Hypermasculinity
Encyclopedia
Hypermasculinity is a psychological term for the exaggeration
of male
stereotypical
behavior
, such as an emphasis on physical strength
, aggression
, body hair
, body odor
, and virility
. This term can be pejorative
, though it is also used when examining the behavior (as adaptive or maladaptive) dispassionately.
One of the first studies of hypermasculinity was conducted by Donald L. Mosher and Mark Sirkin
in 1984. Mosher and Sirkin have operationally defined hypermasculinity or the "macho
personality" as consisting of the following three variables: a) "callous sexual attitudes toward women", b) "the belief that violence is manly", and c) "the experience of danger as exciting". They developed the Hypermasculinity Inventory (HMI) designed to measure the three components. Research has found that hypermasculinity is associated with sexual and physical aggression against women. Prisoners have higher hypermasculinity scores than control groups.
The phenomenon can result from personal, societal, and cultural influences. Although the behavior can stem from practice and belief systems, marginalized communities of men may also display attributes of hypermasculinity to rebuff stereotyped or generalized behavior. It is also possible for oppressed groups challenged by socially constructed views of their communities to assimilate hypermasculine images and attitudes. This is especially true when part of the oppressive conditions include societal attitudes, laws, and practices that prohibit or change the tradition and norms of the marginalized group. Hypermasculinty's diametrical opposite behavior is termed hypomasculinity
.
Hypermasculine can also refer to a style of erotic art
in which male character's muscles and penis/testicles are portrayed as being unrealistically huge and prominent. Gay artists who exploit hypermasculine types include Tom of Finland
and Bill Ward
.
Exaggeration
Exaggeration is a representation of something in an excessive manner. The exaggerator has been a familiar figure in Western culture since at least Aristotle's discussion of the alazon: 'the boaster is regarded as one who pretends to have distinguished qualities which he possesses either not at all...
of male
Male
Male refers to the biological sex of an organism, or part of an organism, which produces small mobile gametes, called spermatozoa. Each spermatozoon can fuse with a larger female gamete or ovum, in the process of fertilization...
stereotypical
Stereotype
A stereotype is a popular belief about specific social groups or types of individuals. The concepts of "stereotype" and "prejudice" are often confused with many other different meanings...
behavior
Behavior
Behavior or behaviour refers to the actions and mannerisms made by organisms, systems, or artificial entities in conjunction with its environment, which includes the other systems or organisms around as well as the physical environment...
, such as an emphasis on physical strength
Physical strength
Physical strength is the ability of a person or animal to exert force on physical objects using muscles. Increasing physical strength is the goal of strength training.-Overview:...
, aggression
Aggression
In psychology, as well as other social and behavioral sciences, aggression refers to behavior between members of the same species that is intended to cause humiliation, pain, or harm. Ferguson and Beaver defined aggressive behavior as "Behavior which is intended to increase the social dominance of...
, body hair
Androgenic hair
Androgenic hair, colloquially body hair, is the terminal hair that develops on the body during and after puberty. It is differentiated from the head hair and less visible vellus hair, which are much finer and lighter in color. The growth of androgenic hair is related to the level of androgens in...
, body odor
Body odor
Body odor or body odour, sometimes colloquially abbreviated as B.O., is the smell of bacteria growing on the body. The bacteria multiply rapidly in the presence of sweat, but sweat itself is almost completely odorless to humans....
, and virility
Virility
Virility refers to any of a wide range of masculine characteristics viewed positively. It is not applicable to women or to negative characteristics. The Oxford English Dictionary says virile is "marked by strength or force." Virility is commonly associated with vigour, health, sturdiness, and...
. This term can be pejorative
Pejorative
Pejoratives , including name slurs, are words or grammatical forms that connote negativity and express contempt or distaste. A term can be regarded as pejorative in some social groups but not in others, e.g., hacker is a term used for computer criminals as well as quick and clever computer experts...
, though it is also used when examining the behavior (as adaptive or maladaptive) dispassionately.
One of the first studies of hypermasculinity was conducted by Donald L. Mosher and Mark Sirkin
Mark Sirkin
Mark I. Sirkin is an American clinical psychologist. He was the Director of the Robert M. Beren Center of the Ferkauf Graduate School of Psychology at Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Yeshiva University...
in 1984. Mosher and Sirkin have operationally defined hypermasculinity or the "macho
Macho
Macho typically refers to machismo. Other uses include:*Macho , a short-lived disco group in the late 1970s*Pique macho, Bolivian dish*Macho Man , a 1978 disco song performed by the Village People...
personality" as consisting of the following three variables: a) "callous sexual attitudes toward women", b) "the belief that violence is manly", and c) "the experience of danger as exciting". They developed the Hypermasculinity Inventory (HMI) designed to measure the three components. Research has found that hypermasculinity is associated with sexual and physical aggression against women. Prisoners have higher hypermasculinity scores than control groups.
The phenomenon can result from personal, societal, and cultural influences. Although the behavior can stem from practice and belief systems, marginalized communities of men may also display attributes of hypermasculinity to rebuff stereotyped or generalized behavior. It is also possible for oppressed groups challenged by socially constructed views of their communities to assimilate hypermasculine images and attitudes. This is especially true when part of the oppressive conditions include societal attitudes, laws, and practices that prohibit or change the tradition and norms of the marginalized group. Hypermasculinty's diametrical opposite behavior is termed hypomasculinity
Hypomasculinity
Hypomasculinity is a psychological term for the absence of male stereotypical behaviour, for example, the absence of the de-emphasising of feelings, relationships, etc. A Jungian interpretation of this would be of an overwhelmingly strong anima or female complex...
.
Hypermasculine can also refer to a style of erotic art
Erotic art
Erotic art covers any artistic work that is intended to evoke erotic arousal or that depicts scenes of love-making. It includes paintings, engravings, drawings, sculptures, photographs, music and writing.-Definition:...
in which male character's muscles and penis/testicles are portrayed as being unrealistically huge and prominent. Gay artists who exploit hypermasculine types include Tom of Finland
Tom of Finland
Touko Laaksonen, best known by his pseudonym Tom of Finland was a Finnish artist notable for his stylized androerotic and fetish art and his influence on late twentieth century gay culture. He has been called the "most influential creator of gay pornographic images" by cultural historian Joseph W...
and Bill Ward
Bill Ward (artist)
Bill Ward was a graphic artist known for producing educational materials for children and erotic images for homosexual publications.-History:...
.
See also
- Gender roleGender roleGender roles refer to the set of social and behavioral norms that are considered to be socially appropriate for individuals of a specific sex in the context of a specific culture, which differ widely between cultures and over time...
- HypomasculinityHypomasculinityHypomasculinity is a psychological term for the absence of male stereotypical behaviour, for example, the absence of the de-emphasising of feelings, relationships, etc. A Jungian interpretation of this would be of an overwhelmingly strong anima or female complex...
- MasculinityMasculinityMasculinity is possessing qualities or characteristics considered typical of or appropriate to a man. The term can be used to describe any human, animal or object that has the quality of being masculine...
- Hegemonic masculinityHegemonic masculinityIn gender studies, hegemonic masculinity refers to the belief in the existence of a culturally normative ideal of male behavior. Hegemonic masculinity posits that society strongly encourages men to embody this kind of masculinity. Hegemonic masculinity is said to be marked by a tendency for the...
- MachismoMachismoMachismo, or machoism, is a word of Spanish and Portuguese origin that describes prominently exhibited or excessive masculinity. As an attitude, machismo ranges from a personal sense of virility to a more extreme male chauvinism...
- VirilityVirilityVirility refers to any of a wide range of masculine characteristics viewed positively. It is not applicable to women or to negative characteristics. The Oxford English Dictionary says virile is "marked by strength or force." Virility is commonly associated with vigour, health, sturdiness, and...
External links
- Hip Hop: Beyond Beats & Rhymes, a documentaryDocumentaryA documentary is a creative work of non-fiction, including:* Documentary film, including television* Radio documentary* Documentary photographyRelated terms include:...
by Byron HurtByron HurtByron Patrick Hurt is an American activist and documentary filmmaker.-Biography:Byron Hurt attended Northeastern University, where he played football as a quarterback, and founded God Bless the Child Productions before graduating with a degree in Journalism in 1993...
which examines hypermasculine portrayals in hip hop