Invasion of Manchuria
Encyclopedia
The Japanese invasion of Manchuria began on September 19, 1931, when Manchuria
was invaded by the Kwantung Army of the Empire of Japan
immediately following the Mukden Incident
. The Japanese established a puppet state, called Manchukoku, and their occupation lasted until the end of World War II
.
, the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters
, which had decided upon a policy of localizing the incident, communicated its decision to the Kwantung Army command.
In violation of orders from Tokyo, Kwantung Army commander in chief General Shigeru Honjō
ordered that his forces quickly proceed to expand operations all along the South Manchurian Railway. Under orders from Lieutenant General Jirō Tamon
, troops of the 2nd Division
moved up the rail line and captured virtually every city along its 730 mile length in a matter of days, occupying Anshan, Haicheng, Kaiyuan
, Tiehling
, Fushun
, Szeping-chieh
, Changchun
, Kuanchengtzu
, Yingkou
, Antung
, and Penhsihu
.
Likewise on September 19, in response to General Honjō's request, the Chosun Army
in Korea
under General Senjuro Hayashi
had ordered the 20th Infantry Division to split its force, forming the 39th Mixed Brigade, which departed on that day for Manchuria without authorization from the Emperor
.
Between September 20 and September 25, Japanese forces took Hsiungyueh
, Changtu, Liaoyang
, Tungliao
, Tiaonan, Kirin
, Chiaoho
, Huangkutun and Hsin-min
. This effectively secured control of Liaoning
and Kirin provinces and the main line of rail communications to Korea.
The Japanese civilian government was thrown into disarray by this massive act of insubordination
, but as reports of one quick victory after another began to pour in, it was powerless to oppose the Army, and its decision was to immediately send three more infantry divisions from Japan, beginning with the 14th Mixed Brigade of the IJA 7th Division.
. Other secessionist movements were organized in Japanese-occupied Kirin by General Xi Qia
head of the "New Kirin" Army
, and at Harbin, by General Chang Ching-hui
. In early October, at Taonan
in northwest Liaoning province, General Chang Hai-peng
declared his district independent of China, in return for a shipment of a large quantity of military supplies by the Japanese Army.
General Chang Hai-peng followed up on October 13 by sending three regiments of the Hsingan Reclamation Army
under General Xu Jinglong north to take the capital of Heilongjiang province at Tsitsihar. Some elements in the city offered to peacefully surrender the old walled town, and Chang advanced cautiously to accept. However his advance guard was attacked by General Dou Lianfang's troops, and in a savage fight with an engineer company defending the north bank, were sent fleeing in a rout with heavy losses. During this fight the Nenjiang railroad bridge was dynamited by troops loyal to General Ma Zhanshan to prevent any further crossing.
, who chose to disobey the Kuomintang government's ban on further resistance to the Japanese invasion.
Despite his failure to hold the bridge, General Ma Zhanshan became a national hero in China for his resistance at Nenjiang Bridge, which was widely reported in the Chinese and international press. The publicity inspired more volunteers to enlist in the Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies
.
The repaired bridge made possible the further advance of Japanese forces and their armored trains. Additional troops from Japan, notably the 4th Mixed Brigade
from the 8th Division, were sent in November.
On November 15, 1931, despite having lost more than 400 men and 300 left wounded since November 5, General Ma declined a Japanese ultimatum to surrender Tsitsihar. On November 17, in subzero weather, 3,500 Japanese troops, under the command of General Jirō Tamon
, mounted an attack, forcing General Ma from Tsitsihar by November 19.
from Mukden. This force had advanced to within 30 kilometres (18.6 mi) of Chinchow, when it received an order to withdraw. The operation was cancelled by Japanese War Minister
General Jirō Minami
, due to the acceptance of modified form of a League of Nations
proposal for a "neutral zone" to be established as a buffer zone between China proper and Manchuria pending a future China-Japanese peace conference by the civilian government of Prime Minister
Wakatsuki Reijiro
in Tokyo.
However, the two sides failed to reach a lasting agreement. The Wakatsuki government soon fell and was replaced by a new cabinet led by Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi
. Further negotiations with the Kuomintang
government failing, the Japanese government authorized the reinforcement of troops in Manchuria. In December, the rest of 20th Infantry Division, along with 38th Mixed Brigade from the 19th Infantry Division were sent into Manchuria from Korea while the 8th Mixed Brigade from the 10th Infantry Division was sent from Japan. The total strength of the Kwantung Army was thus increased to around 60,450 men.
With this stronger force the Japanese Army announced on December 21 the beginning of large scale anti-bandit operations in Manchuria to quell a growing resistance movement by the local Chinese population in Liaoning and Kirin provinces.
On December 28, a new government was formed in China after all members of the old Nanjing government resigned. This threw the military command into turmoil, and the Chinese army retreated to the south of the Great Wall into Hebei
province, a humiliating move which lowered China's international image. Japanese forces occupied Chinchow on January 3, 1932, after the Chinese defenders retreated without giving combat. The following day the Japanese occupied Shanhaiguan
completing their military takeover of southern Manchuria.
requested collaborationist General Qia Xi to advance his forces and take Harbin.
The last major Chinese regular force in northern Manchuria was led by General Ting Chao who organized the defense of Harbin successfully against General Xi until the arrival of the IJA 2nd Division under General Jirō Tamon
. Japanese forces took Harbin on February 4, 1932.
By the end of February Ma had sought terms and joined the newly formed Manchukuo
government as governor of Heilongjiang province and Minister of War.
On February 27, 1932, Ting offered to cease hostilities, ending official Chinese resistance in Manchuria, although combat by guerilla
and irregular forces continued as Japan spent many years in their campaign to pacify Manchukuo
.
When the Lytton Commission issued a report on the invasion, despite its statements that China had to a certain extent provoked Japan, and China's sovereignty over Manchuria was not absolute, Japan took it as an unacceptable rebuke and withdrew from the League of Nations
, which also helped create international isolation.
Manchuria
Manchuria is a historical name given to a large geographic region in northeast Asia. Depending on the definition of its extent, Manchuria usually falls entirely within the People's Republic of China, or is sometimes divided between China and Russia. The region is commonly referred to as Northeast...
was invaded by the Kwantung Army of the Empire of Japan
Empire of Japan
The Empire of Japan is the name of the state of Japan that existed from the Meiji Restoration on 3 January 1868 to the enactment of the post-World War II Constitution of...
immediately following the Mukden Incident
Mukden Incident
The Mukden Incident, also known as the Manchurian Incident, was a staged event that was engineered by Japanese military personnel as a pretext for invading the northern part of China known as Manchuria in 1931....
. The Japanese established a puppet state, called Manchukoku, and their occupation lasted until the end of World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
.
Railway blitzkrieg
On September 18, 1931, the day after the Mukden IncidentMukden Incident
The Mukden Incident, also known as the Manchurian Incident, was a staged event that was engineered by Japanese military personnel as a pretext for invading the northern part of China known as Manchuria in 1931....
, the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters
Imperial General Headquarters
The as part of the Supreme War Council was established in 1893 to coordinate efforts between the Imperial Japanese Army and Imperial Japanese Navy during wartime...
, which had decided upon a policy of localizing the incident, communicated its decision to the Kwantung Army command.
In violation of orders from Tokyo, Kwantung Army commander in chief General Shigeru Honjō
Shigeru Honjo
-Notes:...
ordered that his forces quickly proceed to expand operations all along the South Manchurian Railway. Under orders from Lieutenant General Jirō Tamon
Jiro Tamon
-External links:* * - Notes :...
, troops of the 2nd Division
2nd Division (Imperial Japanese Army)
The was an infantry division in the Imperial Japanese Army. Its call-sign was .-History:The 2nd Infantry Division was formed in Sendai, Miyagi in January 1871 as the , one of six regional commands created in the fledgling Imperial Japanese Army. The Sendai Garrison had responsibility for northern...
moved up the rail line and captured virtually every city along its 730 mile length in a matter of days, occupying Anshan, Haicheng, Kaiyuan
Kaiyuan
Kaiyuan may refer to:Places* Kaiyuan, Liaoning , a county-level city in Liaoning, China* Kaiyuan, Yunnan , a county-level city in Yunnan* Kaiyuan Subdistrict, Xiamen , a subdistrict in Siming District, Xiamen, Fujian...
, Tiehling
Tieling
Tieling is a prefecture-level city in Liaoning province of the People's Republic of China.The population is 3 million at the 2nd of 2004. Tieling is a city where coal mining is an important industry.The mayor of Tieling is Li Wenke...
, Fushun
Fushun
Fushun is a city in Liaoning, China, about 45 km east from Shenyang, with a population about 2,138 090 inhabitants at the 2010 census and an area of 11,271 km2, including 713 km2 of the city proper. Fushun is situated on the Hun He . It was formerly called Fouchouen in French...
, Szeping-chieh
Siping (city)
Siping , formerly Ssupingkai , is a prefecture-level city in the west of Jilin province in Northeast China. Located in the southwestern part of Jilin Province, in the middle of Songliao Plain and at the intersection of Jilin Province, Liaoning Province and Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, Siping...
, Changchun
Changchun
Changchun is the capital and largest city of Jilin province, located in the northeast of the People's Republic of China, in the center of the Songliao Plain. It is administered as a sub-provincial city with a population of 7,677,089 at the 2010 census under its jurisdiction, including counties and...
, Kuanchengtzu
Huadian
Huadian is a city in southeastern Jilin province, People's Republic of China. It is under the administration of Jilin City.-Administrative divisions:Subdistricts:...
, Yingkou
Yingkou
Yingkou is located in the northwestern portion of the Liaodong Peninsula, and on the left bank of the Daliao River, which enters the sea in the city. To the west is the Liaodong Bay of the Bohai Gulf, and the city thus looks across to Jinzhou and Huludao...
, Antung
Dandong
Dandong , previously known as Andong and Antung, is a city in Liaoning Province, Northeast China. It lies on the border between China and North Korea, which is marked by the Yalu River, and is the largest border city in China. Also, to the southwest of the city, the river flows into Korea Bay...
, and Penhsihu
Benxi
Benxi is a prefecture-level city located in the east of Liaoning province in Northeast China, south-southeast of Shenyang. Its population is 1,709,538 at the 2010 census whom 959,610 in the built up area It was founded as a metallurgical center in 1915...
.
Likewise on September 19, in response to General Honjō's request, the Chosun Army
Chosen Army of Japan
The was an army of the Imperial Japanese Army, forming a garrison force in Korea under Japanese rule.-History:Japanese forces occupied large portions of the Empire of Korea during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, and a substantial was established in Seoul to protect the Japanese embassy and...
in Korea
Korea
Korea ) is an East Asian geographic region that is currently divided into two separate sovereign states — North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by the People's Republic of China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the...
under General Senjuro Hayashi
Senjuro Hayashi
was an Imperial Japanese Army commander of the Chosen Army of Japan in Korea during the Mukden Incident and the invasion of Manchuria, and a Japanese politician and the 33rd Prime Minister of Japan from February 2, 1937 to June 4, 1937.-Biography:...
had ordered the 20th Infantry Division to split its force, forming the 39th Mixed Brigade, which departed on that day for Manchuria without authorization from the Emperor
Hirohito
, posthumously in Japan officially called Emperor Shōwa or , was the 124th Emperor of Japan according to the traditional order, reigning from December 25, 1926, until his death in 1989. Although better known outside of Japan by his personal name Hirohito, in Japan he is now referred to...
.
Between September 20 and September 25, Japanese forces took Hsiungyueh
Xiongyuecheng
Xiongyuecheng or Hsiungyueh is a city on the Liaodong Peninsula, in Liaoning province, China....
, Changtu, Liaoyang
Liaoyang
Liaoyang is a city in China, Liaoning province, located in the middle of the Liaodong Peninsula. The city is situated on the T'ai-tzu River and forms with Anshan a built up area of 2,057,200 inhabitants in 2010....
, Tungliao
Liaoyuan
Liaoyuan is a prefecture-level city in the west of Jilin province in Northeast China, bounded on the west by Liaoning province. Liaoyuan city lies some 100 km southeast of Changchun, the capital of Jilin province. Covering an area of 5,125 square kilometers, Liaoyuan is the smallest among the...
, Tiaonan, Kirin
Jilin
Jilin , is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the northeastern part of the country. Jilin borders North Korea and Russia to the east, Heilongjiang to the north, Liaoning to the south, and Inner Mongolia to the west...
, Chiaoho
Jiaohe
Jiaohe is a middle-sized city in east-central Jilin province, People's Republic of China. It is under the administration of Jilin City, to the west, and it is well-known for its production of tobacco...
, Huangkutun and Hsin-min
Xinmin
Xinmin is a city in Liaoning province, People's Republic of China. It is a county-level city under the administration of Shenyang, the provincial capital.-Administrative Divisions:...
. This effectively secured control of Liaoning
Liaoning
' is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the northeast of the country. Its one-character abbreviation is "辽" , a name taken from the Liao River that flows through the province. "Níng" means "peace"...
and Kirin provinces and the main line of rail communications to Korea.
The Japanese civilian government was thrown into disarray by this massive act of insubordination
Gekokujo
is a Japanese term variously translated as the lower rules the higher or the low overcomes the high. The phenomenon became prevalent during the Warring States period , starting with the Ōnin War when the power of the Muromachi Shogunate ended in factional strife and the burning of Kyoto...
, but as reports of one quick victory after another began to pour in, it was powerless to oppose the Army, and its decision was to immediately send three more infantry divisions from Japan, beginning with the 14th Mixed Brigade of the IJA 7th Division.
Secession movements
After the Liaoning Provincial government fled Mukden, it was replaced by a "Peoples Preservation Committee" which declared the secession of Liaoning province from the Republic of ChinaRepublic of China
The Republic of China , commonly known as Taiwan , is a unitary sovereign state located in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China currently governs the island of Taiwan , which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other minor...
. Other secessionist movements were organized in Japanese-occupied Kirin by General Xi Qia
Xi Qia
Xi Qia , also Xi Xia , was a general in command of the Kirin Provincial Army of the Republic of China, who defected to the Japanese during the Invasion of Manchuria in 1931, and who subsequently served as a cabinet minister in Manchukuo....
head of the "New Kirin" Army
Manchukuo Imperial Army
The Manchukuo Imperial Army was the armed force of the Japanese dominated puppet state of Manchukuo, serving as the land forces, along with the Manchukuo Imperial Guards...
, and at Harbin, by General Chang Ching-hui
Zhang Jinghui
Zhāng Jǐnghuì ; 1871 – 1 November 1959) was a Chinese general and politician during the Warlord era. He is noted for his role in the Japanese puppet regime of Manchukuo in which he served as its second and final Prime Minister.-Biography:...
. In early October, at Taonan
Taonan
-Administrative Divisions:There are 6 subdistricts, 5 towns, 14 townships, and 2 ethnic townships.Subdistricts:*Tuanjie Subdistrict , Fuwen Subdistrict , Guangming Subdistrict , Xinglong Subdistrict , Yongkang Subdistrict , Tongda Subdistrict Towns:*Wafang , Wanbao , Heishui , Najin , Anding...
in northwest Liaoning province, General Chang Hai-peng
Chang Hai-peng
Zhang Haipeng , was a Chinese Northeastern Army general, who went over to the Japanese during the Invasion of Manchuria and became a general in the Manchukuo Imperial Army of the state of Manchukuo.-Biography:...
declared his district independent of China, in return for a shipment of a large quantity of military supplies by the Japanese Army.
General Chang Hai-peng followed up on October 13 by sending three regiments of the Hsingan Reclamation Army
Manchukuo Imperial Army
The Manchukuo Imperial Army was the armed force of the Japanese dominated puppet state of Manchukuo, serving as the land forces, along with the Manchukuo Imperial Guards...
under General Xu Jinglong north to take the capital of Heilongjiang province at Tsitsihar. Some elements in the city offered to peacefully surrender the old walled town, and Chang advanced cautiously to accept. However his advance guard was attacked by General Dou Lianfang's troops, and in a savage fight with an engineer company defending the north bank, were sent fleeing in a rout with heavy losses. During this fight the Nenjiang railroad bridge was dynamited by troops loyal to General Ma Zhanshan to prevent any further crossing.
Resistance to the Japanese invasion
With the repair of the Nen River Bridge as the pretext, the Japanese sent a repair party in early November under the protection of Japanese troops. Fighting erupted between the Japanese forces and troops loyal to the acting governor of Heilongjiang province Muslim General Ma ZhanshanMa Zhanshan
Ma Zhanshan or Ma Chan-san , was a Chinese Muslim general who initially opposed the Imperial Japanese Army in the invasion of Manchuria, briefly defected to Manchukuo, and then rebelled, and fought against the Japanese in Manchuria and in other parts of China.-Early life:Ma was born...
, who chose to disobey the Kuomintang government's ban on further resistance to the Japanese invasion.
Despite his failure to hold the bridge, General Ma Zhanshan became a national hero in China for his resistance at Nenjiang Bridge, which was widely reported in the Chinese and international press. The publicity inspired more volunteers to enlist in the Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies
Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies
After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, and until 1933, large volunteer armies waged war against Japanese and Manchukuo forces over much of Northeast China....
.
The repaired bridge made possible the further advance of Japanese forces and their armored trains. Additional troops from Japan, notably the 4th Mixed Brigade
4th Mixed Brigade (Imperial Japanese Army)
The 4th Mixed Brigade of the Imperial Japanese Army was a detachment from the 8th Division, in November 1931 to Heilongjiang province to reinforce the Invasion of Manchuria. It participated in the capture of Harbin in February 1932. It rejoined its parent unit when the 8th Division came to...
from the 8th Division, were sent in November.
On November 15, 1931, despite having lost more than 400 men and 300 left wounded since November 5, General Ma declined a Japanese ultimatum to surrender Tsitsihar. On November 17, in subzero weather, 3,500 Japanese troops, under the command of General Jirō Tamon
Jiro Tamon
-External links:* * - Notes :...
, mounted an attack, forcing General Ma from Tsitsihar by November 19.
Operations in southern Manchuria
In late November 1931, General Honjō dispatched 10,000 soldiers in 13 armored trains, escorted by a squadron of bombers, in an advance on ChinchowJinzhou
Jinzhou , is a prefecture-level city of Liaoning province, China. It is a geographically strategic city located in the "Liaoxi Corridor" , which connects land transportation between North China and Northeast China. Jinzhou is China's northernmost seaport and the coastal economic center of West...
from Mukden. This force had advanced to within 30 kilometres (18.6 mi) of Chinchow, when it received an order to withdraw. The operation was cancelled by Japanese War Minister
Ministry of War of Japan
The , more popularly known as the Ministry of War of Japan, was cabinet-level ministry in the Empire of Japan charged with the administrative affairs of the Imperial Japanese Army...
General Jirō Minami
Jiro Minami
- Notes :...
, due to the acceptance of modified form of a League of Nations
League of Nations
The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organization founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first permanent international organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace...
proposal for a "neutral zone" to be established as a buffer zone between China proper and Manchuria pending a future China-Japanese peace conference by the civilian government of Prime Minister
Prime Minister of Japan
The is the head of government of Japan. He is appointed by the Emperor of Japan after being designated by the Diet from among its members, and must enjoy the confidence of the House of Representatives to remain in office...
Wakatsuki Reijiro
Wakatsuki Reijiro
ōBaron was a Japanese politician and the 25th and 28th Prime Minister of Japan. Opposition politicians of the time derogatorily labeled him Usotsuki Reijirō, or "Reijirō the Liar".- Early life :...
in Tokyo.
However, the two sides failed to reach a lasting agreement. The Wakatsuki government soon fell and was replaced by a new cabinet led by Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi
Inukai Tsuyoshi
was a Japanese politician and the 29th Prime Minister of Japan from 13 December 1931 to 15 May 1932.-Early life:Inukai was born to a former samurai family of the Niwase Domain, in Niwase village, Bizen Province , and was a graduate of Keio Gijuku in Tokyo. In his early career, he worked as a...
. Further negotiations with the Kuomintang
Kuomintang
The Kuomintang of China , sometimes romanized as Guomindang via the Pinyin transcription system or GMD for short, and translated as the Chinese Nationalist Party is a founding and ruling political party of the Republic of China . Its guiding ideology is the Three Principles of the People, espoused...
government failing, the Japanese government authorized the reinforcement of troops in Manchuria. In December, the rest of 20th Infantry Division, along with 38th Mixed Brigade from the 19th Infantry Division were sent into Manchuria from Korea while the 8th Mixed Brigade from the 10th Infantry Division was sent from Japan. The total strength of the Kwantung Army was thus increased to around 60,450 men.
With this stronger force the Japanese Army announced on December 21 the beginning of large scale anti-bandit operations in Manchuria to quell a growing resistance movement by the local Chinese population in Liaoning and Kirin provinces.
On December 28, a new government was formed in China after all members of the old Nanjing government resigned. This threw the military command into turmoil, and the Chinese army retreated to the south of the Great Wall into Hebei
Hebei
' is a province of the People's Republic of China in the North China region. Its one-character abbreviation is "" , named after Ji Province, a Han Dynasty province that included what is now southern Hebei...
province, a humiliating move which lowered China's international image. Japanese forces occupied Chinchow on January 3, 1932, after the Chinese defenders retreated without giving combat. The following day the Japanese occupied Shanhaiguan
Shanhaiguan District
Shanhaiguan District is a district of the city of Qinhuangdao, Hebei province, People's Republic of China, named after the pass of the Great Wall within the district, Shanhai Pass...
completing their military takeover of southern Manchuria.
Occupation of northern Manchuria
With southern Manchuria secure, the Japanese turned north to complete the occupation of Manchuria. As negotiations with Generals Zanshan Ma and Chao Ting to defect to the pro-Japanese side had failed, in early January Colonel Kenji DoiharaKenji Doihara
was a general in the Imperial Japanese Army in World War II. He was instrumental in the Japanese invasion of Manchuria for which he earned fame taking the nickname 'Lawrence of Manchuria', a reference to the Lawrence of Arabia....
requested collaborationist General Qia Xi to advance his forces and take Harbin.
The last major Chinese regular force in northern Manchuria was led by General Ting Chao who organized the defense of Harbin successfully against General Xi until the arrival of the IJA 2nd Division under General Jirō Tamon
Jiro Tamon
-External links:* * - Notes :...
. Japanese forces took Harbin on February 4, 1932.
By the end of February Ma had sought terms and joined the newly formed Manchukuo
Manchukuo
Manchukuo or Manshū-koku was a puppet state in Manchuria and eastern Inner Mongolia, governed under a form of constitutional monarchy. The region was the historical homeland of the Manchus, who founded the Qing Empire in China...
government as governor of Heilongjiang province and Minister of War.
On February 27, 1932, Ting offered to cease hostilities, ending official Chinese resistance in Manchuria, although combat by guerilla
Guerrilla warfare
Guerrilla warfare is a form of irregular warfare and refers to conflicts in which a small group of combatants including, but not limited to, armed civilians use military tactics, such as ambushes, sabotage, raids, the element of surprise, and extraordinary mobility to harass a larger and...
and irregular forces continued as Japan spent many years in their campaign to pacify Manchukuo
Pacification of Manchukuo
The Pacification of Manchukuo, was a campaign to pacify the resistance to the newly established puppet state of Manchukuo between the Anti-Japanese Volunteer Armies of Manchuria and later the Communist Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army and the Imperial Japanese Army and the forces of the...
.
External impact
Western media reported on the events with accounts of atrocities such as bombing civilians, or firing upon shell-shocked survivors. It aroused considerable antipathy to Japan, which lasted until the end of World War II.When the Lytton Commission issued a report on the invasion, despite its statements that China had to a certain extent provoked Japan, and China's sovereignty over Manchuria was not absolute, Japan took it as an unacceptable rebuke and withdrew from the League of Nations
League of Nations
The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organization founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first permanent international organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace...
, which also helped create international isolation.
External links
- "On The Eastern Front", April 1932, Popular Science photo collection of Invasion of Manchuria and Shanghi International Settlement During the Shanghai Incident
- "MANCHURIA - What This Is All About", February 1932, Popular Mechanics
- International Military Tribunal for the Far East Japanese Aggression Against China
- Monograph 144, Manchurian Incident
- "Secessionist Movements" From Time Magazine Oct. 12, 1931
- Boycott, Bloodshed & Puppetry From TIME magazine Oct. 26, 1931
- "Strong Policy" From TIME magazine Dec. 28, 1931
- Jaunting Juggernaut From Time Magazine, Jan. 4, 1932
- Fun & Blood From Time Magazine, Jan. 11, 1932
- Flight of Ting From the February 15, 1932 issue of TIME magazine
- Mukden Incident & Manchukuo, WW2 database
- Manchuria 1931-1932 Photos from the Manchurian campaign
- AMS Topographic maps of Manchuria