Imperial embassies to China
Encyclopedia
Foreign relations of Japan
Foreign relations of Japan is handled by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan.Since the surrender after World War II and the Treaty of San Francisco, Japanese diplomatic policy has been based on close partnership with the United States and the emphasis on the international cooperation such as...
embassies which were intermittently sent to the Chinese court. Any distinction amongst diplomatic envoys sent from the Imperial Japanese court or from any of the Japanese shogunates was lost or rendered moot when the ambassador was received in the Chinese capital.
Extant records document missions to China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
between the year of 600 and 894. The composition of these Imperial missions included members of the aristocracratic
Aristocracy
Aristocracy , is a form of government in which a few elite citizens rule. The term derives from the Greek aristokratia, meaning "rule of the best". In origin in Ancient Greece, it was conceived of as rule by the best qualified citizens, and contrasted with monarchy...
kuge
Kuge
The was a Japanese aristocratic class that dominated the Japanese imperial court in Kyoto until the rise of the Shogunate in the 12th century at which point it was eclipsed by the daimyo...
and Buddhist
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
priests. These missions led to the importation of Chinese culture
Culture of China
Chinese culture is one of the world's oldest and most complex. The area in which the culture is dominant covers a large geographical region in eastern Asia with customs and traditions varying greatly between towns, cities and provinces...
including advances in science
Science
Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe...
s and technologies. These diplomatic encounters produced the beginnings of a range of Schools of Buddhism
Schools of Buddhism
Buddhism is an ancient, polyvalent ideological system that originated in the Iron Age Indian subcontinent, referred to variously throughout history by one or more of a myriad of concepts – including, but not limited to any of the following: a Dharmic religion, a philosophy or quasi-philosophical...
in Japan, including Zen
Zen
Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism founded by the Buddhist monk Bodhidharma. The word Zen is from the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese word Chán , which in turn is derived from the Sanskrit word dhyāna, which can be approximately translated as "meditation" or "meditative state."Zen...
.
From the sinocentric perspective of the Chinese Court in Chang'an
Chang'an
Chang'an is an ancient capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history, today known as Xi'an. Chang'an literally means "Perpetual Peace" in Classical Chinese. During the short-lived Xin Dynasty, the city was renamed "Constant Peace" ; yet after its fall in AD 23, the old name was restored...
, the several embassies sent from Kyoto were construed as tributaries of Imperial China; but it is not clear that the Japanese shared this view.
China seems to have taken the initiative in opening relations with Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
. Sui
Sui Dynasty
The Sui Dynasty was a powerful, but short-lived Imperial Chinese dynasty. Preceded by the Southern and Northern Dynasties, it ended nearly four centuries of division between rival regimes. It was followed by the Tang Dynasty....
Emperor, Yangdi
Emperor Yang of Sui
Emperor Yang of Sui , personal name Yang Guang , alternative name Ying , nickname Amo , known as Emperor Ming during the brief reign of his grandson Yang Tong), was the second son of Emperor Wen of Sui, and the second emperor of China's Sui Dynasty.Emperor Yang's original name was Yang Ying, but...
(kensui taishi) dispatched a message in 605 that said:
- "The sovereign of Sui respectfully inquires about the sovereign of WaWa (Japan)Japanese is the oldest recorded name of Japan. Chinese, Korean, and Japanese scribes regularly wrote Wa or Yamato "Japan" with the Chinese character 倭 until the 8th century, when the Japanese found fault with it, replacing it with 和 "harmony, peace, balance".- Historical references :The earliest...
."
Prince Shōtoku
Prince Shotoku
, also known as or , was a semi-legendary regent and a politician of the Asuka period in Japan who served under Empress Suiko. He was a son of Emperor Yōmei and his younger half-sister Princess Anahobe no Hashihito. His parents were relatives of the ruling Soga clan, and was involved in the defeat...
responded by sponsoring a mission led by Ono no Imoko
Ono no Imoko
was a Japanese politician and diplomat in the late 6th and early 7th century, during the Asuka period.Ono was appointed by Empress Suiko as an official envoy to the Sui court in 607 , and he delivered the famous letter from Japan's Prince Shōtoku which began "The Son of Heaven where the sun rises...
in 607. The Prince's own message contains the earliest written instance in which the Japanese archipelago is named "Nihon," literally, sun-origin. The salutation said:
- "From the sovereign of the land of the rising sun (nihon/hi izuru) to the sovereign of the land of the setting sun."
These included Japanese oversea students for Buddhism studies.
The are the best known (total 13 times); they ended in 894. At this time, ambassadors had been appointed; and they were about to depart for China. However, the mission was stopped by Emperor Uda
Emperor Uda
was the 59th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.Uda's reign spanned the years from 887 through 897.-Name and legacy:Before his ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name was or Chōjiin-tei....
in 894 (Kanpyō 6, 8th month) because of reports of unsettled conditions in China. The emperor's decision-making was informed by what he understood as persuasive counsel from Sugawara Michizane.
Envoys to the Sui court
Japanese envoys to the Sui court were received as ambassadors:- 607: The first diplomatic mission was led by Japan's first ambassador to China. This Japanese enovy, Ono no ImokoOno no Imokowas a Japanese politician and diplomat in the late 6th and early 7th century, during the Asuka period.Ono was appointed by Empress Suiko as an official envoy to the Sui court in 607 , and he delivered the famous letter from Japan's Prince Shōtoku which began "The Son of Heaven where the sun rises...
, had the title kenzushi. The delegation was received in the Imperial Court. - 608: Ono no Imoko leads a returning embassy to China. This mission included two others with the title kenzushi: Takamuko no KuromaroTakamuko no Kuromarowas a Japanese scholar and diplomat of the Asuka period. The Takamuko clan are descended from Cao Pi.Karumauro traveled to China as the with Ono no Imoko as kenzuishi representing Empress Suiko in 608...
(no Genri) and Minabuchi no Shōan. Kuromaro and Shōan, along with the Buddhist monk Sōmin remained in China for 32 years before returning to Japan.
Envoys to the Tang court
Japanese envoys to the Tang court were received as ambassadors:Three missions to the Tang court were dispatched during the reign of Emperor Kōtoku
Emperor Kotoku
was the 36th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.The years of his reign lasted from 645 through 654.-Traditional narrative:Before Kōtoku ascension to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name was or...
.
Emperor Kammu
was the 50th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. Kammu reigned from 781 to 806.-Traditional narrative:Kammu's personal name was . He was the eldest son of Prince Shirakabe , and was born prior to Shirakabe's ascension to the throne...
's planned mission to the Tang court in 804 (Enryaku
Enryaku
was a after Ten'ō and before Daidō. This period spanned the years from August 782 through May 806. The reigning emperor was .-Change of era:* November 12, 782 : The new era name was created to mark an event or series of events...
23) included three ambassadors and several Buddhist priests, including and ; but the enterprise was delayed until the end of the year. The ambassadors returned in the middle of 805 (Enryaku 24, 6th month). They were accompanied by the monk Saichō, also known by his posthumous name , whose teachings would develop into the Tendai
Tendai
is a Japanese school of Mahayana Buddhism, a descendant of the Chinese Tiantai or Lotus Sutra school.Chappell frames the relevance of Tendai for a universal Buddhism:- History :...
school of Japanese Buddhism. In 806 (Daidō
Daido
was a after Enryaku and before Kōnin. This period spanned the years from May 806 through September 810. The reigning emperors were and .-Change of era:* November 16, 806 : The new era name 'was created to mark an event or series of events...
1, 8th month), the return of the monk Kūkai, also known posthumously as , marks the beginning of what would develop into the Shingon school of Japanese Buddhism.
New ambassadors to China were appointed by Emperor Ninmyō in 834, but the mission was put off.
- 836-839: The mission was postponed by a typhoon; but the ambassadors did eventually travel to the Tang court, returning in 839 with a letter from Emperor Tang Wenzong.
In China, a steady and conservative Confucianist Song dynasty
Song Dynasty
The Song Dynasty was a ruling dynasty in China between 960 and 1279; it succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, and was followed by the Yuan Dynasty. It was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or paper money, and the first Chinese government to establish a...
emerged after the end of the Tang dynasty and subsequent period of disunity during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms was between 907–960/979 AD and an era of political upheaval in China, between the fall of the Tang Dynasty and the founding of the Song Dynasty. During this period, five dynasties quickly succeeded one another in the north, and more than 12 independent states were...
. During this time, although travel to China was generally safe, Japanese rulers believed there was little to learn from the Song, and so there were no major embassy missions to China.
Adopting Tang models
Ancient Japan was called WaWa (Japan)
Japanese is the oldest recorded name of Japan. Chinese, Korean, and Japanese scribes regularly wrote Wa or Yamato "Japan" with the Chinese character 倭 until the 8th century, when the Japanese found fault with it, replacing it with 和 "harmony, peace, balance".- Historical references :The earliest...
, which had a primitive culture when compared to Tang
Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
culture. The Tang folks referred to Wa
Wa (Japan)
Japanese is the oldest recorded name of Japan. Chinese, Korean, and Japanese scribes regularly wrote Wa or Yamato "Japan" with the Chinese character 倭 until the 8th century, when the Japanese found fault with it, replacing it with 和 "harmony, peace, balance".- Historical references :The earliest...
as 東夷 (Eastern barbarians).
From 630 onward, Wa
Wa (Japan)
Japanese is the oldest recorded name of Japan. Chinese, Korean, and Japanese scribes regularly wrote Wa or Yamato "Japan" with the Chinese character 倭 until the 8th century, when the Japanese found fault with it, replacing it with 和 "harmony, peace, balance".- Historical references :The earliest...
sent large groups of monks, students and government officials, up to 600 each time, to the Tang capital of Chang'an to learn the then advanced production technology, social system, history, philosophy, arts and architecture.
Among many items adopted by Wa
Wa (Japan)
Japanese is the oldest recorded name of Japan. Chinese, Korean, and Japanese scribes regularly wrote Wa or Yamato "Japan" with the Chinese character 倭 until the 8th century, when the Japanese found fault with it, replacing it with 和 "harmony, peace, balance".- Historical references :The earliest...
:
- Tang political system
- Heian-kyōHeian-kyoHeian-kyō , was one of several former names for the city now known as Kyoto. It was the capital of Japan for over one thousand years, from 794 to 1868 with an interruption in 1180....
, the new Japanese capital established in 794, and was a laid out in a grid similar to that of Chang'an, the Tang capital. - CultureHuaxiaHuaxia is a name often used to represent China or Chinese civilization.-Etymology:According to the historical record, Zuo Zhuan, the ancient Xia Dynasty of central China was a state that held propriety and justice in high esteem...
, many Han Chinese characters (漢字) were borrowed from Tang civilization to build the Japanese culture. - Tang dress codes (known today as Wafuku 和服), eating habits were the fashion which was imitated and popularized.
Envoys to the Ming court
Japanese envoys to the Ming court were received as ambassadors.- 1373-1406 (ŌanOan, also romanized as Ō-an, was a Japanese era name of the Northern Court during the Era of Northern and Southern Courts after Jōji and before Eiwa. This period spanned the years from February 1368 through February 1375...
6 – ŌeiOeiwas a after Meitoku and before Shōchō. This period spanned the years from July 1394 through April 1428. Reigning emperors were and .-Change of era:* 1394 : The new era name was created because of plague...
13): Embassies between China and Japan. - 1397 (Ōei 4, 8th month): an Imperial ambassador is dispatched from Emperor Go-KomatsuEmperor Go-KomatsuEmperor Go-Komatsu was the 100th emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession. He is officially considered a pretender from May 24, 1382 to October 21, 1392, when Emperor Go-Kameyama abdicated...
to the Ming Court. - 1401 (Ōei 8): Ashikaga YoshimitsuAshikaga Yoshimitsuwas the 3rd shogun of the Ashikaga shogunate who ruled from 1368 to 1394 during the Muromachi period of Japan. Yoshimitsu was the son of the second shogun Ashikaga Yoshiakira....
sends a diplomatic mission to China as a tentative first step in re-initiating trade between JapanJapanJapan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
and MingMing DynastyThe Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
ChinaChinaChinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
. The formal diplomatic letter conveyed to the Emperor of China was accompanied by a gift of 1000 ounces of gold and diverse objects. - 1402 (Ōei 9): A letter from the Jianwen EmperorJianwen EmperorThe Jianwen Emperor , with the personal name Zhu Yunwen , reigned as the second Emperor of the Ming dynasty...
of China was received by Yoshimitsu; and this formal communication mistakenly accords the title "king of Japan" to the Japanese shogun.
Envoys to the Qing court
During Japan's self-imposed isolation in the Edo periodEdo period
The , or , is a division of Japanese history which was ruled by the shoguns of the Tokugawa family, running from 1603 to 1868. The political entity of this period was the Tokugawa shogunate....
(1603–1868), Japan's vicarious relationships with China evolved through the intermediary of the Kingdom of Ryukyu. Japan's view of external relations was ambivalent.
- 1853 (KaeiKaeiwas a after Kōka and before Ansei. This period spanned the years from February 1848 through November 1854. The reigning emperor was .-Change of era:...
6): Hayashi AkiraHayashi Akirawas a Edo period scholar-diplomat serving the Tokugawa Shogunate in a variety of roles similar to those performed by serial Hayashi clan neo-Confucianists since the time of Tokugawa Ieyasu...
completed Tsūkō ichiranTsuko ichiran' is a mid-19th century Japanese compilation of documents or "survey of intercourse" related to the foreign relations of the Tokugawas and the Tokugawa shogunate....
. The work was created under orders from the bakufu to compile and edit documents pertaining to East Asian trade and diplomacy; and, for example, it includes a detailed description of a Ryukuan tribute embassy to the Qing Chinese court in BeijingBeijingBeijing , also known as Peking , is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The city is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's...
.
See also
- Japanese missions to JoseonJapanese missions to JoseonJapanese missions to Joseon represent a crucial aspect of the international relations of mutual Joseon-Japanese contacts and communication. The bilateral exchanges were intermittent....
- History of ChinaHistory of ChinaChinese civilization originated in various regional centers along both the Yellow River and the Yangtze River valleys in the Neolithic era, but the Yellow River is said to be the Cradle of Chinese Civilization. With thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the world's oldest...
- History of JapanHistory of JapanThe history of Japan encompasses the history of the islands of Japan and the Japanese people, spanning the ancient history of the region to the modern history of Japan as a nation state. Following the last ice age, around 12,000 BC, the rich ecosystem of the Japanese Archipelago fostered human...
- Iki no Hakatoko no ShoIki no Hakatoko no Sho, literally "The Document of Iki no Hakatoko", is a historical Japanese record written by Iki no Hakatoko. Composed late in the 7th century, the record is primarily known for being used as a reference in the composition of Nihon Shoki as well as for being the oldest Japanese travel record...
, 7th century text