dewey
John Dewey
John Dewey was an American philosopher, psychologist and educational reformer whose ideas have been influential in education and social reform. Dewey was an important early developer of the philosophy of pragmatism and one of the founders of functional psychology...
, and Hu became Dewey's translator and a lifelong advocate of pragmatic evolutionary change
Pragmatism
Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition centered on the linking of practice and theory. It describes a process where theory is extracted from practice, and applied back to practice to form what is called intelligent practice...
, helping Dewey in his 1919-1921 lectures series in China. He returned to lecture in Peking University
Peking University
Peking University , colloquially known in Chinese as Beida , is a major research university located in Beijing, China, and a member of the C9 League. It is the first established modern national university of China. It was founded as Imperial University of Peking in 1898 as a replacement of the...
. During his tenure there, he received support from Chen Duxiu
Chen Duxiu
Chen Duxiu played many different roles in Chinese history. He was a leading figure in the anti-imperial Xinhai Revolution and the May Fourth Movement for Science and Democracy. Along with Li Dazhao, Chen was a co-founder of the Chinese Communist Party in 1921. He was its first General Secretary....
, editor of the influential journal New Youth
New Youth
La Jeunesse, or New Youth was an influential Chinese revolutionary magazine in the 1920s that played an important role during the May Fourth Movement....
, quickly gaining much attention and influence. Hu soon became one of the leading and influential intellectuals during the May Fourth Movement
May Fourth Movement
The May Fourth Movement was an anti-imperialist, cultural, and political movement growing out of student demonstrations in Beijing on May 4, 1919, protesting the Chinese government's weak response to the Treaty of Versailles, especially the Shandong Problem...
and later the New Culture Movement
New Culture Movement
The New Culture Movement of the mid 1910s and 1920s sprang from the disillusionment with traditional Chinese culture following the failure of the Chinese Republic, founded in 1912 to address China’s problems. Scholars like Chen Duxiu, Cai Yuanpei, Li Dazhao, Lu Xun, Zhou Zuoren, and Hu Shi, had...
.
He quit New Youth
New Youth
La Jeunesse, or New Youth was an influential Chinese revolutionary magazine in the 1920s that played an important role during the May Fourth Movement....
in the 1920s and published several political newspapers and journals with his friends. His most important contribution was the promotion of vernacular Chinese
Vernacular Chinese
Written Vernacular Chinese refers to forms of written Chinese based on the vernacular language, in contrast to Classical Chinese, the written standard used from the Spring and Autumn Period to the early twentieth century...
in literature to replace Classical Chinese
Classical Chinese
Classical Chinese or Literary Chinese is a traditional style of written Chinese based on the grammar and vocabulary of ancient Chinese, making it different from any modern spoken form of Chinese...
, which ideally made it easier for the ordinary person to read. The significance of this for Chinese culture was great—as John Fairbank put it, "the tyranny of the classics had been broken". Hu devoted a great deal of energy, however, to rooting his linguistic reforms in China's traditional culture rather than relying on imports from the west. As his biographer Jerome Grieder put it, Hu's approach to China's "distinctive civilization" was "thoroughly critical but by no means contemptuous." For instance, he made a major contribution to the textual study of the Chinese classical novel, especially the 18th century novel Dream of the Red Chamber
Dream of the Red Chamber
Dream of the Red Chamber , composed by Cao Xueqin, is one of China's Four Great Classical Novels. It was composed in the middle of the 18th century during the Qing Dynasty. It is considered to be a masterpiece of Chinese vernacular literature and is generally acknowledged to be a pinnacle of...
, as a way of establishing the vocabulary for modern "national language" (guoyu 國語).
Hu was the Republic of China
Republic of China
The Republic of China , commonly known as Taiwan , is a unitary sovereign state located in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China currently governs the island of Taiwan , which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other minor...
's ambassador to the United States of America between 1938 and 1942. He was recalled in September 1942 and was replaced by Wei Tao-ming, who had previously represented the ROC in Vichy
Vichy
Vichy is a commune in the department of Allier in Auvergne in central France. It belongs to the historic province of Bourbonnais.It is known as a spa and resort town and was the de facto capital of Vichy France during the World War II Nazi German occupation from 1940 to 1944.The town's inhabitants...
France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
. Hu then served as chancellor of Peking University
Peking University
Peking University , colloquially known in Chinese as Beida , is a major research university located in Beijing, China, and a member of the C9 League. It is the first established modern national university of China. It was founded as Imperial University of Peking in 1898 as a replacement of the...
between 1946 and 1948, and later (1957) president of the Academia Sinica
Academia Sinica
The Academia Sinica , headquartered in the Nangang District of Taipei, is the national academy of Taiwan. It supports research activities in a wide variety of disciplines, ranging from mathematical and physical sciences, to life sciences, and to humanities and social sciences.Academia Sinica has...
in Taipei
Taipei
Taipei City is the capital of the Republic of China and the central city of the largest metropolitan area of Taiwan. Situated at the northern tip of the island, Taipei is located on the Tamsui River, and is about 25 km southwest of Keelung, its port on the Pacific Ocean...
, where he remained until his death. He was also chief executive of the Free China Journal
Free China Journal
Free China Journal was a periodical that was published by the Republic of China government after its retreat to Taiwan following the Chinese Civil War....
, which was eventually shut down for criticizing Chiang Kai-shek
Chiang Kai-shek
Chiang Kai-shek was a political and military leader of 20th century China. He is known as Jiǎng Jièshí or Jiǎng Zhōngzhèng in Mandarin....
. He died of heart attack
Myocardial infarction
Myocardial infarction or acute myocardial infarction , commonly known as a heart attack, results from the interruption of blood supply to a part of the heart, causing heart cells to die...
in Nankang, Taipei at the age of 70, and is buried in a tomb in Hu Shih Park, by the Academia Sinica campus.
Hu Shih's work fell into disrepute in mainland China until a 1986 article, written by Ji Xianlin
Ji Xianlin
Ji Xianlin was a Chinese Indologist, linguist, paleographer, historian, and writer who had been honored by the governments of both India and China. He was born in Qingping County, now Linqing, and died in the No. 301 Hospital, Beijing.-Biography:Ji attended Sanhejie Primary School and the No. 1...
, "A Few Words for Hu Shi", advocated acknowledging not only Hu Shih's mistakes, but also his contributions to modern Chinese literature. His article was sufficiently convincing to many scholars that it caused a re-evaluation of the development of modern Chinese literature and the role of Hu Shih.
Pragmatism
During the Warlord eraWarlord era
The Chinese Warlord Era was the period in the history of the Republic of China, from 1916 to 1928, when the country was divided among military cliques, a division that continued until the fall of the Nationalist government in the mainland China regions of Sichuan, Shanxi, Qinghai, Ningxia,...
in the Republic of China, unlike other fellow intellectuals such as Liang Qichao
Liang Qichao
Liang Qichao |Styled]] Zhuoru, ; Pseudonym: Rengong) was a Chinese scholar, journalist, philosopher and reformist during the Qing Dynasty , who inspired Chinese scholars with his writings and reform movements...
and Chen Duxiu
Chen Duxiu
Chen Duxiu played many different roles in Chinese history. He was a leading figure in the anti-imperial Xinhai Revolution and the May Fourth Movement for Science and Democracy. Along with Li Dazhao, Chen was a co-founder of the Chinese Communist Party in 1921. He was its first General Secretary....
, Hu was a staunch supporter of pragmatism
Pragmatism
Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition centered on the linking of practice and theory. It describes a process where theory is extracted from practice, and applied back to practice to form what is called intelligent practice...
. Hu Shih himself translated it into Chinese as , literally meaning experimentalism
Experimentalism
Experimentalism may mean:*The philosophical belief that experiments yield truth; empiricism*The philosophical belief that truth is evaluated based upon its demonstrated usefulness; instrumentalism* Experimental literature*Experimental theatre...
, since he strived to study both academic and social problems in the scientific approach (in the general sense), and advocated cultural reform under the guidance of pragmatism.
The second translation as was crafted long after pragmatism became popular in China at that time due to Hu's endeavor. This secondary translation has become dominant today, but the intention of such terminology substitution was highly suspected to politically defame Hu for the term 實用 had been evolved into a derogatory sense.
Writings
Hu was well known as the primary advocate for the literary revolution of the era, a movement which aimed to replace scholarly classical Chinese in writing with the vernacular spoken language, and to cultivate and stimulate new forms of literature. In an article originally published in New Youth in January 19171917 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature .-Events:* July — Siegfried Sassoon issues his "Soldier's Declaration" and is sent by the military authorities to Craiglockhart War Hospital in Edinburgh, where on August 17 Wilfred Owen introduces himself...
titled "A Preliminary Discussion of Literature Reform", Hu originally emphasized eight guidelines that all Chinese writers should take to heart in writing:
- Write with substance. By this, Hu meant that literature should contain real feeling and human thought. This was intended to be a contrast to the recent poetry with rhymes and phrases that Hu saw as being empty.
- Do not imitate the ancients. Literature should not be written in the styles of long ago, but rather in the modern style of the present era.
- Respect grammar. Hu did not elaborate at length on this point, merely stating that some recent forms of poetry had neglected proper grammar.
- Reject melancholy. Recent young authors often chose grave pen names, and wrote on such topics as death. Hu rejected this way of thinking as being unproductive in solving modern problems.
- Eliminate old clichés. The Chinese language has always had numerous four-character sayings and phrases used to describe events. Hu implored writers to use their own words in descriptions, and deplored those who did not.
- Do not use allusions. By this, Hu was referring to the practice of comparing present events with historical events even when there is no meaningful analogy.
- Do not use couplets or parallelism. Though these forms had been pursued by earlier writers, Hu believed that modern writers first needed to learn the basics of substance and quality, before returning to these matters of subtlety and delicacy.
- Do not avoid popular expressions or popular forms of characters. This rule, perhaps the most well-known, ties in directly with Hu's belief that modern literature should be written in the vernacular, rather than in Classical Chinese. He believed that this practice had historical precedents, and led to greater understanding of important texts.
In April of 1918
1918 in poetry
Nationality words link to articles with information on the nation's poetry or literature .-Events:*Robert Graves marries Nancy Nicholson...
, Hu published a second article in New Youth, this one titled "Constructive Literary Revolution - A Literature of National Speech". In it, he simplified the original eight points into just four:
- Speak only when you have something to say. This is analogous to the first point above.
- Speak what you want to say and say it in the way you want to say it. This combines points two through six above.
- Speak what is your own and not that of someone else. This is a rewording of point seven.
- Speak in the language of the time in which you live. This refers again to the replacement of Classical Chinese with the vernacular language.
The following excerpt is from a poem titled Dream and Poetry, written in vernacular Chinese
Vernacular Chinese
Written Vernacular Chinese refers to forms of written Chinese based on the vernacular language, in contrast to Classical Chinese, the written standard used from the Spring and Autumn Period to the early twentieth century...
by Hu. It illustrates how he applied those guidelines to his own work.
Chinese Original |
English Translation |
都是平常情感。 都是平常言語。 偶然碰著個詩人。 變幻出多少新奇詩句！ |
It’s all ordinary feelings, All ordinary words. By chance they encounter a poet, Turning out infinite new verses. |
醉過才知酒濃。 愛過才知情重； 你不能做我的詩。 正如我不能做你的夢 |
Once intoxicated, one learns the strength of wine, Once smitten, one learns the power of love: You cannot write my poems Just as I cannot dream your dreams. |
Further reading
- Chinese Writers on Writing featuring Hu Shih. Ed. Arthur SzeArthur SzeArthur Sze is a second-generation Chinese American poet.-Background:Sze was educated at the University of California, Berkeley, and is the author of eight books of poetry...
. (Trinity University Press, 2010).
External links
- "The Chinese Renaissance": a series of lectures Hu Shih delivered at the University of Chicago in the summer of 1933. (see print Reference listed above)
- "Hu Shih Study" at newconcept.com