Institute of Occupational Medicine
Encyclopedia
The Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM) was founded in 1969 by the National Coal Board
(NCB) as an independent charity. The IOM is a major independent centre of scientific excellence in the fields of occupational health and environmental health
, occupational hygiene
and occupational safety. Its mission is to benefit those at work and in the community by providing quality research, consultancy and training and by maintaining an independent, impartial position as an international centre of excellence. Since 1990, the IOM has been a fully independent "not for profit" organisation.
The early history of the IOM is inextricably bound up with the NCB and the PFR. The PFR had started in the early 1950s with the objective of determining how much and what types of coal dust
caused pneumoconiosis
and what airborne dust concentrations should be maintained in order to prevent miners from becoming disabled by the air they breathed. These ambitious and clear objectives were remarkably far-sighted, implying a requirement to measure both exposure to airborne dust and health outcomes in a large cohort
of miners over a prolonged period, and to use these quantitative
data to set protective health standards in the industry. 50,000 coalminers were eventually recruited into the study from 25 collieries representative of conditions across Britain
.
The early work involved measuring dust exposure by counting the number of particles collected from the air by sampling devices. A substantial advance was achieved with the measurement of exposure by weighing the dust collected by MRE 113a respirable dust samplers, which were invented specifically for the research by Henry Walton and Robert Hamilton.
The first results from the PFR were reported in 1970 in the scientific journal Nature. The research underpinned the recommendations for more stringent airborne dust standards in British coalmines and the PFR was ultimately used as the basis for many national dust standards around the world. IOM’s research in coal mining continued until about 1990, with many important scientific papers on respiratory diseases amongst miners having been published. In 1985, an important association between risk of pathological emphysema
and dust exposure was demonstrated, leading ultimately to recognition of this disease as an quantifiable risk of coal mining. Recent analysis of the mortality
of a subset of the miners originally studied has found an association between the risk of lung cancer and quartz exposure, and raised mortality from chronic lung disease and pneumoconiosis
associated with increasing dust exposure.
In the 1980s the IOM’s epidemiological expertise was used in three original studies led by Dr Anthony Seaton into the effects of polyvinyl chloride
dust, wool
dust and shale
mining on the lung health of workers. All showed positive associations and the results were used in regulatory standard setting in the UK and USA.
This research into risks from inhaling dusts remains an important part of the IOM’s research. The occupational exposure limits for crystalline silica continue to be a major international concern and from its previous research IOM has been able to define an exposure-response relationship for crystalline silica with unusual precision. This work demonstrated the need for very low limits on exposure to airborne crystalline silica because of the high risk of disease from even relatively brief exposures to high airborne concentrations.
IOM studies have defined the relationships between decreases in lung function and dust concentrations amongst coal miners. These studies showed that dust control sufficient to prevent pneumoconiosis
would reduce substantially the risks of impairment of lung function. However, an important question was whether these risks could be extrapolated to other occupational insoluble dusts. By developing and validating mathematical models of accumulated lung dust burden and resulting inflammation
, IOM research has shown that the toxicity
of several insoluble dusts of different compositions can be predicted from their surface area.
of fibres has shown that persistence of some asbestos
fibres in the lung
as a result of their insolubility was an important determinant of carcinogenicity and fibrogenicity, and that fibre length was also critically important in determining toxicity. This research expanded to consider fibres and other materials introduced as substitutes for asbestos
, such as calcium silicate
and aramid
fibres. From 1990, the Colt Foundation, relevant industries and the Health and Safety Executive
supported a programme of laboratory research into the health effects of man-made mineral fibres that helped to clarify the quantitative relationships between health risks and fibre dimensions and biopersistence. This work was awarded the prestigious Bedford Prize by the British Occupational Hygiene Society
.
In 1977, Henry Walton and Dr Steve Beckett invented a microscope eyepiece graticule used for counting asbestos
fibres. This device was designed to improve the reliability of the measurements and it has since become part of the international standard methodology for fibre measurement. A programme ensued on the measurement of fibrous aerosols such as asbestos
, raising important issues in comparability of counts by different laboratories, and leading to the establishment of quality control schemes for asbestos
. In 1979 the IOM was appointed by the Health and Safety Executive
as the British Central Reference Laboratory for asbestos
fibre counting, and the following year the World Health Organisation similarly appointed IOM as its central reference laboratory for man-made mineral fibre counting.
From 1985 IOM collaborated with the International Agency for Research on Cancer
in a major European epidemiological study of the carcinogenicity of mineral wool
fibres. As part of this work IOM helped develop novel methods to estimate retrospectively exposure of workers in the study, ultimately demonstrating that there was no evidence of a carcinogenic effect of these fibres on the lung. IOM scientists also conducted a study of the respiratory health of workers manufacturing Refractory Ceramic Fibre in Europe, showing small though inconsistent effects on respiratory health associated with inhalation
of these fibres.
exposure measurements to explore links between the working environment and health and has pioneered the development of new methods to measure the concentration of aerosols in ways that are relevant to human biology
. The MRE 113A respirable dust sampler developed for use in our pneumoconiosis
research was the first landmark and led to greater insight into the causes of this disease. Under Dr Jim Vincent’s leadership, an innovative research programme, begun by Dr Trevor Ogden, was aimed at designing new sampling instruments for coarser aerosols. The culmination of this work was the development of the IOM inhalable dust sampler, which has become established as the device of choice for measuring the part of an aerosol
that penetrates beyond the larynx
. IOM scientists played a key role in defining the internationally agreed size fractions of dust relevant to human lung disease, i.e. inhalable, thoracic and respirable.
Research on chemical exposure has more recently focussed on exposure modelling, data management and studies for regulatory risk assessment
. Studies in relation to metals, including dermal exposure to nickel
, zinc
and lead
, have been carried out. Work on the measurement of exposure to oil
mist aerosol
and vapour has been undertaken for offshore oil workers. In collaboration with some of the leading European human exposure scientists, IOM has been developing a new generation exposure model for use in connection with the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) Regulations in Europe – the model is known as the Advanced REACH Tool or ART.
IOM scientists have developed a strong interest in the assessment of dermal exposure, leading to the enumeration of new principles of exposure assessment
, the development of predictive exposure models, and investigations into dermal exposure under specific working conditions. Estimating historical skin exposures of farmers dipping sheep in pesticide
solutions for an epidemiological study proved particularly challenging, but this research demonstrated a strong association between concentrated organophosphate
pesticides and neurological symptoms. As a consequence the UK government withdrew these pesticides from the market until safer handling systems were devised. In addition, new sampling instruments to measure dermal exposure to chemicals and new theoretical models to help understand how skin exposure may arise. These instruments and models may in the future help provide more reliable assessments of the risks from chemicals to the skin. IOM scientists are also developing a molded cassette with a 15mm inlet for use as a personal sampling pump to test inhalable dust levels.
Other research at IOM has shown that chronic fatigue is common amongst those who consider their health is affected by pesticides and suggested there was an association between exposure to organophosphates and chronic fatigue symptoms.
research at IOM, particularly under the direction of Tom Leamon, helped to promote greater safety of coal miners and to increase the cost-effectiveness
of production. One of the IOM’s most important contributions in ergonomics
was in machine and system design, work that was passed to the manufacturers and contributed widely to worker safety and efficiency.
Work on human factors
and personal protective equipment
(PPE) at the IOM started in the early 1970s, with studies of the impact of resistance to breathing caused by respirators, and resulted in guidance criteria that form part of respirator
product standards to this day. In the 1980s and 1990’s work continued with investigation of the utility of cooling garments such as ice jackets in hot environments, studies of the use and effectiveness of hearing protection, of the effectiveness of respirators in reducing exposure in the workplace, and of heat strain imposed by breathing apparatus. This latter work resulted in the development of permissible work times consistent with safe use of breathing apparatus, standards currently used by the UK Mines Rescue service.
The PPE
research has used ergonomic principles to design protective clothing and equipment that impose fewer demands on those required to use them. For example, IOM scientists helped develop improved powered helmet respirators following research that showed existing devices to be heavy, cumbersome, uncomfortable and intrusive.
In the 1990s, on behalf of the UK fire service, studies were carried out of the physiological and ergonomic impacts of breathing apparatus, fire hoods and protective clothing. The studies on fire hoods showed that, contrary to common belief, they did not effect the ability of firefighters to localise sound. This led to a recommendation by the UK Home Office
that all fire fighters should routinely be issued with such hoods, advice which is now followed throughout the UK. The IOM has helped to assess Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) protective clothing for the Home Office, and has recently assisted London Fire Brigade
in the ergonomic assessment for selection of new protective clothing .
IOM has won three awards from the Ergonomics Society
most recently the President’s Medal,(2009) for the work led by Dr Richard Graveling on personal protective equipment.
that addressed, amongst other things, the public health
effects of air pollution
from fossil fuel power plant
. These first steps in quantitative environmental Health Impact Assessment
(HIA) led over time to further work, including involvement in the cost-benefit analysis
of the European Commission’s Clean Air for Europe (CAFE) programme, followed by some ground-breaking work on the use of life table
methods to estimate the impacts of air pollution
on mortality
. This HIA work has expanded into health effects of other occupational and environmental pollutants and into public health more generally, leading to the establishment of the IOM’s Centre for Health Impact Assessment.
IOM scientists have investigated exposure of bystanders living or working near to fields that have been sprayed with pesticides and have undertaken a study to model the exposure of the British population to selected pesticides from food and other sources. This work demonstrated that although it is likely that most people are exposed to low levels of a wide variety of pesticide compounds it is unlikely that such exposure would have measurable effects on the health of the population.
In 1995 the Soufriere Hills volcano on the Caribbean
island of Montserrat
erupted, spewing volcanic ash containing large amounts of the crystalline silica mineral cristobalite
over the surrounding area. IOM scientists investigated the health of people who lived on the island. In general the exposure of the residents was low, because most people lived well away from the area of highest ash falls, and the ash proved of relatively low toxicity. The studies of the population showed no impairment of the islanders’ respiratory health.
Environment and health is now a well-established area of the IOM’s work, involving chemical monitoring, laboratory analysis, consultancy, literature reviews and collaborative primary research. It covers exposures to and health effects of a wide range of environmental hazards, including outdoor and indoor air pollution, ionising radiation and electromagnetic fields, dioxins and pesticides.
The IOM have provided consultancies to a wide range of customers since the mid 1970s. In the beginning, the main impetus for the work came from Jim Dodgson, who built up occupational hygiene
and chemical analysis in Edinburgh
and in their regional offices (then in South Wales
, the Midlands
and Tyne and Wear
). Then, as now, a substantial proportion of the work was related to asbestos sampling and analysis in buildings, industrial plant and contaminated land. IOM were amongst the first to introduce asbestos
clearance indicators in the UK - ahead of the Health and Safety Executive
.
Thirty years ago IOM were already developing their occupational hygiene
business in a variety of other directions. Countless surveys of occupational exposures to hazardous gases, liquids, fumes, dusts and fibres have been undertaken. They have advised on control methods for hazardous agents, from elimination or substitution, to organisational changes or the introduction of personal protective equipment
. Through the 1980s the consultancy work developed to include ergonomics
and occupational medicine. By the time IOM became independent from British Coal in 1990, the consultancy work accounted for about 45% of the work.
The consultancy work grew steadily after independence, increasingly centred on the Edinburgh office. In 1998, IOM expanded this sector of the business and Dr Alastair Robertson was appointed to lead this development. A key objective was to expand geographically, and regional offices were opened in Chesterfield
, London
and Stafford
. By the end of the 2008-9, this type of work had grown over fourfold, accounting for over 70% of the IOM’s turnover. The consultancy work now covers the safety of nanoparticles, asbestos
management, occupational hygiene
, occupational medicine, stress management
, ergonomics
, expert witness
reports, the general environment and many laboratory analyses. The IOM work for government agencies, universities, the NHS, local authorities, private healthcare providers, large industrial concerns and small businesses, mainly within the UK but there also across the world, from Chile
to Kazakhstan
, from Zimbabwe
to the United States of America and from St Helena to Montserrat
.
scale, materials that have novel and exciting properties and applications. Nanomaterials have been the subject of massive financial investment worldwide. However, it has been recognised that they may also represent hazards to the health of workers, consumers or the environment.
Together with partners in the University of Edinburgh
, Napier University
and the University of Aberdeen
, IOM formed the SnIRC initiative (Safety of nanoparticles Interdisciplinary Research Centre) and with them have embarked on a programme of fundamental research, funded by the European Commission
and others, on questions related to toxicity
, exposure and risk. The IOM and its partners have published a series of influential reviews on aspects of safe usage including patterns of use, regulation, food, and environment, sponsored by UK Government departments, in order to set UK Government policy in this area. Independently the IOM have published research strategies designed to address the many complex challenges to be faced. IOM now leads a large international study on the toxicology of nanoparticlesl involving 21 partner organisations from across Europe and the USA.
With UK Government support IOM has established SAFENANO, the most comprehensive free information resource on these issues available today. Using all available information, SAFENANO provides industry with state-of-the-art services in toxicology
, exposure and risk assessment to help understand and mitigate potential risks to workers, consumers
and the environment
. SAFENANO is now Europe’s Centre of Excellence on Nanotechnology Hazard and Risk.
The development of new products containing carbon nanotubes has raised concerns that such materials may present risks similar to mineral fibres. Professor Ken Donaldson and others have published data on some of these materials showing similar toxicological responses as to asbestos
, implying that exposure to some types of carbon nanotubes could carry similar hazard. While more research is needed on the toxicology
and potential exposures to these materials, action has already been taken by regulators to reduce possible risks to workers.
National Coal Board
The National Coal Board was the statutory corporation created to run the nationalised coal mining industry in the United Kingdom. Set up under the Coal Industry Nationalisation Act 1946, it took over the mines on "vesting day", 1 January 1947...
(NCB) as an independent charity. The IOM is a major independent centre of scientific excellence in the fields of occupational health and environmental health
Environmental health
Environmental health is the branch of public health that is concerned with all aspects of the natural and built environment that may affect human health...
, occupational hygiene
Occupational hygiene
Occupational hygiene is generally defined as the art and science dedicated to the anticipation, recognition, evaluation, communication and control of environmental stressors in, or arising from, the workplace that may result in injury, illness, impairment, or affect the well being of workers and...
and occupational safety. Its mission is to benefit those at work and in the community by providing quality research, consultancy and training and by maintaining an independent, impartial position as an international centre of excellence. Since 1990, the IOM has been a fully independent "not for profit" organisation.
Coal and pneumoconiosis
The IOM was set up by Dr John Rogan, the Chief Medical Officer of the NCB, who had initiated the Pneumoconiosis Field Research (PFR), persuaded the then Chairman, Lord Robens, to found a scientific institute to take over the running of this research. The original senior members of staff, under Rogan, were Henry Walton, Deputy Director and Head of Environment Branch, Dr Michael Jacobsen, Head of Statistics and Dr David Muir, Head of Medical Branch.The early history of the IOM is inextricably bound up with the NCB and the PFR. The PFR had started in the early 1950s with the objective of determining how much and what types of coal dust
Coal dust
Coal dust is a fine powdered form of coal, which is created by the crushing, grinding, or pulverizing of coal. Because of the brittle nature of coal, coal dust can be created during mining, transportation, or by mechanically handling coal.-Explosions:...
caused pneumoconiosis
Pneumoconiosis
Pneumoconiosis is an occupational lung disease and a restrictive lung disease caused by the inhalation of dust, often in mines.-Types:Depending upon the type of dust, the disease is given different names:...
and what airborne dust concentrations should be maintained in order to prevent miners from becoming disabled by the air they breathed. These ambitious and clear objectives were remarkably far-sighted, implying a requirement to measure both exposure to airborne dust and health outcomes in a large cohort
Cohort (statistics)
In statistics and demography, a cohort is a group of subjects who have shared a particular time together during a particular time span . Cohorts may be tracked over extended periods in a cohort study. The cohort can be modified by censoring, i.e...
of miners over a prolonged period, and to use these quantitative
Quantitative research
In the social sciences, quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of social phenomena via statistical, mathematical or computational techniques. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to...
data to set protective health standards in the industry. 50,000 coalminers were eventually recruited into the study from 25 collieries representative of conditions across Britain
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
.
The early work involved measuring dust exposure by counting the number of particles collected from the air by sampling devices. A substantial advance was achieved with the measurement of exposure by weighing the dust collected by MRE 113a respirable dust samplers, which were invented specifically for the research by Henry Walton and Robert Hamilton.
The first results from the PFR were reported in 1970 in the scientific journal Nature. The research underpinned the recommendations for more stringent airborne dust standards in British coalmines and the PFR was ultimately used as the basis for many national dust standards around the world. IOM’s research in coal mining continued until about 1990, with many important scientific papers on respiratory diseases amongst miners having been published. In 1985, an important association between risk of pathological emphysema
Emphysema
Emphysema is a long-term, progressive disease of the lungs that primarily causes shortness of breath. In people with emphysema, the tissues necessary to support the physical shape and function of the lungs are destroyed. It is included in a group of diseases called chronic obstructive pulmonary...
and dust exposure was demonstrated, leading ultimately to recognition of this disease as an quantifiable risk of coal mining. Recent analysis of the mortality
Mortality rate
Mortality rate is a measure of the number of deaths in a population, scaled to the size of that population, per unit time...
of a subset of the miners originally studied has found an association between the risk of lung cancer and quartz exposure, and raised mortality from chronic lung disease and pneumoconiosis
Pneumoconiosis
Pneumoconiosis is an occupational lung disease and a restrictive lung disease caused by the inhalation of dust, often in mines.-Types:Depending upon the type of dust, the disease is given different names:...
associated with increasing dust exposure.
In the 1980s the IOM’s epidemiological expertise was used in three original studies led by Dr Anthony Seaton into the effects of polyvinyl chloride
Polyvinyl chloride
Polyvinyl chloride, commonly abbreviated PVC, is a thermoplastic polymer. It is a vinyl polymer constructed of repeating vinyl groups having one hydrogen replaced by chloride. Polyvinyl chloride is the third most widely produced plastic, after polyethylene and polypropylene. PVC is widely used in...
dust, wool
Wool
Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and certain other animals, including cashmere from goats, mohair from goats, qiviut from muskoxen, vicuña, alpaca, camel from animals in the camel family, and angora from rabbits....
dust and shale
Shale
Shale is a fine-grained, clastic sedimentary rock composed of mud that is a mix of flakes of clay minerals and tiny fragments of other minerals, especially quartz and calcite. The ratio of clay to other minerals is variable. Shale is characterized by breaks along thin laminae or parallel layering...
mining on the lung health of workers. All showed positive associations and the results were used in regulatory standard setting in the UK and USA.
This research into risks from inhaling dusts remains an important part of the IOM’s research. The occupational exposure limits for crystalline silica continue to be a major international concern and from its previous research IOM has been able to define an exposure-response relationship for crystalline silica with unusual precision. This work demonstrated the need for very low limits on exposure to airborne crystalline silica because of the high risk of disease from even relatively brief exposures to high airborne concentrations.
IOM studies have defined the relationships between decreases in lung function and dust concentrations amongst coal miners. These studies showed that dust control sufficient to prevent pneumoconiosis
Pneumoconiosis
Pneumoconiosis is an occupational lung disease and a restrictive lung disease caused by the inhalation of dust, often in mines.-Types:Depending upon the type of dust, the disease is given different names:...
would reduce substantially the risks of impairment of lung function. However, an important question was whether these risks could be extrapolated to other occupational insoluble dusts. By developing and validating mathematical models of accumulated lung dust burden and resulting inflammation
Inflammation
Inflammation is part of the complex biological response of vascular tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. Inflammation is a protective attempt by the organism to remove the injurious stimuli and to initiate the healing process...
, IOM research has shown that the toxicity
Toxicity
Toxicity is the degree to which a substance can damage a living or non-living organisms. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a substructure of the organism, such as a cell or an organ , such as the liver...
of several insoluble dusts of different compositions can be predicted from their surface area.
Asbestos and other mineral fibres
In 1971, Dr John MG Davies was recruited from Cambridge University to head a new Pathology Branch at IOM, and to continue his research into asbestos-related diseases. An extensive programme of research on the toxicologyToxicology
Toxicology is a branch of biology, chemistry, and medicine concerned with the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms...
of fibres has shown that persistence of some asbestos
Asbestos
Asbestos is a set of six naturally occurring silicate minerals used commercially for their desirable physical properties. They all have in common their eponymous, asbestiform habit: long, thin fibrous crystals...
fibres in the lung
Lung
The lung is the essential respiration organ in many air-breathing animals, including most tetrapods, a few fish and a few snails. In mammals and the more complex life forms, the two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of the heart...
as a result of their insolubility was an important determinant of carcinogenicity and fibrogenicity, and that fibre length was also critically important in determining toxicity. This research expanded to consider fibres and other materials introduced as substitutes for asbestos
Asbestos
Asbestos is a set of six naturally occurring silicate minerals used commercially for their desirable physical properties. They all have in common their eponymous, asbestiform habit: long, thin fibrous crystals...
, such as calcium silicate
Calcium silicate
Calcium silicate is the chemical compound Ca2SiO4, also known as calcium orthosilicate and sometimes formulated 2CaO.SiO2. It is one of group of compounds obtained by reacting calcium oxide and silica in various ratios e.g. 3CaO.SiO2, Ca3SiO5; 2CaO.SiO2, Ca2SiO4; 3CaO.2SiO2, Ca3Si2O7 and...
and aramid
Aramid
Aramid fibers are a class of heat-resistant and strong synthetic fibers. They are used in aerospace and military applications, for ballistic rated body armor fabric and ballistic composites, in bicycle tires, and as an asbestos substitute. The name is a portmanteau of "aromatic polyamide"...
fibres. From 1990, the Colt Foundation, relevant industries and the Health and Safety Executive
Health and Safety Executive
The Health and Safety Executive is a non-departmental public body in the United Kingdom. It is the body responsible for the encouragement, regulation and enforcement of workplace health, safety and welfare, and for research into occupational risks in England and Wales and Scotland...
supported a programme of laboratory research into the health effects of man-made mineral fibres that helped to clarify the quantitative relationships between health risks and fibre dimensions and biopersistence. This work was awarded the prestigious Bedford Prize by the British Occupational Hygiene Society
British Occupational Hygiene Society
The British Occupational Hygiene Society , whose vision is a healthy working environment for everyone, was established as a charity in 1953 to reduce work-related ill-health, and makes a distinct and valuable contribution to preventing ill-health in the workplace...
.
In 1977, Henry Walton and Dr Steve Beckett invented a microscope eyepiece graticule used for counting asbestos
Asbestos
Asbestos is a set of six naturally occurring silicate minerals used commercially for their desirable physical properties. They all have in common their eponymous, asbestiform habit: long, thin fibrous crystals...
fibres. This device was designed to improve the reliability of the measurements and it has since become part of the international standard methodology for fibre measurement. A programme ensued on the measurement of fibrous aerosols such as asbestos
Asbestos
Asbestos is a set of six naturally occurring silicate minerals used commercially for their desirable physical properties. They all have in common their eponymous, asbestiform habit: long, thin fibrous crystals...
, raising important issues in comparability of counts by different laboratories, and leading to the establishment of quality control schemes for asbestos
Asbestos
Asbestos is a set of six naturally occurring silicate minerals used commercially for their desirable physical properties. They all have in common their eponymous, asbestiform habit: long, thin fibrous crystals...
. In 1979 the IOM was appointed by the Health and Safety Executive
Health and Safety Executive
The Health and Safety Executive is a non-departmental public body in the United Kingdom. It is the body responsible for the encouragement, regulation and enforcement of workplace health, safety and welfare, and for research into occupational risks in England and Wales and Scotland...
as the British Central Reference Laboratory for asbestos
Asbestos
Asbestos is a set of six naturally occurring silicate minerals used commercially for their desirable physical properties. They all have in common their eponymous, asbestiform habit: long, thin fibrous crystals...
fibre counting, and the following year the World Health Organisation similarly appointed IOM as its central reference laboratory for man-made mineral fibre counting.
From 1985 IOM collaborated with the International Agency for Research on Cancer
International Agency for Research on Cancer
The International Agency for Research on Cancer is an intergovernmental agency forming part of the World Health Organisation of the United Nations....
in a major European epidemiological study of the carcinogenicity of mineral wool
Mineral wool
Mineral wool, mineral fibers or man-made mineral fibers are fibers made from natural or synthetic minerals or metal oxides. The latter term is generally used to refer solely to synthetic materials including fiberglass, ceramic fibers and stone wool...
fibres. As part of this work IOM helped develop novel methods to estimate retrospectively exposure of workers in the study, ultimately demonstrating that there was no evidence of a carcinogenic effect of these fibres on the lung. IOM scientists also conducted a study of the respiratory health of workers manufacturing Refractory Ceramic Fibre in Europe, showing small though inconsistent effects on respiratory health associated with inhalation
Inhalation
Inhalation is the movement of air from the external environment, through the air ways, and into the alveoli....
of these fibres.
Workplace exposure, measurement and modelling
From its earliest years, IOM has had a tradition of using quantitativeQuantitative property
A quantitative property is one that exists in a range of magnitudes, and can therefore be measured with a number. Measurements of any particular quantitative property are expressed as a specific quantity, referred to as a unit, multiplied by a number. Examples of physical quantities are distance,...
exposure measurements to explore links between the working environment and health and has pioneered the development of new methods to measure the concentration of aerosols in ways that are relevant to human biology
Human biology
Human Biology is an interdisciplinary area of study that examines humans through the influences and interplay of many diverse fields such as genetics, evolution, physiology, epidemiology, ecology, nutrition, population genetics and sociocultural influences. It is closely related to...
. The MRE 113A respirable dust sampler developed for use in our pneumoconiosis
Pneumoconiosis
Pneumoconiosis is an occupational lung disease and a restrictive lung disease caused by the inhalation of dust, often in mines.-Types:Depending upon the type of dust, the disease is given different names:...
research was the first landmark and led to greater insight into the causes of this disease. Under Dr Jim Vincent’s leadership, an innovative research programme, begun by Dr Trevor Ogden, was aimed at designing new sampling instruments for coarser aerosols. The culmination of this work was the development of the IOM inhalable dust sampler, which has become established as the device of choice for measuring the part of an aerosol
Aerosol
Technically, an aerosol is a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas. Examples are clouds, and air pollution such as smog and smoke. In general conversation, aerosol usually refers to an aerosol spray can or the output of such a can...
that penetrates beyond the larynx
Larynx
The larynx , commonly called the voice box, is an organ in the neck of amphibians, reptiles and mammals involved in breathing, sound production, and protecting the trachea against food aspiration. It manipulates pitch and volume...
. IOM scientists played a key role in defining the internationally agreed size fractions of dust relevant to human lung disease, i.e. inhalable, thoracic and respirable.
Research on chemical exposure has more recently focussed on exposure modelling, data management and studies for regulatory risk assessment
Risk assessment
Risk assessment is a step in a risk management procedure. Risk assessment is the determination of quantitative or qualitative value of risk related to a concrete situation and a recognized threat...
. Studies in relation to metals, including dermal exposure to nickel
Nickel
Nickel is a chemical element with the chemical symbol Ni and atomic number 28. It is a silvery-white lustrous metal with a slight golden tinge. Nickel belongs to the transition metals and is hard and ductile...
, zinc
Zinc
Zinc , or spelter , is a metallic chemical element; it has the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is the first element in group 12 of the periodic table. Zinc is, in some respects, chemically similar to magnesium, because its ion is of similar size and its only common oxidation state is +2...
and lead
Lead
Lead is a main-group element in the carbon group with the symbol Pb and atomic number 82. Lead is a soft, malleable poor metal. It is also counted as one of the heavy metals. Metallic lead has a bluish-white color after being freshly cut, but it soon tarnishes to a dull grayish color when exposed...
, have been carried out. Work on the measurement of exposure to oil
Oil
An oil is any substance that is liquid at ambient temperatures and does not mix with water but may mix with other oils and organic solvents. This general definition includes vegetable oils, volatile essential oils, petrochemical oils, and synthetic oils....
mist aerosol
Aerosol
Technically, an aerosol is a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas. Examples are clouds, and air pollution such as smog and smoke. In general conversation, aerosol usually refers to an aerosol spray can or the output of such a can...
and vapour has been undertaken for offshore oil workers. In collaboration with some of the leading European human exposure scientists, IOM has been developing a new generation exposure model for use in connection with the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) Regulations in Europe – the model is known as the Advanced REACH Tool or ART.
IOM scientists have developed a strong interest in the assessment of dermal exposure, leading to the enumeration of new principles of exposure assessment
Exposure assessment
Exposure assessment is a branch of environmental science that focuses on the processes that take place at the interface between the environment containing the contaminant of interest and the organism being considered. These are the final steps in the path to release an environmental contaminant,...
, the development of predictive exposure models, and investigations into dermal exposure under specific working conditions. Estimating historical skin exposures of farmers dipping sheep in pesticide
Pesticide
Pesticides are substances or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling or mitigating any pest.A pesticide may be a chemical unicycle, biological agent , antimicrobial, disinfectant or device used against any pest...
solutions for an epidemiological study proved particularly challenging, but this research demonstrated a strong association between concentrated organophosphate
Organophosphate
An organophosphate is the general name for esters of phosphoric acid. Phosphates are probably the most pervasive organophosphorus compounds. Many of the most important biochemicals are organophosphates, including DNA and RNA as well as many cofactors that are essential for life...
pesticides and neurological symptoms. As a consequence the UK government withdrew these pesticides from the market until safer handling systems were devised. In addition, new sampling instruments to measure dermal exposure to chemicals and new theoretical models to help understand how skin exposure may arise. These instruments and models may in the future help provide more reliable assessments of the risks from chemicals to the skin. IOM scientists are also developing a molded cassette with a 15mm inlet for use as a personal sampling pump to test inhalable dust levels.
Other research at IOM has shown that chronic fatigue is common amongst those who consider their health is affected by pesticides and suggested there was an association between exposure to organophosphates and chronic fatigue symptoms.
Human sciences and personal protective equipment
Early ergonomicsErgonomics
Ergonomics is the study of designing equipment and devices that fit the human body, its movements, and its cognitive abilities.The International Ergonomics Association defines ergonomics as follows:...
research at IOM, particularly under the direction of Tom Leamon, helped to promote greater safety of coal miners and to increase the cost-effectiveness
Cost-effectiveness
Cost-effectiveness analysis is a form of economic analysis that compares the relative costs and outcomes of two or more courses of action. Cost-effectiveness analysis is distinct from cost-benefit analysis, which assigns a monetary value to the measure of effect...
of production. One of the IOM’s most important contributions in ergonomics
Ergonomics
Ergonomics is the study of designing equipment and devices that fit the human body, its movements, and its cognitive abilities.The International Ergonomics Association defines ergonomics as follows:...
was in machine and system design, work that was passed to the manufacturers and contributed widely to worker safety and efficiency.
Work on human factors
Human factors
Human factors science or human factors technologies is a multidisciplinary field incorporating contributions from psychology, engineering, industrial design, statistics, operations research and anthropometry...
and personal protective equipment
Personal protective equipment
Personal protective equipment refers to protective clothing, helmets, goggles, or other garment or equipment designed to protect the wearer's body from injury by blunt impacts, electrical hazards, heat, chemicals, and infection, for job-related occupational safety and health purposes, and in...
(PPE) at the IOM started in the early 1970s, with studies of the impact of resistance to breathing caused by respirators, and resulted in guidance criteria that form part of respirator
Respirator
A respirator is a device designed to protect the wearer from inhaling harmful dusts, fumes, vapors, or gases. Respirators come in a wide range of types and sizes used by the military, private industry, and the public...
product standards to this day. In the 1980s and 1990’s work continued with investigation of the utility of cooling garments such as ice jackets in hot environments, studies of the use and effectiveness of hearing protection, of the effectiveness of respirators in reducing exposure in the workplace, and of heat strain imposed by breathing apparatus. This latter work resulted in the development of permissible work times consistent with safe use of breathing apparatus, standards currently used by the UK Mines Rescue service.
The PPE
Personal protective equipment
Personal protective equipment refers to protective clothing, helmets, goggles, or other garment or equipment designed to protect the wearer's body from injury by blunt impacts, electrical hazards, heat, chemicals, and infection, for job-related occupational safety and health purposes, and in...
research has used ergonomic principles to design protective clothing and equipment that impose fewer demands on those required to use them. For example, IOM scientists helped develop improved powered helmet respirators following research that showed existing devices to be heavy, cumbersome, uncomfortable and intrusive.
In the 1990s, on behalf of the UK fire service, studies were carried out of the physiological and ergonomic impacts of breathing apparatus, fire hoods and protective clothing. The studies on fire hoods showed that, contrary to common belief, they did not effect the ability of firefighters to localise sound. This led to a recommendation by the UK Home Office
Home Office
The Home Office is the United Kingdom government department responsible for immigration control, security, and order. As such it is responsible for the police, UK Border Agency, and the Security Service . It is also in charge of government policy on security-related issues such as drugs,...
that all fire fighters should routinely be issued with such hoods, advice which is now followed throughout the UK. The IOM has helped to assess Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) protective clothing for the Home Office, and has recently assisted London Fire Brigade
London Fire Brigade
The London Fire Brigade is the statutory fire and rescue service for London.Founded in 1865, it is the largest of the fire services in the United Kingdom and the fourth-largest in the world with nearly 7,000 staff, including 5,800 operational firefighters based in 112 fire...
in the ergonomic assessment for selection of new protective clothing .
IOM has won three awards from the Ergonomics Society
Ergonomics Society
The Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors is the UK-based professional society for ergonomists, human factors specialist and those involved in user-centred design....
most recently the President’s Medal,(2009) for the work led by Dr Richard Graveling on personal protective equipment.
Environment and health
In the early 1990s, the IOM became involved in a series of projects in the European Framework Programmes for Research and Technological DevelopmentFramework Programmes for Research and Technological Development
The Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development, also called Framework Programmes or abbreviated FP1 through FP8, are funding programmes created by the European Union in order to support and encourage research in the European Research Area...
that addressed, amongst other things, the public health
Public health
Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals" . It is concerned with threats to health based on population health...
effects of air pollution
Air pollution
Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or cause damage to the natural environment or built environment, into the atmosphere....
from fossil fuel power plant
Fossil fuel power plant
A fossil-fuel power station is a power station that burns fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas or petroleum to produce electricity. Central station fossil-fuel power plants are designed on a large scale for continuous operation...
. These first steps in quantitative environmental Health Impact Assessment
Health Impact Assessment
Health Impact Assessment is defined as "a combination of procedures, methods and tools bywhich a policy, program or project may be judged as to its potential effects on the...
(HIA) led over time to further work, including involvement in the cost-benefit analysis
Cost-benefit analysis
Cost–benefit analysis , sometimes called benefit–cost analysis , is a systematic process for calculating and comparing benefits and costs of a project for two purposes: to determine if it is a sound investment , to see how it compares with alternate projects...
of the European Commission’s Clean Air for Europe (CAFE) programme, followed by some ground-breaking work on the use of life table
Life table
In actuarial science, a life table is a table which shows, for each age, what the probability is that a person of that age will die before his or her next birthday...
methods to estimate the impacts of air pollution
Air pollution
Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or cause damage to the natural environment or built environment, into the atmosphere....
on mortality
Mortality rate
Mortality rate is a measure of the number of deaths in a population, scaled to the size of that population, per unit time...
. This HIA work has expanded into health effects of other occupational and environmental pollutants and into public health more generally, leading to the establishment of the IOM’s Centre for Health Impact Assessment.
IOM scientists have investigated exposure of bystanders living or working near to fields that have been sprayed with pesticides and have undertaken a study to model the exposure of the British population to selected pesticides from food and other sources. This work demonstrated that although it is likely that most people are exposed to low levels of a wide variety of pesticide compounds it is unlikely that such exposure would have measurable effects on the health of the population.
In 1995 the Soufriere Hills volcano on the Caribbean
Caribbean
The Caribbean is a crescent-shaped group of islands more than 2,000 miles long separating the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, to the west and south, from the Atlantic Ocean, to the east and north...
island of Montserrat
Montserrat
Montserrat is a British overseas territory located in the Leeward Islands, part of the chain of islands called the Lesser Antilles in the West Indies. This island measures approximately long and wide, giving of coastline...
erupted, spewing volcanic ash containing large amounts of the crystalline silica mineral cristobalite
Cristobalite
The mineral cristobalite is a high-temperature polymorph of silica, meaning that it has the same chemical formula, SiO2, but a distinct crystal structure. Both quartz and cristobalite are polymorphs with all the members of the quartz group which also include coesite, tridymite and stishovite...
over the surrounding area. IOM scientists investigated the health of people who lived on the island. In general the exposure of the residents was low, because most people lived well away from the area of highest ash falls, and the ash proved of relatively low toxicity. The studies of the population showed no impairment of the islanders’ respiratory health.
Environment and health is now a well-established area of the IOM’s work, involving chemical monitoring, laboratory analysis, consultancy, literature reviews and collaborative primary research. It covers exposures to and health effects of a wide range of environmental hazards, including outdoor and indoor air pollution, ionising radiation and electromagnetic fields, dioxins and pesticides.
Consultancy
IOM’s research has helped to set standards and inform regulatory processes over the years, and this created the opportunity to offer consultancy services to customers in industry and elsewhere, to help them achieve best practice and comply with the law. Over the years, this advice has often been based on knowledge gained during their research work.The IOM have provided consultancies to a wide range of customers since the mid 1970s. In the beginning, the main impetus for the work came from Jim Dodgson, who built up occupational hygiene
Occupational hygiene
Occupational hygiene is generally defined as the art and science dedicated to the anticipation, recognition, evaluation, communication and control of environmental stressors in, or arising from, the workplace that may result in injury, illness, impairment, or affect the well being of workers and...
and chemical analysis in Edinburgh
Edinburgh
Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland, the second largest city in Scotland, and the eighth most populous in the United Kingdom. The City of Edinburgh Council governs one of Scotland's 32 local government council areas. The council area includes urban Edinburgh and a rural area...
and in their regional offices (then in South Wales
South Wales
South Wales is an area of Wales bordered by England and the Bristol Channel to the east and south, and Mid Wales and West Wales to the north and west. The most densely populated region in the south-west of the United Kingdom, it is home to around 2.1 million people and includes the capital city of...
, the Midlands
English Midlands
The Midlands, or the English Midlands, is the traditional name for the area comprising central England that broadly corresponds to the early medieval Kingdom of Mercia. It borders Southern England, Northern England, East Anglia and Wales. Its largest city is Birmingham, and it was an important...
and Tyne and Wear
Tyne and Wear
Tyne and Wear is a metropolitan county in north east England around the mouths of the Rivers Tyne and Wear. It came into existence as a metropolitan county in 1974 after the passage of the Local Government Act 1972...
). Then, as now, a substantial proportion of the work was related to asbestos sampling and analysis in buildings, industrial plant and contaminated land. IOM were amongst the first to introduce asbestos
Asbestos
Asbestos is a set of six naturally occurring silicate minerals used commercially for their desirable physical properties. They all have in common their eponymous, asbestiform habit: long, thin fibrous crystals...
clearance indicators in the UK - ahead of the Health and Safety Executive
Health and Safety Executive
The Health and Safety Executive is a non-departmental public body in the United Kingdom. It is the body responsible for the encouragement, regulation and enforcement of workplace health, safety and welfare, and for research into occupational risks in England and Wales and Scotland...
.
Thirty years ago IOM were already developing their occupational hygiene
Occupational hygiene
Occupational hygiene is generally defined as the art and science dedicated to the anticipation, recognition, evaluation, communication and control of environmental stressors in, or arising from, the workplace that may result in injury, illness, impairment, or affect the well being of workers and...
business in a variety of other directions. Countless surveys of occupational exposures to hazardous gases, liquids, fumes, dusts and fibres have been undertaken. They have advised on control methods for hazardous agents, from elimination or substitution, to organisational changes or the introduction of personal protective equipment
Personal protective equipment
Personal protective equipment refers to protective clothing, helmets, goggles, or other garment or equipment designed to protect the wearer's body from injury by blunt impacts, electrical hazards, heat, chemicals, and infection, for job-related occupational safety and health purposes, and in...
. Through the 1980s the consultancy work developed to include ergonomics
Ergonomics
Ergonomics is the study of designing equipment and devices that fit the human body, its movements, and its cognitive abilities.The International Ergonomics Association defines ergonomics as follows:...
and occupational medicine. By the time IOM became independent from British Coal in 1990, the consultancy work accounted for about 45% of the work.
The consultancy work grew steadily after independence, increasingly centred on the Edinburgh office. In 1998, IOM expanded this sector of the business and Dr Alastair Robertson was appointed to lead this development. A key objective was to expand geographically, and regional offices were opened in Chesterfield
Chesterfield
Chesterfield is a market town and a borough of Derbyshire, England. It lies north of Derby, on a confluence of the rivers Rother and Hipper. Its population is 70,260 , making it Derbyshire's largest town...
, London
London
London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...
and Stafford
Stafford
Stafford is the county town of Staffordshire, in the West Midlands region of England. It lies approximately north of Wolverhampton and south of Stoke-on-Trent, adjacent to the M6 motorway Junction 13 to Junction 14...
. By the end of the 2008-9, this type of work had grown over fourfold, accounting for over 70% of the IOM’s turnover. The consultancy work now covers the safety of nanoparticles, asbestos
Asbestos
Asbestos is a set of six naturally occurring silicate minerals used commercially for their desirable physical properties. They all have in common their eponymous, asbestiform habit: long, thin fibrous crystals...
management, occupational hygiene
Occupational hygiene
Occupational hygiene is generally defined as the art and science dedicated to the anticipation, recognition, evaluation, communication and control of environmental stressors in, or arising from, the workplace that may result in injury, illness, impairment, or affect the well being of workers and...
, occupational medicine, stress management
Stress management
Stress management is the alteration of stress and especially chronic stress often for the purpose of improving everyday functioning.Stress produces numerous symptoms which vary according to persons, situations, and severity. These can include physical health decline as well as depression. According...
, ergonomics
Ergonomics
Ergonomics is the study of designing equipment and devices that fit the human body, its movements, and its cognitive abilities.The International Ergonomics Association defines ergonomics as follows:...
, expert witness
Expert witness
An expert witness, professional witness or judicial expert is a witness, who by virtue of education, training, skill, or experience, is believed to have expertise and specialised knowledge in a particular subject beyond that of the average person, sufficient that others may officially and legally...
reports, the general environment and many laboratory analyses. The IOM work for government agencies, universities, the NHS, local authorities, private healthcare providers, large industrial concerns and small businesses, mainly within the UK but there also across the world, from Chile
Chile
Chile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...
to Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan , officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a transcontinental country in Central Asia and Eastern Europe. Ranked as the ninth largest country in the world, it is also the world's largest landlocked country; its territory of is greater than Western Europe...
, from Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe is a landlocked country located in the southern part of the African continent, between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers. It is bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the southwest, Zambia and a tip of Namibia to the northwest and Mozambique to the east. Zimbabwe has three...
to the United States of America and from St Helena to Montserrat
Montserrat
Montserrat is a British overseas territory located in the Leeward Islands, part of the chain of islands called the Lesser Antilles in the West Indies. This island measures approximately long and wide, giving of coastline...
.
Nanomaterials
Since 2002, led by Dr Rob Aitken, IOM has pioneered the assessment and management of hazards arising from nanotechnologies. Nanotechnologies are concerned with the development of new materials at the nanometreNanometre
A nanometre is a unit of length in the metric system, equal to one billionth of a metre. The name combines the SI prefix nano- with the parent unit name metre .The nanometre is often used to express dimensions on the atomic scale: the diameter...
scale, materials that have novel and exciting properties and applications. Nanomaterials have been the subject of massive financial investment worldwide. However, it has been recognised that they may also represent hazards to the health of workers, consumers or the environment.
Together with partners in the University of Edinburgh
University of Edinburgh
The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1583, is a public research university located in Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The university is deeply embedded in the fabric of the city, with many of the buildings in the historic Old Town belonging to the university...
, Napier University
Napier University
Edinburgh Napier is one of the largest higher education institutions in Scotland with over 17,000 students, including nearly 5,000 international students, from more than 100 nations worldwide.-History:...
and the University of Aberdeen
University of Aberdeen
The University of Aberdeen, an ancient university founded in 1495, in Aberdeen, Scotland, is a British university. It is the third oldest university in Scotland, and the fifth oldest in the United Kingdom and wider English-speaking world...
, IOM formed the SnIRC initiative (Safety of nanoparticles Interdisciplinary Research Centre) and with them have embarked on a programme of fundamental research, funded by the European Commission
European Commission
The European Commission is the executive body of the European Union. The body is responsible for proposing legislation, implementing decisions, upholding the Union's treaties and the general day-to-day running of the Union....
and others, on questions related to toxicity
Toxicity
Toxicity is the degree to which a substance can damage a living or non-living organisms. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a substructure of the organism, such as a cell or an organ , such as the liver...
, exposure and risk. The IOM and its partners have published a series of influential reviews on aspects of safe usage including patterns of use, regulation, food, and environment, sponsored by UK Government departments, in order to set UK Government policy in this area. Independently the IOM have published research strategies designed to address the many complex challenges to be faced. IOM now leads a large international study on the toxicology of nanoparticlesl involving 21 partner organisations from across Europe and the USA.
With UK Government support IOM has established SAFENANO, the most comprehensive free information resource on these issues available today. Using all available information, SAFENANO provides industry with state-of-the-art services in toxicology
Toxicology
Toxicology is a branch of biology, chemistry, and medicine concerned with the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms...
, exposure and risk assessment to help understand and mitigate potential risks to workers, consumers
Consumer
Consumer is a broad label for any individuals or households that use goods generated within the economy. The concept of a consumer occurs in different contexts, so that the usage and significance of the term may vary.-Economics and marketing:...
and the environment
Environment (biophysical)
The biophysical environment is the combined modeling of the physical environment and the biological life forms within the environment, and includes all variables, parameters as well as conditions and modes inside the Earth's biosphere. The biophysical environment can be divided into two categories:...
. SAFENANO is now Europe’s Centre of Excellence on Nanotechnology Hazard and Risk.
The development of new products containing carbon nanotubes has raised concerns that such materials may present risks similar to mineral fibres. Professor Ken Donaldson and others have published data on some of these materials showing similar toxicological responses as to asbestos
Asbestos
Asbestos is a set of six naturally occurring silicate minerals used commercially for their desirable physical properties. They all have in common their eponymous, asbestiform habit: long, thin fibrous crystals...
, implying that exposure to some types of carbon nanotubes could carry similar hazard. While more research is needed on the toxicology
Toxicology
Toxicology is a branch of biology, chemistry, and medicine concerned with the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms...
and potential exposures to these materials, action has already been taken by regulators to reduce possible risks to workers.
External links
- Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM)
- IOM on Twitter
- World Health Organisation (WHO) Occupational Health Collaborating Centres
- IOSH Occupational Health Toolkit, developed with assistance from IOM
- The SnIRC collaboration on the safety of nanomaterials
- SAFENANO at IOM
- IOM Pesticide Biomonitoring Project
- INTegrated Exposure for Risk Assessment in indoor environments (INTERA)
- Scottish Centre for Indoor Air (SCIA)
- Indoor Air Pollution and Health Project (IAPAH)
- EDPHIS - Environmental Determinants of Public Health in Scotland
- Health and Environment Integrated Methodology and Toolbox for Scenario Assessment (HEIMTSA) - EU FP6 project
- ENPRA - Risk Assessment of Engineered NanoParticles (FP7 Project)
- Occupational Cancer website
- European Network on the Health and Environmental Impact of Nanomaterials - EU FP7 project
- University of Aberdeen, Environmental and Occupational Medicine
- Napier University, Pollution and nanoparticle toxicology page
- Health and Safety Executive
- ChemicalWatch
- OH-world, for people interested in occupational hygiene