Masculinity
Encyclopedia
Masculinity is possessing qualities or characteristics considered typical of or appropriate to a man. The term can be used to describe any human, animal or object that has the quality of being masculine. When masculine is used to describe men, it can have degrees of comparison—more masculine, most masculine.
The opposite can be expressed by terms such as unmanly or epicene
.
A typical near-synonym
of masculinity is virility
(from Latin vir, man);
and the usual complement
is femininity
.
wrote that "a man's chief quality is courage
."
Ancient literature
goes back to about 3000 BC. It includes both explicit statements of what was expected of men in law
s, and implicit suggestions about masculinity in myths involving god
s and hero
es. In 1000 BCE, The Hebrew Bible
states King David of Israel told his son "Be strong, and be a man" upon David's death. Men throughout history have gone to meet exacting cultural standards of what is considered attractive. Kate Cooper, writing about ancient understandings of femininity, suggests that, "Wherever a woman is mentioned a man's character is being judged – and along with it what he stands for." One well-known representative of this literature is the Code of Hammurabi
(from about 1750 BC).
Scholars suggest integrity
and equality
as masculine values in male-male relationships, and virility in male-female relationships. Legend
s of ancient heroes include: The Epic of Gilgamesh
, the Iliad
and the Odyssey
. Such narratives are considered to reveal qualities in the hero that inspired respect
, like wisdom
or courage
, the knowing of things that other men do not know and the taking of risk
s that other men would not dare.
describes a European, "medieval masculinity which was essentially Christian and chivalric." Again ethics, courage and generosity are seen as characteristic of the portrayal of men (=niela) in literary history. In Anglo Saxon, Beowulf
and, in several languages, the legends of King Arthur
are famous examples of medieval ideals of masculinity. The documented ideals include many examples of an "exaulted" place for women, in romance and courtly love
.
Some researchers argue that a number of women may be aroused by broad chins and shoulder
s and high cheekbones, though there are cultural differences in those preferences, and arousal may be a mere indication of socialized notions of attractiveness. Other research suggests that women recognize a sculpted physique as indicative of "masculine" discipline and self-control.
Some gender studies
scholars will use the phrase "hegemonic masculinity
" to refer to an ideal of male behavior which men are strongly encouraged to aim, which is calculated to guarantee the dominant position of some men over others.
(APA), in contemporary America: "Instead of seeing a decrease in objectification
of women in society, there has just been an increase in the objectification of both sexes. And you can see that in the media today." Men and women restrict their food intake in an effort to achieve what they consider an attractively thin body, in extreme cases leading to eating disorder
s.
Thomas Holbrook
, also a psychiatrist, cites a recent Canadian study indicating as many as one in six of those with eating disorders were men.
"Younger men and women who read fitness and fashion magazines could be psychologically harmed by the images of perfect female and male physiques," according to recent research in the United Kingdom. Some young women and men exercise excessively in an effort to achieve what they consider an attractively fit and muscular body, which in extreme cases can lead to body dysmorphic disorder
or muscle dysmorphia
.
Although the actual stereotypes may have remained relatively constant, the value attached to the masculine and feminine stereotypes seem to have changed over the past few decades.
Those associated with recent work in the study of masculinity from a philosophical perspective view masculinity as an unstable phenomenon and never ultimately achieved.
A great deal is now known about the development of masculine characteristics and the process of sexual differentiation
specific to the reproductive system of Homo sapiens. The SRY gene on the Y chromosome
interferes with the process of creating a female, causing a chain of events that leads to testes formation, androgen
production, and a range of both natal and post-natal hormonal effects. There is an extensive debate about how children develop gender identities
.
In many cultures, displaying characteristics not typical to one's gender may become a social problem for the individual. Within sociology
such labeling and conditioning is known as gender assumptions
, and is a part of socialization
to better match a culture's mores
. Among men, some non-standard behaviors may be considered a sign of homosexuality
, which frequently runs contrary to cultural notions of masculinity. When sexuality is defined in terms of object choice, as in early sexology
studies, male homosexuality is interpreted as "feminine
" sexuality. The corresponding social condemnation of excessive masculinity may be expressed in terms such as machismo
or testosterone poisoning
.
The relative importance of the roles of socialization and genetics in the development of masculinity continues to be debated. While social conditioning
obviously plays a role, some hold that certain aspects of the feminine and masculine identity exist in almost all human cultures, though this has not been thoroughly substantiated.
The historical development of gender role is addressed by such fields as behavioral genetics, evolutionary psychology
, human ecology
, anthropology
and sociology
. All human culture
s seem to encourage the development of gender roles, through literature
, costume
and song
. Some examples of this might include the epics of Homer
, the King Arthur
tales in English, the normative
commentaries of Confucius
. More specialized treatments of masculinity may be found in works such as the Bhagavad Gita
or bushidō
's Hagakure
.
Another term for a masculine woman is butch
, which is associated with lesbian
ism. Butch is also used within the lesbian community, without a negative connotation, but with a more specific meaning (Davis and Lapovsky Kennedy, 1989).
The images of boys and young men presented in the media may lead to the persistence of harmful concepts of masculinity. Men's rights activists argue that the media does not pay serious attention to men's rights issues and that men are often portrayed in a negative light, particularly in advertising.
Because of social norms and pressures associated with masculinity, Men with spinal cord injuries have to adapt their self identity to the losses associated with SCI which may “lead to feelings of decreased physical and sexual prowess with lowered self-esteem and a loss of male identity. Feelings of guilt and overall loss of control are also experienced.”
Masculinity is something that some fear is becoming increasingly challenged, especially in the last century, with the emergence of Women's rights
and the development of the role of women in society. In recent years many 'Man Laws' and similar masculinist manifestos have been published, as a way for men to re-affirm their masculinity. A popular example is the Miller Lite Man Laws
, and other various sites on the internet offering rules such as: "15. A real man does not need instruction manuals." Although many of these rules are offered in a humorous fashion, they attempt to define masculinity, and indicate that proper gender is taught and performed rather than intuited.
(BAC), a male's risk of dying is higher than a female's risk at the Same BAC level. That is, young women drivers need to be more drunk to have the same risk of dying in a fatal accident as young men drivers. Men are in fact three times more likely to die in all kinds of accidents than women. In the United States, men make up 92% of workplace deaths, indicating either a greater willingness to perform dangerous work, a societal expectation to perform this work, or that women are not hired for this work.
. Men between the ages of 25 and 65 are four times more likely to die from cardiovascular disease
than women. Men are more likely to be diagnosed in a later stage of a terminal illness
because of their reluctance to go to the doctor.
Reasons men give for not having annual physicals and not visiting their physician include fear
, denial
, embarrassment
, a dislike of situations out of their control, or not worth the time or cost.
regularly. In men's magazines, several "ideal" images of men are promoted, and that these images may even entail certain health risks.
(Postman, Nystrom, Strate, And Weingartner 1987; Strate 1989, 1990) and by Wenner (1991) show some results relevant to studies of masculinity. In beer commercials, the ideas of masculinity (especially risk-taking) are presented and encouraged. The commercials often focus on situations where a man is overcoming an obstacle in a group. The men will either be working hard or playing hard. For instance the commercial will show men who do physical labor such as construction workers, or farm work, or men who are cowboy
s. Beer commercials that involve playing hard have a central theme of mastery (over nature or over each other), risk, and adventure. For instance, the men will be outdoors fishing
, camping
, playing sports, or hanging out in bars
. There is usually an element of danger
as well as a focus on movement and speed. This appeals to and emphasizes the idea that real men overcome danger and enjoy speed (i.e. fast cars/driving fast). The bar serves as a setting for the measurement of masculinity (skills like pool
, strength
and drinking ability) and serves as a center for male socializing.
as the bread-winner and the mother
as the homemaker
. During World War II
, women entered the workforce in droves to replace the soldiers who were sent overseas. While some returned home to resume their positions as homemakers if their husbands survived the war, and others remained in the workplace. Over the decades since, women have risen to high political and corporate positions. This shift has caused an increase in women becoming the primary income-earners and men the primary care-givers --a process author Jeremy Adam Smith
calls "the daddy shift" in his 2009 book of that title. As of 2007, 159,000 dads were primary care-givers and this number is increasing. Dubbed stay-at-home dads, these men are performing duties in the home which are not being done by women. Regardless of age or nationality, men more frequently rank good health
, harmonious family life and good relationships with their spouse or partner as important to their quality of life.
Other
The opposite can be expressed by terms such as unmanly or epicene
Epicene
Epicene is an adjective for loss of gender distinction, often specific loss of masculinity. It includes:* effeminacy — a man with characteristics that are traditionally feminine...
.
A typical near-synonym
Synonym
Synonyms are different words with almost identical or similar meanings. Words that are synonyms are said to be synonymous, and the state of being a synonym is called synonymy. The word comes from Ancient Greek syn and onoma . The words car and automobile are synonyms...
of masculinity is virility
Virility
Virility refers to any of a wide range of masculine characteristics viewed positively. It is not applicable to women or to negative characteristics. The Oxford English Dictionary says virile is "marked by strength or force." Virility is commonly associated with vigour, health, sturdiness, and...
(from Latin vir, man);
and the usual complement
Complement (linguistics)
In grammar the term complement is used with different meanings. The primary meaning is a word, phrase or clause that is necessary in a sentence to complete its meaning. We find complements that function as an argument and complements that exist within arguments.Both complements and modifiers add...
is femininity
Femininity
Femininity is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with girls and women. Though socially constructed, femininity is made up of both socially defined and biologically created factors...
.
Ancient
CiceroCicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero , was a Roman philosopher, statesman, lawyer, political theorist, and Roman constitutionalist. He came from a wealthy municipal family of the equestrian order, and is widely considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists.He introduced the Romans to the chief...
wrote that "a man's chief quality is courage
Courage
Courage is the ability to confront fear, pain, danger, uncertainty, or intimidation...
."
Ancient literature
Literature
Literature is the art of written works, and is not bound to published sources...
goes back to about 3000 BC. It includes both explicit statements of what was expected of men in law
Law
Law is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through social institutions to govern behavior, wherever possible. It shapes politics, economics and society in numerous ways and serves as a social mediator of relations between people. Contract law regulates everything from buying a bus...
s, and implicit suggestions about masculinity in myths involving god
God
God is the English name given to a singular being in theistic and deistic religions who is either the sole deity in monotheism, or a single deity in polytheism....
s and hero
Hero
A hero , in Greek mythology and folklore, was originally a demigod, their cult being one of the most distinctive features of ancient Greek religion...
es. In 1000 BCE, The Hebrew Bible
Hebrew Bible
The Hebrew Bible is a term used by biblical scholars outside of Judaism to refer to the Tanakh , a canonical collection of Jewish texts, and the common textual antecedent of the several canonical editions of the Christian Old Testament...
states King David of Israel told his son "Be strong, and be a man" upon David's death. Men throughout history have gone to meet exacting cultural standards of what is considered attractive. Kate Cooper, writing about ancient understandings of femininity, suggests that, "Wherever a woman is mentioned a man's character is being judged – and along with it what he stands for." One well-known representative of this literature is the Code of Hammurabi
Code of Hammurabi
The Code of Hammurabi is a well-preserved Babylonian law code, dating to ca. 1780 BC . It is one of the oldest deciphered writings of significant length in the world. The sixth Babylonian king, Hammurabi, enacted the code, and partial copies exist on a human-sized stone stele and various clay...
(from about 1750 BC).
- Rule 3: "If any one bring an accusation of any crime before the elders, and does not prove what he has charged, he shall, if it be a capital offense charged, be put to death."
- Rule 128: "If a man takes a woman to wife, but has no intercourse with her, this woman is no wife to him."
Scholars suggest integrity
Integrity
Integrity is a concept of consistency of actions, values, methods, measures, principles, expectations, and outcomes. In ethics, integrity is regarded as the honesty and truthfulness or accuracy of one's actions...
and equality
Social equality
Social equality is a social state of affairs in which all people within a specific society or isolated group have the same status in a certain respect. At the very least, social equality includes equal rights under the law, such as security, voting rights, freedom of speech and assembly, and the...
as masculine values in male-male relationships, and virility in male-female relationships. Legend
Legend
A legend is a narrative of human actions that are perceived both by teller and listeners to take place within human history and to possess certain qualities that give the tale verisimilitude...
s of ancient heroes include: The Epic of Gilgamesh
Epic of Gilgamesh
Epic of Gilgamesh is an epic poem from Mesopotamia and is among the earliest known works of literature. Scholars believe that it originated as a series of Sumerian legends and poems about the protagonist of the story, Gilgamesh king of Uruk, which were fashioned into a longer Akkadian epic much...
, the Iliad
Iliad
The Iliad is an epic poem in dactylic hexameters, traditionally attributed to Homer. Set during the Trojan War, the ten-year siege of the city of Troy by a coalition of Greek states, it tells of the battles and events during the weeks of a quarrel between King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilles...
and the Odyssey
Odyssey
The Odyssey is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is, in part, a sequel to the Iliad, the other work ascribed to Homer. The poem is fundamental to the modern Western canon, and is the second—the Iliad being the first—extant work of Western literature...
. Such narratives are considered to reveal qualities in the hero that inspired respect
Respect
Respect denotes both a positive feeling of esteem for a person or other entity , and also specific actions and conduct representative of that esteem. Respect can be a specific feeling of regard for the actual qualities of the one respected...
, like wisdom
Wisdom
Wisdom is a deep understanding and realization of people, things, events or situations, resulting in the ability to apply perceptions, judgements and actions in keeping with this understanding. It often requires control of one's emotional reactions so that universal principles, reason and...
or courage
Courage
Courage is the ability to confront fear, pain, danger, uncertainty, or intimidation...
, the knowing of things that other men do not know and the taking of risk
Risk
Risk is the potential that a chosen action or activity will lead to a loss . The notion implies that a choice having an influence on the outcome exists . Potential losses themselves may also be called "risks"...
s that other men would not dare.
Medieval
Jeffrey RichardsJeffrey Richards
Jeffrey Richards is a British historian.Educated at Jesus College, Cambridge, he is Professor of Cultural History at Lancaster University. A leading cultural historian and film critic, he is the author of over 15 books on British cultural history...
describes a European, "medieval masculinity which was essentially Christian and chivalric." Again ethics, courage and generosity are seen as characteristic of the portrayal of men (=niela) in literary history. In Anglo Saxon, Beowulf
Beowulf
Beowulf , but modern scholars agree in naming it after the hero whose life is its subject." of an Old English heroic epic poem consisting of 3182 alliterative long lines, set in Scandinavia, commonly cited as one of the most important works of Anglo-Saxon literature.It survives in a single...
and, in several languages, the legends of King Arthur
King Arthur
King Arthur is a legendary British leader of the late 5th and early 6th centuries, who, according to Medieval histories and romances, led the defence of Britain against Saxon invaders in the early 6th century. The details of Arthur's story are mainly composed of folklore and literary invention, and...
are famous examples of medieval ideals of masculinity. The documented ideals include many examples of an "exaulted" place for women, in romance and courtly love
Courtly love
Courtly love was a medieval European conception of nobly and chivalrously expressing love and admiration. Generally, courtly love was secret and between members of the nobility. It was also generally not practiced between husband and wife....
.
Masculine physical attributes
Shoulder
The human shoulder is made up of three bones: the clavicle , the scapula , and the humerus as well as associated muscles, ligaments and tendons. The articulations between the bones of the shoulder make up the shoulder joints. The major joint of the shoulder is the glenohumeral joint, which...
s and high cheekbones, though there are cultural differences in those preferences, and arousal may be a mere indication of socialized notions of attractiveness. Other research suggests that women recognize a sculpted physique as indicative of "masculine" discipline and self-control.
Biology and culture
Gender studies
Gender studies is a field of interdisciplinary study which analyses race, ethnicity, sexuality and location.Gender study has many different forms. One view exposed by the philosopher Simone de Beauvoir said: "One is not born a woman, one becomes one"...
scholars will use the phrase "hegemonic masculinity
Hegemonic masculinity
In gender studies, hegemonic masculinity refers to the belief in the existence of a culturally normative ideal of male behavior. Hegemonic masculinity posits that society strongly encourages men to embody this kind of masculinity. Hegemonic masculinity is said to be marked by a tendency for the...
" to refer to an ideal of male behavior which men are strongly encouraged to aim, which is calculated to guarantee the dominant position of some men over others.
Western trends
According to a paper submitted by Tracy Tylka to the American Psychological AssociationAmerican Psychological Association
The American Psychological Association is the largest scientific and professional organization of psychologists in the United States. It is the world's largest association of psychologists with around 154,000 members including scientists, educators, clinicians, consultants and students. The APA...
(APA), in contemporary America: "Instead of seeing a decrease in objectification
Objectification
Objectification is the process by which an abstract concept is made as objective as possible in the purest sense of the term. It is also treated as if it is a concrete thing or physical object...
of women in society, there has just been an increase in the objectification of both sexes. And you can see that in the media today." Men and women restrict their food intake in an effort to achieve what they consider an attractively thin body, in extreme cases leading to eating disorder
Eating disorder
Eating disorders refer to a group of conditions defined by abnormal eating habits that may involve either insufficient or excessive food intake to the detriment of an individual's physical and mental health. Bulimia nervosa, anorexia nervosa, and binge eating disorder are the most common specific...
s.
Thomas Holbrook
Thomas Holbrook
Thomas Holbrook is a Democratic member of the Illinois House of Representatives, representing the 113th District from 1995 until his resignation in October 2011.-External links:* official IL House website** * profile...
, also a psychiatrist, cites a recent Canadian study indicating as many as one in six of those with eating disorders were men.
"Younger men and women who read fitness and fashion magazines could be psychologically harmed by the images of perfect female and male physiques," according to recent research in the United Kingdom. Some young women and men exercise excessively in an effort to achieve what they consider an attractively fit and muscular body, which in extreme cases can lead to body dysmorphic disorder
Body dysmorphic disorder
Body Dysmorphic Disorder is a type of mental illness, a somatoform disorder, wherein the affected person is exclusively concerned with body image, manifested as excessive concern about and preoccupation with a perceived defect of his or her physical features...
or muscle dysmorphia
Muscle dysmorphia
Muscle dysmorphia or bigorexia is a disorder in which a person becomes obsessed with the idea that he or she is not muscular enough. Those who suffer from muscle dysmorphia tend to hold delusions that they are "skinny" or "too small" but are often above average in musculature...
.
Although the actual stereotypes may have remained relatively constant, the value attached to the masculine and feminine stereotypes seem to have changed over the past few decades.
Those associated with recent work in the study of masculinity from a philosophical perspective view masculinity as an unstable phenomenon and never ultimately achieved.
Masculinity in decline
There has been a recent uptick of books, articles and research studies documenting an endocrinological (or hormone) decline in the general male population. Recent analysis shows average testosterone levels receding in men of all ages. In addition, average sperm quality, quantity and even testicle size has seen a marked reduction. Although many theories are presented to why this is happening, from endocrine dysruptors, to the feminist movement, to evolutionary biology, researchers ultimately concede the reason is still unknown.Development
Sexual differentiation
Sexual differentiation is the process of development of the differences between males and females from an undifferentiated zygote...
specific to the reproductive system of Homo sapiens. The SRY gene on the Y chromosome
Y chromosome
The Y chromosome is one of the two sex-determining chromosomes in most mammals, including humans. In mammals, it contains the gene SRY, which triggers testis development if present. The human Y chromosome is composed of about 60 million base pairs...
interferes with the process of creating a female, causing a chain of events that leads to testes formation, androgen
Androgen
Androgen, also called androgenic hormone or testoid, is the generic term for any natural or synthetic compound, usually a steroid hormone, that stimulates or controls the development and maintenance of male characteristics in vertebrates by binding to androgen receptors...
production, and a range of both natal and post-natal hormonal effects. There is an extensive debate about how children develop gender identities
Gender identity
A gender identity is the way in which an individual self-identifies with a gender category, for example, as being either a man or a woman, or in some cases being neither, which can be distinct from biological sex. Basic gender identity is usually formed by age three and is extremely difficult to...
.
In many cultures, displaying characteristics not typical to one's gender may become a social problem for the individual. Within sociology
Sociology
Sociology is the study of society. It is a social science—a term with which it is sometimes synonymous—which uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social activity...
such labeling and conditioning is known as gender assumptions
Gender role
Gender roles refer to the set of social and behavioral norms that are considered to be socially appropriate for individuals of a specific sex in the context of a specific culture, which differ widely between cultures and over time...
, and is a part of socialization
Socialization
Socialization is a term used by sociologists, social psychologists, anthropologists, political scientists and educationalists to refer to the process of inheriting and disseminating norms, customs and ideologies...
to better match a culture's mores
Mores
Mores, in sociology, are any given society's particular norms, virtues, or values. The word mores is a plurale tantum term borrowed from Latin, which has been used in the English language since the 1890s....
. Among men, some non-standard behaviors may be considered a sign of homosexuality
Homosexuality
Homosexuality is romantic or sexual attraction or behavior between members of the same sex or gender. As a sexual orientation, homosexuality refers to "an enduring pattern of or disposition to experience sexual, affectional, or romantic attractions" primarily or exclusively to people of the same...
, which frequently runs contrary to cultural notions of masculinity. When sexuality is defined in terms of object choice, as in early sexology
Sexology
Sexology is the scientific study of human sexuality, including human sexual interests, behavior, and function. The term does not generally refer to the non-scientific study of sex, such as political analysis or social criticism....
studies, male homosexuality is interpreted as "feminine
Feminine
Feminine, or femininity, normally refers to qualities positively associated with women.Feminine may also refer to:*Feminine , a grammatical gender*Feminine cadence, a final chord falling in a metrically weak position...
" sexuality. The corresponding social condemnation of excessive masculinity may be expressed in terms such as machismo
Machismo
Machismo, or machoism, is a word of Spanish and Portuguese origin that describes prominently exhibited or excessive masculinity. As an attitude, machismo ranges from a personal sense of virility to a more extreme male chauvinism...
or testosterone poisoning
Testosterone poisoning
Testosterone poisoning is a pejorative neologism that refers not to actual poisoning, but to a negative perception of stereotypical aspects of male behavior. This speculative and controversial expression is based on a belief that men and boys with more masculine traits have more negative traits...
.
The relative importance of the roles of socialization and genetics in the development of masculinity continues to be debated. While social conditioning
Social conditioning
Social conditioning refers to the sociological process of training individuals in a society to act or respond in a manner generally approved by the society in general and peer groups within society. The concept is stronger than that of socialization, which refers to the process of inheriting norms,...
obviously plays a role, some hold that certain aspects of the feminine and masculine identity exist in almost all human cultures, though this has not been thoroughly substantiated.
The historical development of gender role is addressed by such fields as behavioral genetics, evolutionary psychology
Evolutionary psychology
Evolutionary psychology is an approach in the social and natural sciences that examines psychological traits such as memory, perception, and language from a modern evolutionary perspective. It seeks to identify which human psychological traits are evolved adaptations, that is, the functional...
, human ecology
Human ecology
Human ecology is the subdiscipline of ecology that focuses on humans. More broadly, it is an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary study of the relationship between humans and their natural, social, and built environments. The term 'human ecology' first appeared in a sociological study in 1921...
, anthropology
Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of humanity. It has origins in the humanities, the natural sciences, and the social sciences. The term "anthropology" is from the Greek anthrōpos , "man", understood to mean mankind or humanity, and -logia , "discourse" or "study", and was first used in 1501 by German...
and sociology
Sociology
Sociology is the study of society. It is a social science—a term with which it is sometimes synonymous—which uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social activity...
. All human culture
Culture
Culture is a term that has many different inter-related meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions...
s seem to encourage the development of gender roles, through literature
Literature
Literature is the art of written works, and is not bound to published sources...
, costume
Costume
The term costume can refer to wardrobe and dress in general, or to the distinctive style of dress of a particular people, class, or period. Costume may also refer to the artistic arrangement of accessories in a picture, statue, poem, or play, appropriate to the time, place, or other circumstances...
and song
Song
In music, a song is a composition for voice or voices, performed by singing.A song may be accompanied by musical instruments, or it may be unaccompanied, as in the case of a cappella songs...
. Some examples of this might include the epics of Homer
Homer
In the Western classical tradition Homer , is the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, and is revered as the greatest ancient Greek epic poet. These epics lie at the beginning of the Western canon of literature, and have had an enormous influence on the history of literature.When he lived is...
, the King Arthur
King Arthur
King Arthur is a legendary British leader of the late 5th and early 6th centuries, who, according to Medieval histories and romances, led the defence of Britain against Saxon invaders in the early 6th century. The details of Arthur's story are mainly composed of folklore and literary invention, and...
tales in English, the normative
Norm (philosophy)
Norms are concepts of practical import, oriented to effecting an action, rather than conceptual abstractions that describe, explain, and express. Normative sentences imply “ought-to” types of statements and assertions, in distinction to sentences that provide “is” types of statements and assertions...
commentaries of Confucius
Confucius
Confucius , literally "Master Kong", was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher of the Spring and Autumn Period....
. More specialized treatments of masculinity may be found in works such as the Bhagavad Gita
Bhagavad Gita
The ' , also more simply known as Gita, is a 700-verse Hindu scripture that is part of the ancient Sanskrit epic, the Mahabharata, but is frequently treated as a freestanding text, and in particular, as an Upanishad in its own right, one of the several books that constitute general Vedic tradition...
or bushidō
Bushido
, meaning "Way of the Warrior-Knight", is a Japanese word which is used to describe a uniquely Japanese code of conduct and a way of the samurai life, loosely analogous to the concept of chivalry. It originates from the samurai moral code and stresses frugality, loyalty, martial arts mastery, and...
's Hagakure
Hagakure
Hagakure , or is a practical and spiritual guide for a warrior, drawn from a collection of commentaries by the samurai Yamamoto Tsunetomo, former retainer to Nabeshima Mitsushige, the third ruler of what is now the Saga prefecture in Japan...
.
Another term for a masculine woman is butch
Butch and femme
Butch and femme are LGBT terms describing respectively, masculine and feminine traits, behavior, style, expression, self-perception and so on. They are often used in the lesbian, bisexual and gay subcultures...
, which is associated with lesbian
Lesbian
Lesbian is a term most widely used in the English language to describe sexual and romantic desire between females. The word may be used as a noun, to refer to women who identify themselves or who are characterized by others as having the primary attribute of female homosexuality, or as an...
ism. Butch is also used within the lesbian community, without a negative connotation, but with a more specific meaning (Davis and Lapovsky Kennedy, 1989).
Downside and failure of concept
It is a subject of debate whether masculinity concepts followed historically should still be applied. Researchers such as Care International have argued that there is a harmful downside due to considerations such as the following:- The relationship between masculinity and gender-based violence
- The disempowerment and impoverishment of women and the persistence of gender inequalities through men’s violence
- The loss of men's dignity and self-esteemSelf-esteemSelf-esteem is a term in psychology to reflect a person's overall evaluation or appraisal of his or her own worth. Self-esteem encompasses beliefs and emotions such as triumph, despair, pride and shame: some would distinguish how 'the self-concept is what we think about the self; self-esteem, the...
when they are taught to behave violently
The images of boys and young men presented in the media may lead to the persistence of harmful concepts of masculinity. Men's rights activists argue that the media does not pay serious attention to men's rights issues and that men are often portrayed in a negative light, particularly in advertising.
Pressures associated
In 1987, Eisler and Skidmore did studies on masculinity and created the idea of 'masculine stress'. They found four mechanisms of masculinity that accompany masculine gender role often result in emotional stress. They include:- The emphasis on prevailing in situations requiring body and fitness
- Being perceived as emotional
- The need to feel adequate in regard to sexual matters and financial status
Because of social norms and pressures associated with masculinity, Men with spinal cord injuries have to adapt their self identity to the losses associated with SCI which may “lead to feelings of decreased physical and sexual prowess with lowered self-esteem and a loss of male identity. Feelings of guilt and overall loss of control are also experienced.”
Masculinity is something that some fear is becoming increasingly challenged, especially in the last century, with the emergence of Women's rights
Women's rights
Women's rights are entitlements and freedoms claimed for women and girls of all ages in many societies.In some places these rights are institutionalized or supported by law, local custom, and behaviour, whereas in others they may be ignored or suppressed...
and the development of the role of women in society. In recent years many 'Man Laws' and similar masculinist manifestos have been published, as a way for men to re-affirm their masculinity. A popular example is the Miller Lite Man Laws
Man Laws
Man Laws are a series of beer commercials for Miller Lite, inspired by the supposed unwritten codes by which men live. In the commercials, the panel discusses a given issue until it decides upon a "Man Law". The "Men of the Square Table" are a parody of King Arthur's Knights of the Round Table...
, and other various sites on the internet offering rules such as: "15. A real man does not need instruction manuals." Although many of these rules are offered in a humorous fashion, they attempt to define masculinity, and indicate that proper gender is taught and performed rather than intuited.
Risk-taking
The driver crash rate per vehicle miles driven is higher for women than for men; although, men are much more likely to cause deaths in the accidents they are involved in. Men drive significantly more miles than women, so, on average, they are more likely to be involved in motor vehicle accidents. Even in the narrow category of young (16-20) driver fatalities with a high blood alcohol contentBlood alcohol content
Blood alcohol content , also called blood alcohol concentration, blood ethanol concentration, or blood alcohol level is most commonly used as a metric of alcohol intoxication for legal or medical purposes....
(BAC), a male's risk of dying is higher than a female's risk at the Same BAC level. That is, young women drivers need to be more drunk to have the same risk of dying in a fatal accident as young men drivers. Men are in fact three times more likely to die in all kinds of accidents than women. In the United States, men make up 92% of workplace deaths, indicating either a greater willingness to perform dangerous work, a societal expectation to perform this work, or that women are not hired for this work.
Health care
A growing body of evidence is pointing toward the deleterious impact of masculinity (and hegemonic masculinity in particular) on men's health help-seeking behaviour. American men make 134.5 million fewer physician visits than American women each year. In fact, men make only 40.8% of all physician visits, that is, if women's visits for pregnancy are included, childbirth and associated obstetrical and gynecological visits. A quarter of the men who are 45 to 60 do not have a personal physician. Many men should go to annual heart checkups with physicians but do not, increasing their risk of death from heart diseaseHeart disease
Heart disease, cardiac disease or cardiopathy is an umbrella term for a variety of diseases affecting the heart. , it is the leading cause of death in the United States, England, Canada and Wales, accounting for 25.4% of the total deaths in the United States.-Types:-Coronary heart disease:Coronary...
. Men between the ages of 25 and 65 are four times more likely to die from cardiovascular disease
Cardiovascular disease
Heart disease or cardiovascular disease are the class of diseases that involve the heart or blood vessels . While the term technically refers to any disease that affects the cardiovascular system , it is usually used to refer to those related to atherosclerosis...
than women. Men are more likely to be diagnosed in a later stage of a terminal illness
Terminal illness
Terminal illness is a medical term popularized in the 20th century to describe a disease that cannot be cured or adequately treated and that is reasonably expected to result in the death of the patient within a short period of time. This term is more commonly used for progressive diseases such as...
because of their reluctance to go to the doctor.
Reasons men give for not having annual physicals and not visiting their physician include fear
Fear
Fear is a distressing negative sensation induced by a perceived threat. It is a basic survival mechanism occurring in response to a specific stimulus, such as pain or the threat of danger...
, denial
Denial
Denial is a defense mechanism postulated by Sigmund Freud, in which a person is faced with a fact that is too uncomfortable to accept and rejects it instead, insisting that it is not true despite what may be overwhelming evidence.The subject may use:* simple denial: deny the reality of the...
, embarrassment
Embarrassment
Embarrassment is an emotional state of intense discomfort with oneself, experienced upon having a socially unacceptable act or condition witnessed by or revealed to others. Usually some amount of loss of honour or dignity is involved, but how much and the type depends on the embarrassing situation...
, a dislike of situations out of their control, or not worth the time or cost.
Media encouragement
According to Arran Stibbe (2004), men's health problems and behaviors can be linked to the socialized gender role of men in our culture. In exploring magazines, he found that they promote traditional masculinity and claims that, among other things, men's magazines tend to celebrate "male" activities and behavior such as admiring guns, fast cars, sexually libertine women, and reading or viewing pornographyPornography
Pornography or porn is the explicit portrayal of sexual subject matter for the purposes of sexual arousal and erotic satisfaction.Pornography may use any of a variety of media, ranging from books, magazines, postcards, photos, sculpture, drawing, painting, animation, sound recording, film, video,...
regularly. In men's magazines, several "ideal" images of men are promoted, and that these images may even entail certain health risks.
Alcohol consumption behavior
Research on beer commercials by StrateLance Strate
Lance A. Strate is an American Professor of Communication and Media Studies at Fordham University, and an expert in the field of Communication and Cyberspace and Social Interaction in an Electronic Environment.-Education:...
(Postman, Nystrom, Strate, And Weingartner 1987; Strate 1989, 1990) and by Wenner (1991) show some results relevant to studies of masculinity. In beer commercials, the ideas of masculinity (especially risk-taking) are presented and encouraged. The commercials often focus on situations where a man is overcoming an obstacle in a group. The men will either be working hard or playing hard. For instance the commercial will show men who do physical labor such as construction workers, or farm work, or men who are cowboy
Cowboy
A cowboy is an animal herder who tends cattle on ranches in North America, traditionally on horseback, and often performs a multitude of other ranch-related tasks. The historic American cowboy of the late 19th century arose from the vaquero traditions of northern Mexico and became a figure of...
s. Beer commercials that involve playing hard have a central theme of mastery (over nature or over each other), risk, and adventure. For instance, the men will be outdoors fishing
Fishing
Fishing is the activity of trying to catch wild fish. Fish are normally caught in the wild. Techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping....
, camping
Camping
Camping is an outdoor recreational activity. The participants leave urban areas, their home region, or civilization and enjoy nature while spending one or several nights outdoors, usually at a campsite. Camping may involve the use of a tent, caravan, motorhome, cabin, a primitive structure, or no...
, playing sports, or hanging out in bars
Bar (establishment)
A bar is a business establishment that serves alcoholic drinks — beer, wine, liquor, and cocktails — for consumption on the premises.Bars provide stools or chairs that are placed at tables or counters for their patrons. Some bars have entertainment on a stage, such as a live band, comedians, go-go...
. There is usually an element of danger
Risk
Risk is the potential that a chosen action or activity will lead to a loss . The notion implies that a choice having an influence on the outcome exists . Potential losses themselves may also be called "risks"...
as well as a focus on movement and speed. This appeals to and emphasizes the idea that real men overcome danger and enjoy speed (i.e. fast cars/driving fast). The bar serves as a setting for the measurement of masculinity (skills like pool
Billiards
Cue sports , also known as billiard sports, are a wide variety of games of skill generally played with a cue stick which is used to strike billiard balls, moving them around a cloth-covered billiards table bounded by rubber .Historically, the umbrella term was billiards...
, strength
Physical strength
Physical strength is the ability of a person or animal to exert force on physical objects using muscles. Increasing physical strength is the goal of strength training.-Overview:...
and drinking ability) and serves as a center for male socializing.
Traditional Masculinity
Traditional avenues for men to gain honor were that of providing adequately for their families and exercising leadership. The traditional family structure consisted of the fatherFather
A father, Pop, Dad, or Papa, is defined as a male parent of any type of offspring. The adjective "paternal" refers to father, parallel to "maternal" for mother...
as the bread-winner and the mother
Mother
A mother, mum, mom, momma, or mama is a woman who has raised a child, given birth to a child, and/or supplied the ovum that grew into a child. Because of the complexity and differences of a mother's social, cultural, and religious definitions and roles, it is challenging to specify a universally...
as the homemaker
Homemaker
Homemaking is a mainly American term for the management of a home, otherwise known as housework, housekeeping or household management...
. During World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
, women entered the workforce in droves to replace the soldiers who were sent overseas. While some returned home to resume their positions as homemakers if their husbands survived the war, and others remained in the workplace. Over the decades since, women have risen to high political and corporate positions. This shift has caused an increase in women becoming the primary income-earners and men the primary care-givers --a process author Jeremy Adam Smith
Jeremy Adam Smith
Jeremy Adam Smith is the editor of Shareable.net and an author and blogger whose work focuses on family and community life. Prior to helping launch Shareable.net in October 2009, Jeremy was the senior editor of Greater Good magazine, the founding director of the Independent Press Development Fund,...
calls "the daddy shift" in his 2009 book of that title. As of 2007, 159,000 dads were primary care-givers and this number is increasing. Dubbed stay-at-home dads, these men are performing duties in the home which are not being done by women. Regardless of age or nationality, men more frequently rank good health
Good health
Good health may refer to:*Health, the medical state of physical, mental and social well-being.*Good Health, an album by Pretty Girls Make Graves.*Our Lady of Good Health, an apparation of Mary in India....
, harmonious family life and good relationships with their spouse or partner as important to their quality of life.
See also
- EmasculationEmasculationEmasculation is the removal of the genitalia of a male, notably the penis and/or the testicles.By extension, the word has also come to mean to render a male less of a man, or to make a male feel less of a man by humiliation. This metaphorical usage of the word is much more common than the...
- Model of masculinity under fascist ItalyModel of masculinity under fascist ItalyThe model of masculinity under fascist Italy is the hegemonic masculinity prescribed by dictator Benito Mussolini during his fascist reign. This hegemonic model was deemed as the appropriate, ideal identity to follow during the development of a New Italian citizen in a budding New Italy.The model...
- Victorian masculinityVictorian masculinityDuring the reign of Queen Victoria, there were certain social expectations that the separate genders were expected to adhere to. For the males, this included a vast amount of pride in their work, a protectiveness over their wives, if they were married, and an aptitude for good social behaviour.The...
- HypermasculinityHypermasculinityHypermasculinity is a psychological term for the exaggeration of male stereotypical behavior, such as an emphasis on physical strength, aggression, body hair, body odor, and virility. This term can be pejorative, though it is also used when examining the behavior dispassionately.One of the first...
- MasculismMasculismMasculism may refer to political, cultural, and economic movements aimed at establishing and defending political, economic, and social rights and participation in society for men and boys. These rights include legal issues, such as those of conscription, child custody, alimony, and equal pay for...
- Men's spacesMen's spacesMen's spaces are separate social and cultural spaces, roles and norms available to men in some non-westernized societies. It is the membership of these spaces that determines a male's manhood, while failing to get a membership of this space amounts to being denied manhood, and to be liable to...
- International Men's DayInternational Men's DayInternational Men's Day is an annual international event celebrated on 19 November. Inaugurated in 1999 in Trinidad and Tobago, the day and its events find support from a variety of individuals and groups in Australia, the Caribbean, North America, Asia, Europe, Africa, and the United...
- Male bondingMale bondingMale bonding is a term that is used in ethology, social science, and in general usage to describe patterns of friendship and/or cooperation in men...
- Masculine psychologyMasculine psychologyMasculine psychology is a term sometimes used to describe and categorize issues concerning the gender-related psychology of male human identity, as well as the issues that men confront during their lives...
- Raewyn ConnellRaewyn ConnellRaewyn Connell is an Australian sociologist. She is currently University Professor at the University of Sydney.-Profile:...
Present situation
- Arrindell, Willem A., Ph.D. (1 October 2005) "Masculine Gender Role Stress" Psychiatric Times Pg. 31
- Ashe, Fidelma (2007) The New Politics of Masculinity, London and New York: Routledge.
- Broom A. and Tovey P. (Eds) Men’s Health: Body, Identity and Social Context London; John Wiley and Sons Inc.
- Burstin, Fay "What's Killing Men". Herald Sun (Melbourne, AustraliaAustraliaAustralia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
). October 15, 2005. - Canada, Geoffrey "Learning to Fight" Men's Lives Kimmel, Michael S. and Messner, Michael A. ed. Allyn and Bacon. Boston, London: 2001
- Raewyn ConnellRaewyn ConnellRaewyn Connell is an Australian sociologist. She is currently University Professor at the University of Sydney.-Profile:...
: Masculinities (as Robert W. Connell), Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995 ISBN 0-7456-1469-8 - Courtenay, Will "Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men's well-being: a theory of gender and health" Social Science and Medicine, yr: 2000 vol: 50 iss: 10 pg: 1385–1401
- bell hooksBell hooksGloria Jean Watkins , better known by her pen name bell hooks, is an American author, feminist, and social activist....
, We Real Cool: Black Men and Masculinity, Taylor & Francis 2004, ISBN 0415969271 - Galdas P.M. and Cheater F.M. (2010) Indian and Pakistani men’s accounts of seeking medical help for angina and myocardial infarction in the UK: Constructions of marginalised masculinity or another version of hegemonic masculinity? Qualitative Research in Psychology
- Levant & Pollack (1995) A New Psychology of Men, New York: BasicBooks
- Juergensmeyer, Mark (2005): Why guys throw bombs. About terror and masculinity (pdf)
- Kaufman, Michael "The Construction of Masculinity and the Triad of Men's Violence". Men's Lives Kimmel, Michael S. and Messner, Michael A. ed. Allyn and Bacon. Boston, London: 2001
- Mansfield, HarveyHarvey MansfieldHarvey Claflin Mansfield, Jr. is the William R. Kenan, Jr. Professor of Government at Harvard University, where he has taught since 1962. He has held Guggenheim and NEH Fellowships and has been a Fellow at the National Humanities Center; he also received the National Humanities Medal in 2004 and...
. Manliness. New Haven: Yale University PressYale University PressYale University Press is a book publisher founded in 1908 by George Parmly Day. It became an official department of Yale University in 1961, but remains financially and operationally autonomous....
, 2006. ISBN 0300106645 - Reeser, T. Masculinities in Theory, Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.
- Robinson, L. (October 21, 2005). Not just boys being boys: Brutal hazings are a product of a culture of masculinity defined by violence, aggression and domination. Ottawa Citizen (Ottawa, Ontario).
- Stephenson, June (1995). Men are Not Cost Effective: Male Crime in America. ISBN 0-06-095098-6
- Williamson P. "Their own worst enemy" Nursing Times: 91 (48) 29 November 95 p 24–7
- Wray Herbert "Survival Skills" U.S. News & World Report Vol. 139 , No. 11; Pg. 63 September 26, 2005
- "Masculinity for Boys"; published by UNESCO, New Delhi, 2006;
- Smith, Bonnie G., Hutchison, Beth. Gendering Disability. Rutgers University Press, 2004.
History
- Michael Kimmel, Manhood in America, New York [etc.]: The Free Press 1996
- A Question of Manhood: A Reader in U.S. Black Mens History and Masculinity, edited by Earnestine Jenkins and Darlene Clark Hine, Indiana University press vol1: 1999, vol. 2: 2001
- Gary Taylor, Castration: An Abbreviated History of Western Manhood, Routledge 2002
- Klaus TheweleitKlaus TheweleitKlaus Theweleit is a German sociologist and writer.-Life:Theweleit was born in East Prussia, the son of a railway company worker. He wrote the following about his father: "Above all he was a railroader, wholeheartedly, as he used to say, and then a human being. He was a rather good human being and...
, Male fantasies, Minneapolis : University of Minnesota Press, 1987 and Polity Press, 1987 - Peter N. Stearns, Be a Man!: Males in Modern Society, Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1990
- Shuttleworth, Russell. "Disabled Masculinity." Gendering Disability. Ed. Bonnie G. Smith and Beth Hutchison. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 2004. 166-178.
External links
Bibliographic- The Men's Bibliography, a comprehensive bibliography of writing on men, masculinities, gender and sexualities, listing over 16,700 works. (mainly from a constructionist perspective)
- Boyhood Studies, features a 2200+ bibliography of young masculinities.
Other
- Practical Manliness, A manly blog that applies "historical ideals to modern men".
- The ManKind Project of Chicago, supporting men in leading meaningful lives of integrity, accountability, responsibility, and emotional intelligence
- NIMH web pages on men and depression, talks about men and their depression and how to get help.
- Article entitled "Wounded Masculinity: Parsifal and The Fisher King Wound" The symbolism of the story as it relates to the Wounded Masculinity of Men by Richard Sanderson M.Ed., B.A.
- BULL, Print and online literary journal specializing in masculine fiction for a male audience.
- Art of Manliness, An online web magazine/blog dedicated to "reviving the lost art of manliness".
- The Masculinity Conspiracy, An online book critiquing constructions of masculinity.