Ioannis Makrygiannis
Encyclopedia
General Yannis Makriyannis (Ιωάννης Μακρυγιάννης, also anglicized as Ioannis, Ioannes and Makriyiannis, Makrygiannis, Makrygiannēs, Macriyannis, etc.) (1797–1864) was a Greek
merchant, military officer, politician and author, best known today for his Memoirs. Starting from humble origins, he joined the Greek struggle for independence
, achieving the rank of general
and leading his men to notable victories. Following Greek independence, he had a tumultuous public career, playing a prominent part in the granting of the first Constitution
of the Kingdom of Greece
and later being sentenced to death and pardoned.
Despite his important contributions to the political life of the early Greek state
, general Makriyannis is mostly remembered for his Memoirs. Aside from being a source of historical and cultural information about the period, this work has also been called a "monument of Modern Greek literature", as it is written in pure Demotic Greek. Indeed, its literary quality led Nobel laureate Giorgos Seferis
to call Makriyannis one of the greatest masters of Modern Greek prose.
. Makriyannis (Long John) was a nickname he acquired because of his height. His father, Dimitris Triantaphyllou, was killed in a clash with the forces of Ali Pasha
. His family was forced to flee to Levadeia, where Makriyannis spent his childhood up to 1811. At age seven, he was given as a foster son to a wealthy man from Levadeia, but the menial labour and beatings he endured were, in his own words, "his death". Thus, in 1811 he left for Arta
to stay with an acquaintance who maintained close relations with Ali Pasha. There, still a teenager, he was involved in trade and, according to his memoirs, became a wealthy man. His property amounted to 40,000 piastres
. According to Sphyroeras, he probably joined the Filiki Etaireia, a secret anti-Ottoman
society, in 1820. In March 1821 he left for Patras
, in the Peloponnese
, supposedly on business. His actual assignment, however, was to inform local members of the Filiki Etaireia of the state of affairs in his native Roumeli
. Having met with Odysseas Androutsos
, he returned to Arta two days before the revolution broke out in Patras and was promptly arrested by the Ottoman authorities and placed under arrest in the local fortress. He was held captive for 90 days but managed to escape and, in August 1821, first took up arms against the Ottomans under chieftain Gogos Bakolas.
Under the command of Gogos Bakolas, in September 1821 he took part in the battle of Stavros, near Tzoumerka
, and in the battle of Peta
, where he sustained a light leg injury. A few days later he took part in the siege of Arta that temporarily brought the city under Greek control. In late 1821, he left for Mesolonghi, but there, according to his memoirs, he fell seriously ill, only recovering in March 1822. Having spent his recovery in the village of Sernikaki, near Salona
, he resumed military action, assuming the leadership of a band of warriors from four villages in the vicinity. He fought alongside several other chieftains during the successful siege of Ypati
, which had been fortified with considerable Ottoman forces.
After the Acropolis
of Athens
was surrendered by the Ottomans in June 1822, Makriyannis was appointed Supervisor of Public Order in the city by the executive authority of Roumeli on 1 January 1823. In that office, he took severe measures aimed at stopping arbitrary oppression of the populace and thievery. In the summer of 1823, he fought alongside Nikitaras
in the eastern part of Central Greece
. In October 1823, he led a force of Roumeliots in the Peloponnese, and fought alongside the government of Georgios Kountouriotis
against the rebels in the civil war. For his actions during that conflict, he was rewarded with the rank of brigadier
, promoted to lieutenant general
in August 1824 and full general in late 1824.
In March 1825, after the Peloponnese had been invaded by Egyptian forces
, he was appointed politarch (head of public order) of Kyparissia
and took part in the defence of Neokastro. After the fortress fell on 11 May 1825, he hurried to Myloi
, near Nafplio, arriving with one hundred men on 10 June. He ordered the construction of makeshift fortifications, as well as the gathering of provisions. More chieftains soon arrived in Myloi and Ibrahim Pasha
, the commander of the Egyptian forces, was unable to take the position, despite numerical superiority and the launching of fierce attacks on 12 and 14 June. Makriyannis was injured during the battle and was carried to Nafplio.
Soon after the battle, he married the daughter of a prominent Athenian, and his activities were thereafter inextricably linked with that city until his death. After Athens was captured by Ibrahim Pasha in June 1826, Makriyannis helped organise the defence of the Acropolis, and became the provisional commander of the garrison after the death of the commander, Yannis Gouras. He managed to repel a fierce assault against the Odeon of Herodes Atticus
on 7 October, and during the defence of the Acropolis, he sustained heavy injures three times, to the head and to the neck. These wounds troubled him for the remainder of his life, but they did not dissuade him from taking part in the last phase of the war: in the spring of 1827 he took part in the battles of Piraeus
and the battle of Analatos.
arrived in Greece, he appointed Makriyannis "General Leader of the Executive Authority of the Peloponnese", based in Argos
, in 1828. It was during this period, and more specifically on 26 February 1829, that he started writing his Memoirs. After Kapodistrias restructured the military in 1830, Makriyannis was given the rank of brigadier. However, he slowly came to oppose the Governor's policies and eventually broke with him. He opposed what he considered Kapodistrias's personal authoritarianism and, on a more personal level, was concerned about whether his home region would be included or not in the liberated Greek state. Influenced by Ioannis Kolettis
, he even tried to force the Governor into accepting a constitutional form of government, using the troops under his command, but had no success. Finally, in August 1831, the government forced all civil servants and military personnel to sign an oath stating they were not part of secret organizations and that they were loyal servants of the government's commands. Makriyannis considered this to be degrading, and tried to author his own version of an oath instead. This, however, was not accepted by the government, and he was consequently stripped of his positions. His opposition to the existing regime did not cease with the Governor's assassination on 9 October 1831. He took the side of the "Constitutionalists" and fought against the governor's brother and successor Augustinos Kapodistrias
. He did, however, condemn the assassination itself in the strongest terms.
, was chosen as the first King of Greece in 1832, under the name Othon
. His arrival in Nafplio, then the Greek capital, was hailed enthusiastically by Makriyannis. This attitude is exemplified in his Memoirs: The hopes he had for the new regime, however, were soon to be dispelled. King Otho was underage and Bavarian regents were named to rule on his behalf during the first months of his rule. During the regency, Makriyannis came into conflict with the War Minister
, the Bavarian Heidek, due to the latter's attitude towards the veterans of the War of Independence. In the newly restructured Greek Army, there was little place left for the irregular bands
of klephts. These guerilla-styled fighters had formed the backbone of the Greek forces during the war, and Makriyannis considered their exclusion from the newly formed army disrespectful. Furthermore, most of these men had been left with no resources after their exclusion from the military, and found themselves in a dire financial situation. Makriyannis also believed that the Prime Minister, the Bavarian von Armansperg
, was personally responsible for the serious problems faced by the newly formed state. As a consequence, Makriyannis briefly retired from active politics.
After municipalities were first instituted by Royal decree on 27 December 1833, Makriyannis was elected to the city council of Athens (the city becoming the new capital in 1834). In that capacity he harshly criticised, to the extent that it was possible, what he perceived as omissions and authoritarianism by the royal administration and Palace Cabinet. He often voiced his demand for constitutional rule, even though the royal administration had initially held him in high esteem and given him the rank of colonel
. During the King's absence from Greece on the occasion of his marriage to Queen Amalia
(late 1836 - early 1837), public discontent with von Armansperg was at its peak. The newspapers Athena and Elpis criticized him severely, and some politicians called for his removal. Makriyannis, in his capacity as President of the Athens city council, proposed, in January 1837, the adoption of a resolution to be handed to the King upon his return requesting the granting of a Constitution. Not long before that, at a banquet attended by former fighters of the War of Independence, such as Kountouriotis
, Kolokotronis and others, Makriyannis had toasted the health of the royal couple, adding "may God enlighten them to rule us through constitutional laws, in accordance with the fatherland's sacrifices". Von Armansperg immediately dissolved the city council, fired Mayor Petrakis and had Makriyannis placed under house arrest. Sometime during this period, Makriyannis commissioned 25 engravings from the painter and veteran of the War of Independence, Panaghiotis Zographos. The profits from the sales were used to the benefit of veterans of the war.
Meanwhile, the demand for constitutional liberties was becoming widespread, as was discontent with King Otto's Bavarian administration. The situation escalated in the 3 September 1843 Revolution that led to the granting of the first Constitution
. Makriyannis was one of the three leaders of the movement. He played a crucial part in paving the way for this, having started as early as 1840. After its granting, he also played an important part in the forming of the new cabinet. He was elected as a representative of Athens to the National (Constitutional) Assembly, and headed an informal group of 63 representatives loyal to him. He personally proposed various recommendations during the course of the proceedings. Soon after the conclusion of the Assembly's work, however, he retired from politics. For his leading role in the creation of the first Greek Constitution, Makriyannis was depicted on the reverse
of the Greek 50 drachmas
commemorative coin issued in 1994 for the 150th anniversary of this historic document. There are three versions of the coin, each featuring one of the three leaders of the September 3 movement: one features Makriyannis, one colonel Dimitrios Kallergis
, and one minister (and later prime minister) Andreas Metaxas
.
Makriyannis stopped working on his memoirs in 1850, so information about the rest of his life, including his trial, comes from other sources. He was always outspoken about his views, and as a result he stirred negative reactions among his opponents. He opposed what he perceived as a continued degradation of the veterans of the War of Independence, and had repeatedly been considered suspect of plotting against King Otho. Furthermore, the King never quite forgave him for his part in the 3 September movement. When summoned to the palace and asked to denounce all the conspirators of 1843, Makriyannis refused, saying "I am not a slave". Eventually, in 1852, he was accused of planning to "overthrow the establishments and assassinate the King". On 13 April 1852 he was placed under house arrest, heavily guarded and with an officer posted in the room next to his own. On 16 March 1853 he was sentenced to death, in what has been called a "pre-fabricated trial". According to Vidal-Naquet
, the prosecution brought up false testimonies and false evidence. Furthermore, the president of the tribunal, Kitsos Tzavelas
, was a personal enemy of Makriyannis. Five out of the six judges voted for the death sentence, and requested the King to extend royal clemency. His sentence was commuted to life imprisonment by the King, but he only spent 18 months in prison. King Otho reduced the sentence first to twenty, and later to ten years. He was finally pardoned and released on 2 September 1854, thanks to the Crimean War
. The blockade
of Peiraeus by the French
and British
fleets also led to the imposition of Kallergis as Minister of War
, despite his previous attempts at overthrowing the King. Thus, Kallergis used his newly acquired influence to have Makriyannis released. Makriyannis suffered greatly in prison, and after his release suffered from hallucinations. His condition did not improve with the death of one of his younger sons in the cholera epidemic that struck Athens.
On 10 October 1862 a revolution broke out, which led to the eviction of King Otho I from the country. Makriyannis's son, the future general Othon Makriyannis, reportedly presented his father with the King's golden crown. Makriyannis was restored to the ranks he had been stripped of as a result of his trial, and was re-elected as a representative of Athens to the new National (Constitutional) Assembly of 1864
. He was promoted to the rank of general on 20 April 1864, and died on 27 April.
, in 1911, called his work "incomparable in its kind, a masterpiece of his illiterate, but strong and autonomous mind" (ibid). It should be noted that Makriyannis had received only the most basic and fragmentary education, and, according to his own testimony, mastered writing shortly before he started writing his Memoirs, while he was stationed in Argos.
Makriyannis, having been ignored by history, and hardly mentioned by chroniclers of the War of Independence, had renewed interest in the revolution by offering a significant personal testimony to historical research. Despite this, after the initial interest in the newly published Memoirs, they were hardly cited for almost 40 years. One could say that Makriyannis was forgotten, not only as a fighter, but also as the author of a text written in Demotic Greek; a text that, besides reproducing the heroic atmosphere of the War of Independence, is also a treasure-house of linguistic knowledge concerning the common Greek tongue of the time.
Makriyannis's reputation was revived during the German occupation of Greece. In 1941, Yorgos Theotokas
published an article on the general, calling his Memoirs "a monument of Modern Greek literature" because they were written in pure Demotic Greek. Two years later, in 1943, the Greek Nobel laureate Giorgos Seferis
gave a lecture on him, saying:
According to the National Book Centre of Greece, Seferis also stated that Makriyannis, along with Alexandros Papadiamantis
, is one of the two greatest masters of modern Greek prose.
Since then hundreds of essays have been written on the subject of his Memoirs, and it would be fair to say that the chronicler has overshadowed the fighter, and with good reason, according to Sphyroeras. Spyros Asdrachas has noted that:
The general's objectivity, however, has often been questioned. Vlahogiannis, in his preface to the Memoirs, praises his honesty and contrasts it to his lack of objectivity and impartiality. While always straightforward, Makriyannis clearly holds a grudge against people he had come into conflict with. He often uses disparaging language against people like Kolokotronis, while staying silent about the more questionable deeds of people he had a favourable opinion of. According to Sphyroeras, however, his judgements do not stem from selfishness, but rather from his severity against those he considered were defaming the cause of Greece.
A few months after completing his Memoirs, on New Year's Eve in 1851, Makriyannis started to write another "history", as he called it, which he interrupted rather abruptly in late March 1852, when he was under house arrest. This text was acquired in 1936 or 1937 by Vlahogiannis, and was finally published in 1983 by Angelos Papakostas, aptly titled Visions and Wonders. It has, according to Papakostas, far less historical significance than the Memoirs. The events described therein are given briefly, and are used only as an excuse for his meditations and the interpretation of his Visions, on which he particularly insists. Vlahogiannis, according to Sphyroeras, considered the manuscript to be a religiously overzealous work of a deranged mind, and that is the reason he did not publish it. The work, however, is also the product of a physically and mentally tormented soul, who, being isolated at the age of 54, instead converses with God, the Panagia
, and the saints. It also shows Makriyannis's deep religious feeling; he turns away from guns, instead seeking the nation's salvation through divine intervention. Furthermore, as Sphyroeras points out, the work is unique in Modern Greek literature in its subject matter, and is, as the Memoirs, a significant source of linguistic and cultural information.
Οράματα και Θάματα (Visions and Wonders) first published: Athens: 1983
Greeks
The Greeks, also known as the Hellenes , are a nation and ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighboring regions. They also form a significant diaspora, with Greek communities established around the world....
merchant, military officer, politician and author, best known today for his Memoirs. Starting from humble origins, he joined the Greek struggle for independence
Greek War of Independence
The Greek War of Independence, also known as the Greek Revolution was a successful war of independence waged by the Greek revolutionaries between...
, achieving the rank of general
General
A general officer is an officer of high military rank, usually in the army, and in some nations, the air force. The term is widely used by many nations of the world, and when a country uses a different term, there is an equivalent title given....
and leading his men to notable victories. Following Greek independence, he had a tumultuous public career, playing a prominent part in the granting of the first Constitution
Greek Constitution of 1844
The first constitution of the Kingdom of Greece was the Greek Constitution of 1844. On 3 September 1843, the military garrison of Athens, with the help of citizens, rebelled and demanded from King Otto the concession of a Constitution....
of the Kingdom of Greece
Kingdom of Greece
The Kingdom of Greece was a state established in 1832 in the Convention of London by the Great Powers...
and later being sentenced to death and pardoned.
Despite his important contributions to the political life of the early Greek state
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
, general Makriyannis is mostly remembered for his Memoirs. Aside from being a source of historical and cultural information about the period, this work has also been called a "monument of Modern Greek literature", as it is written in pure Demotic Greek. Indeed, its literary quality led Nobel laureate Giorgos Seferis
Giorgos Seferis
Giorgos or George Seferis was the pen name of Geōrgios Seferiádēs . He was one of the most important Greek poets of the 20th century, and a Nobel laureate...
to call Makriyannis one of the greatest masters of Modern Greek prose.
Early life
Yannis Makriyannis was born Ioannis Triantaphyllou, son of a poor family in the village of Avoriti, in the vicinity of DorisDoris (Greece)
Doris , is a small mountainous district in ancient Greece, bounded by Aetolia, southern Thessaly, the Ozolian Locrians, and Phocis; the original homeland of the Dorian Greeks...
. Makriyannis (Long John) was a nickname he acquired because of his height. His father, Dimitris Triantaphyllou, was killed in a clash with the forces of Ali Pasha
Ali Pasha
Ali Pasha of Tepelena or of Yannina, surnamed Aslan, "the Lion", or the "Lion of Yannina", Ali Pashë Tepelena was an Ottoman Albanian ruler of the western part of Rumelia, the Ottoman Empire's European territory which was also called Pashalik of Yanina. His court was in Ioannina...
. His family was forced to flee to Levadeia, where Makriyannis spent his childhood up to 1811. At age seven, he was given as a foster son to a wealthy man from Levadeia, but the menial labour and beatings he endured were, in his own words, "his death". Thus, in 1811 he left for Arta
Arta, Greece
Arta is a city with a rich history in northwestern Greece, capital of the peripheral unit of Arta, which is part of Epirus region. The city was known in ancient times as Ambracia . Arta is famous for its old bridge located over the Arachthos River, situated west of downtown...
to stay with an acquaintance who maintained close relations with Ali Pasha. There, still a teenager, he was involved in trade and, according to his memoirs, became a wealthy man. His property amounted to 40,000 piastres
Kurus
Kuruş is a Turkish currency subunit. Since 2005, one new Turkish lira is equal to 100 kuruş. The kuruş was also the standard unit of currency in the Ottoman Empire until 1844, and from that date until the late 1970s was a subdivision of the former lira. It was subdivided into 40 para , each of...
. According to Sphyroeras, he probably joined the Filiki Etaireia, a secret anti-Ottoman
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
society, in 1820. In March 1821 he left for Patras
Patras
Patras , ) is Greece's third largest urban area and the regional capital of West Greece, located in northern Peloponnese, 215 kilometers west of Athens...
, in the Peloponnese
Peloponnese
The Peloponnese, Peloponnesos or Peloponnesus , is a large peninsula , located in a region of southern Greece, forming the part of the country south of the Gulf of Corinth...
, supposedly on business. His actual assignment, however, was to inform local members of the Filiki Etaireia of the state of affairs in his native Roumeli
Rumelia
Rumelia was an historical region comprising the territories of the Ottoman Empire in Europe...
. Having met with Odysseas Androutsos
Odysseas Androutsos
Odysseas Androutsos ; was a hero of the Greek War of Independence.-Early life:He was born in Ithaca in 1788, however his family was from the village of Livanates in Phthiotis prefecture...
, he returned to Arta two days before the revolution broke out in Patras and was promptly arrested by the Ottoman authorities and placed under arrest in the local fortress. He was held captive for 90 days but managed to escape and, in August 1821, first took up arms against the Ottomans under chieftain Gogos Bakolas.
Activity during the War of Independence
Tzoumerka
Tzoumerka is a former municipality in the Ioannina peripheral unit, Epirus, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality North Tzoumerka, of which it is a municipal unit. Population 1,228 . The seat of the municipality was in Chouliarades....
, and in the battle of Peta
Peta, Greece
Peta is a town and a former municipality in the Arta peripheral unit, Epirus, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Nikolaos Skoufas, of which it is the seat and a municipal unit. Population 4,904 . Its 2001 population was 1,916 for the town, 3,896 for the...
, where he sustained a light leg injury. A few days later he took part in the siege of Arta that temporarily brought the city under Greek control. In late 1821, he left for Mesolonghi, but there, according to his memoirs, he fell seriously ill, only recovering in March 1822. Having spent his recovery in the village of Sernikaki, near Salona
Amfissa
Amfissa is a town and a former municipality in Phocis, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Delphi, of which it is the seat and a municipal unit. It is also the capital of the regional unit of Phocis...
, he resumed military action, assuming the leadership of a band of warriors from four villages in the vicinity. He fought alongside several other chieftains during the successful siege of Ypati
Ypati
Ypati is a village and a former municipality in Phthiotis, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Lamia, of which it is a municipal unit. Its 2002 population was 6,855 for the municipality...
, which had been fortified with considerable Ottoman forces.
After the Acropolis
Acropolis
Acropolis means "high city" in Greek, literally city on the extremity and is usually translated into English as Citadel . For purposes of defense, early people naturally chose elevated ground to build a new settlement, frequently a hill with precipitous sides...
of Athens
Athens
Athens , is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, as its recorded history spans around 3,400 years. Classical Athens was a powerful city-state...
was surrendered by the Ottomans in June 1822, Makriyannis was appointed Supervisor of Public Order in the city by the executive authority of Roumeli on 1 January 1823. In that office, he took severe measures aimed at stopping arbitrary oppression of the populace and thievery. In the summer of 1823, he fought alongside Nikitaras
Nikitaras
Nikitaras was the nom de guerre of Nikitas Stamatelopoulos , a Greek revolutionary in the Greek War of Independence. Due to his fighting prowess, he was known as the "Τουρκοφάγος" , literally "Turk-Eater"....
in the eastern part of Central Greece
Central Greece
Continental Greece or Central Greece , colloquially known as Roúmeli , is a geographical region of Greece. Its territory is divided into the administrative regions of Central Greece, Attica, and part of West Greece...
. In October 1823, he led a force of Roumeliots in the Peloponnese, and fought alongside the government of Georgios Kountouriotis
Georgios Kountouriotis
Georgios Kountouriotis was a Greek ship-owner and politician who served as prime minister from March to October 1848. He was born in 1782 on the Saronic island of Hydra to an Arvanite family...
against the rebels in the civil war. For his actions during that conflict, he was rewarded with the rank of brigadier
Brigadier
Brigadier is a senior military rank, the meaning of which is somewhat different in different military services. The brigadier rank is generally superior to the rank of colonel, and subordinate to major general....
, promoted to lieutenant general
Lieutenant General
Lieutenant General is a military rank used in many countries. The rank traces its origins to the Middle Ages where the title of Lieutenant General was held by the second in command on the battlefield, who was normally subordinate to a Captain General....
in August 1824 and full general in late 1824.
In March 1825, after the Peloponnese had been invaded by Egyptian forces
Egypt under Muhammad Ali and his successors
The history of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali Pasha dynasty spanned the later period of Ottoman Egypt, the Khedivate of Egypt under British patronage, and the nominally independent Sultanate of Egypt and Kingdom of Egypt, ending with the Revolution of 1952 and the formation of the Republic of...
, he was appointed politarch (head of public order) of Kyparissia
Kyparissia
Kyparissia is a town and a former municipality in Messenia, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Trifylia, of which it is the seat and a municipal unit. The town proper has around 5,708 inhabitants. The town is located on Greek National Road 9,...
and took part in the defence of Neokastro. After the fortress fell on 11 May 1825, he hurried to Myloi
Myloi, Argolis
Myloi , is a village and the seat of the former municipality of Lerna in the southwestern part of Argolis, Greece. The old GR-7 is about 100 m from the train station of Myloi and is also accessible by a rare road linking Nea Kios - Nafplio and the rest of central and eastern Argolis...
, near Nafplio, arriving with one hundred men on 10 June. He ordered the construction of makeshift fortifications, as well as the gathering of provisions. More chieftains soon arrived in Myloi and Ibrahim Pasha
Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt
Ibrahim Pasha was the eldest son of Muhammad Ali, the Wāli and unrecognised Khedive of Egypt and Sudan. He served as a general in the Egyptian army that his father established during his reign, taking his first command of Egyptian forces was when he was merely a teenager...
, the commander of the Egyptian forces, was unable to take the position, despite numerical superiority and the launching of fierce attacks on 12 and 14 June. Makriyannis was injured during the battle and was carried to Nafplio.
Soon after the battle, he married the daughter of a prominent Athenian, and his activities were thereafter inextricably linked with that city until his death. After Athens was captured by Ibrahim Pasha in June 1826, Makriyannis helped organise the defence of the Acropolis, and became the provisional commander of the garrison after the death of the commander, Yannis Gouras. He managed to repel a fierce assault against the Odeon of Herodes Atticus
Odeon of Herodes Atticus
The Odeon of Herodes Atticus is a stone theatre structure located on the south slope of the Acropolis of Athens. It was built in 161 AD by Herodes Atticus in memory of his wife, Aspasia Annia Regilla...
on 7 October, and during the defence of the Acropolis, he sustained heavy injures three times, to the head and to the neck. These wounds troubled him for the remainder of his life, but they did not dissuade him from taking part in the last phase of the war: in the spring of 1827 he took part in the battles of Piraeus
Piraeus
Piraeus is a city in the region of Attica, Greece. Piraeus is located within the Athens Urban Area, 12 km southwest from its city center , and lies along the east coast of the Saronic Gulf....
and the battle of Analatos.
Activity after Greek Independence
Governorship of Kapodistrias
Makriyannis's activity did not cease with the achievement of Greek independence. After Governor Ioannis KapodistriasIoannis Kapodistrias
Count Ioannis Antonios Kapodistrias |Academy of Athens]] Critical Observations about the 6th-Grade History Textbook"): "3.2.7. Σελ. 40: Δεν αναφέρεται ότι ο Καποδίστριας ήταν Κερκυραίος ευγενής." "...δύο ιστορικούς της Aκαδημίας κ.κ...
arrived in Greece, he appointed Makriyannis "General Leader of the Executive Authority of the Peloponnese", based in Argos
Argos
Argos is a city and a former municipality in Argolis, Peloponnese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Argos-Mykines, of which it is a municipal unit. It is 11 kilometres from Nafplion, which was its historic harbour...
, in 1828. It was during this period, and more specifically on 26 February 1829, that he started writing his Memoirs. After Kapodistrias restructured the military in 1830, Makriyannis was given the rank of brigadier. However, he slowly came to oppose the Governor's policies and eventually broke with him. He opposed what he considered Kapodistrias's personal authoritarianism and, on a more personal level, was concerned about whether his home region would be included or not in the liberated Greek state. Influenced by Ioannis Kolettis
Ioannis Kolettis
Ioannis Kolettis was a Greek politician who played a significant role in Greek affairs from the Greek War of Independence through the early years of the Greek Kingdom, including as Minister to France and serving twice as Prime Minister....
, he even tried to force the Governor into accepting a constitutional form of government, using the troops under his command, but had no success. Finally, in August 1831, the government forced all civil servants and military personnel to sign an oath stating they were not part of secret organizations and that they were loyal servants of the government's commands. Makriyannis considered this to be degrading, and tried to author his own version of an oath instead. This, however, was not accepted by the government, and he was consequently stripped of his positions. His opposition to the existing regime did not cease with the Governor's assassination on 9 October 1831. He took the side of the "Constitutionalists" and fought against the governor's brother and successor Augustinos Kapodistrias
Augustinos Kapodistrias
Count Augustinos Ioannis Maria Kapodistrias was a Greek soldier and politician. He was born in Corfu. Kapodistrias was the younger brother of Ioannis Kapodistrias, first Governor of Greece...
. He did, however, condemn the assassination itself in the strongest terms.
Reign of King Otto
Otto, Prince of BavariaBavaria
Bavaria, formally the Free State of Bavaria is a state of Germany, located in the southeast of Germany. With an area of , it is the largest state by area, forming almost 20% of the total land area of Germany...
, was chosen as the first King of Greece in 1832, under the name Othon
Otto of Greece
Otto, Prince of Bavaria, then Othon, King of Greece was made the first modern King of Greece in 1832 under the Convention of London, whereby Greece became a new independent kingdom under the protection of the Great Powers .The second son of the philhellene King Ludwig I of Bavaria, Otto ascended...
. His arrival in Nafplio, then the Greek capital, was hailed enthusiastically by Makriyannis. This attitude is exemplified in his Memoirs: The hopes he had for the new regime, however, were soon to be dispelled. King Otho was underage and Bavarian regents were named to rule on his behalf during the first months of his rule. During the regency, Makriyannis came into conflict with the War Minister
Minister for National Defence (Greece)
The Minister for National Defence of Greece is a government minister responsible for the running of the Ministry of National Defence. The current minister is Dimitris Avramopoulos.-Recent Ministers for National Defence:-External links:*...
, the Bavarian Heidek, due to the latter's attitude towards the veterans of the War of Independence. In the newly restructured Greek Army, there was little place left for the irregular bands
Irregular military
Irregular military refers to any non-standard military. Being defined by exclusion, there is significant variance in what comes under the term. It can refer to the type of military organization, or to the type of tactics used....
of klephts. These guerilla-styled fighters had formed the backbone of the Greek forces during the war, and Makriyannis considered their exclusion from the newly formed army disrespectful. Furthermore, most of these men had been left with no resources after their exclusion from the military, and found themselves in a dire financial situation. Makriyannis also believed that the Prime Minister, the Bavarian von Armansperg
Josef Ludwig von Armansperg
Josef Ludwig, Graf von Armansperg served as the Interior and Finance Minister and Foreign and Finance Minister under King Ludwig I of Bavaria in the government of Bavaria...
, was personally responsible for the serious problems faced by the newly formed state. As a consequence, Makriyannis briefly retired from active politics.
After municipalities were first instituted by Royal decree on 27 December 1833, Makriyannis was elected to the city council of Athens (the city becoming the new capital in 1834). In that capacity he harshly criticised, to the extent that it was possible, what he perceived as omissions and authoritarianism by the royal administration and Palace Cabinet. He often voiced his demand for constitutional rule, even though the royal administration had initially held him in high esteem and given him the rank of colonel
Colonel
Colonel , abbreviated Col or COL, is a military rank of a senior commissioned officer. It or a corresponding rank exists in most armies and in many air forces; the naval equivalent rank is generally "Captain". It is also used in some police forces and other paramilitary rank structures...
. During the King's absence from Greece on the occasion of his marriage to Queen Amalia
Amalia of Oldenburg
Amalia of Oldenburg, Queen of Greece was the consort of King Otto of Greece . Born the daughter of Augustus, Grand Duke of Oldenburg and Princess Adelheid of Anhalt-Bernburg-Schaumburg-Hoym, she married King Otto on 22 December 1836, in Oldenburg...
(late 1836 - early 1837), public discontent with von Armansperg was at its peak. The newspapers Athena and Elpis criticized him severely, and some politicians called for his removal. Makriyannis, in his capacity as President of the Athens city council, proposed, in January 1837, the adoption of a resolution to be handed to the King upon his return requesting the granting of a Constitution. Not long before that, at a banquet attended by former fighters of the War of Independence, such as Kountouriotis
Georgios Kountouriotis
Georgios Kountouriotis was a Greek ship-owner and politician who served as prime minister from March to October 1848. He was born in 1782 on the Saronic island of Hydra to an Arvanite family...
, Kolokotronis and others, Makriyannis had toasted the health of the royal couple, adding "may God enlighten them to rule us through constitutional laws, in accordance with the fatherland's sacrifices". Von Armansperg immediately dissolved the city council, fired Mayor Petrakis and had Makriyannis placed under house arrest. Sometime during this period, Makriyannis commissioned 25 engravings from the painter and veteran of the War of Independence, Panaghiotis Zographos. The profits from the sales were used to the benefit of veterans of the war.
Meanwhile, the demand for constitutional liberties was becoming widespread, as was discontent with King Otto's Bavarian administration. The situation escalated in the 3 September 1843 Revolution that led to the granting of the first Constitution
Greek Constitution of 1844
The first constitution of the Kingdom of Greece was the Greek Constitution of 1844. On 3 September 1843, the military garrison of Athens, with the help of citizens, rebelled and demanded from King Otto the concession of a Constitution....
. Makriyannis was one of the three leaders of the movement. He played a crucial part in paving the way for this, having started as early as 1840. After its granting, he also played an important part in the forming of the new cabinet. He was elected as a representative of Athens to the National (Constitutional) Assembly, and headed an informal group of 63 representatives loyal to him. He personally proposed various recommendations during the course of the proceedings. Soon after the conclusion of the Assembly's work, however, he retired from politics. For his leading role in the creation of the first Greek Constitution, Makriyannis was depicted on the reverse
Obverse and reverse
Obverse and its opposite, reverse, refer to the two flat faces of coins and some other two-sided objects, including paper money, flags , seals, medals, drawings, old master prints and other works of art, and printed fabrics. In this usage, obverse means the front face of the object and reverse...
of the Greek 50 drachmas
Greek drachma
Drachma, pl. drachmas or drachmae was the currency used in Greece during several periods in its history:...
commemorative coin issued in 1994 for the 150th anniversary of this historic document. There are three versions of the coin, each featuring one of the three leaders of the September 3 movement: one features Makriyannis, one colonel Dimitrios Kallergis
Dimitri Kalergis
Dimitrios Kallergis , was a Cretan-born Greek soldier and statesman.Hailing from the distinguished Cretan Kallergis family, he studied medicine at Paris and on the outbreak of the War of Greek Independence went to the Morea and joined the insurgents...
, and one minister (and later prime minister) Andreas Metaxas
Andreas Metaxas
Andreas Metaxas was a Greek politician born on the island of Cephalonia.During the latter part of the War of Independence he accompanied Kapodistrias to Greece, and was appointed by him Minister of War...
.
Makriyannis stopped working on his memoirs in 1850, so information about the rest of his life, including his trial, comes from other sources. He was always outspoken about his views, and as a result he stirred negative reactions among his opponents. He opposed what he perceived as a continued degradation of the veterans of the War of Independence, and had repeatedly been considered suspect of plotting against King Otho. Furthermore, the King never quite forgave him for his part in the 3 September movement. When summoned to the palace and asked to denounce all the conspirators of 1843, Makriyannis refused, saying "I am not a slave". Eventually, in 1852, he was accused of planning to "overthrow the establishments and assassinate the King". On 13 April 1852 he was placed under house arrest, heavily guarded and with an officer posted in the room next to his own. On 16 March 1853 he was sentenced to death, in what has been called a "pre-fabricated trial". According to Vidal-Naquet
Pierre Vidal-Naquet
Pierre Emmanuel Vidal-Naquet was a French historian who began teaching at the École des hautes études en sciences sociales in 1969....
, the prosecution brought up false testimonies and false evidence. Furthermore, the president of the tribunal, Kitsos Tzavelas
Kitsos Tzavelas
Kitsos Tzavelas was a fighter in the Greek War of Independence and later Greek Army General and Prime Minister of Greece.-Early years and Greek War of Independence:...
, was a personal enemy of Makriyannis. Five out of the six judges voted for the death sentence, and requested the King to extend royal clemency. His sentence was commuted to life imprisonment by the King, but he only spent 18 months in prison. King Otho reduced the sentence first to twenty, and later to ten years. He was finally pardoned and released on 2 September 1854, thanks to the Crimean War
Crimean War
The Crimean War was a conflict fought between the Russian Empire and an alliance of the French Empire, the British Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and the Kingdom of Sardinia. The war was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the declining...
. The blockade
Blockade
A blockade is an effort to cut off food, supplies, war material or communications from a particular area by force, either in part or totally. A blockade should not be confused with an embargo or sanctions, which are legal barriers to trade, and is distinct from a siege in that a blockade is usually...
of Peiraeus by the French
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
and British
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom during the period when what is now the Republic of Ireland formed a part of it....
fleets also led to the imposition of Kallergis as Minister of War
Minister for National Defence (Greece)
The Minister for National Defence of Greece is a government minister responsible for the running of the Ministry of National Defence. The current minister is Dimitris Avramopoulos.-Recent Ministers for National Defence:-External links:*...
, despite his previous attempts at overthrowing the King. Thus, Kallergis used his newly acquired influence to have Makriyannis released. Makriyannis suffered greatly in prison, and after his release suffered from hallucinations. His condition did not improve with the death of one of his younger sons in the cholera epidemic that struck Athens.
On 10 October 1862 a revolution broke out, which led to the eviction of King Otho I from the country. Makriyannis's son, the future general Othon Makriyannis, reportedly presented his father with the King's golden crown. Makriyannis was restored to the ranks he had been stripped of as a result of his trial, and was re-elected as a representative of Athens to the new National (Constitutional) Assembly of 1864
Greek Constitution of 1864
The Second National Assembly of the Hellenes took place in Athens and dealt both with the election of a new sovereign as well as with the drafting of a new Constitution, thereby implementing the transition from constitutional monarchy to a Crowned Democracy.Following the refusal of Prince Alfred...
. He was promoted to the rank of general on 20 April 1864, and died on 27 April.
Assessment and significance
Makriyannis concluded work on his Memoirs in the years before his imprisonment; the last entries seem to be from September or October 1850, as evinced by his references to the events of that period. In the text of the Memoirs, one can see not only the personal adventures and disappointments of his long public career, but, more significantly, his views on people, situations and events, phrased clearly and quite often passionately. They were first published in 1907 by Yannis Vlahogiannis, while some fragments of them had earlier been published in the newspaper Acropolis in 1904. Spyridon Lambros, in 1908, noted his straightforwardness and slight egotism, along with his holding firm to his own opinion (as quoted by Sphyroeras). Kostis PalamasKostis Palamas
Kostis Palamas was a Greek poet who wrote the words to the Olympic Hymn. He was a central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the cofounders of the so-called New Athenian School along with Georgios Drosinis, Nikos Kampas, Ioanis Polemis.-Biography:Born in Patras, he...
, in 1911, called his work "incomparable in its kind, a masterpiece of his illiterate, but strong and autonomous mind" (ibid). It should be noted that Makriyannis had received only the most basic and fragmentary education, and, according to his own testimony, mastered writing shortly before he started writing his Memoirs, while he was stationed in Argos.
Makriyannis, having been ignored by history, and hardly mentioned by chroniclers of the War of Independence, had renewed interest in the revolution by offering a significant personal testimony to historical research. Despite this, after the initial interest in the newly published Memoirs, they were hardly cited for almost 40 years. One could say that Makriyannis was forgotten, not only as a fighter, but also as the author of a text written in Demotic Greek; a text that, besides reproducing the heroic atmosphere of the War of Independence, is also a treasure-house of linguistic knowledge concerning the common Greek tongue of the time.
Makriyannis's reputation was revived during the German occupation of Greece. In 1941, Yorgos Theotokas
Yórgos Theotokás
Yórgos Theotokás , also spelt Geórgios Theotokás, was a Greek novelist.-Biography:He was born in Constantinople ....
published an article on the general, calling his Memoirs "a monument of Modern Greek literature" because they were written in pure Demotic Greek. Two years later, in 1943, the Greek Nobel laureate Giorgos Seferis
Giorgos Seferis
Giorgos or George Seferis was the pen name of Geōrgios Seferiádēs . He was one of the most important Greek poets of the 20th century, and a Nobel laureate...
gave a lecture on him, saying:
According to the National Book Centre of Greece, Seferis also stated that Makriyannis, along with Alexandros Papadiamantis
Alexandros Papadiamantis
Alexandros Papadiamantis was an influential Greek novelist and short-story writer.-His life:Papadiamantis was born in Greece, on the island of Skiathos, in the western part of the Aegean Sea. The island would figure prominently in his work. His father was a priest...
, is one of the two greatest masters of modern Greek prose.
Since then hundreds of essays have been written on the subject of his Memoirs, and it would be fair to say that the chronicler has overshadowed the fighter, and with good reason, according to Sphyroeras. Spyros Asdrachas has noted that:
The general's objectivity, however, has often been questioned. Vlahogiannis, in his preface to the Memoirs, praises his honesty and contrasts it to his lack of objectivity and impartiality. While always straightforward, Makriyannis clearly holds a grudge against people he had come into conflict with. He often uses disparaging language against people like Kolokotronis, while staying silent about the more questionable deeds of people he had a favourable opinion of. According to Sphyroeras, however, his judgements do not stem from selfishness, but rather from his severity against those he considered were defaming the cause of Greece.
A few months after completing his Memoirs, on New Year's Eve in 1851, Makriyannis started to write another "history", as he called it, which he interrupted rather abruptly in late March 1852, when he was under house arrest. This text was acquired in 1936 or 1937 by Vlahogiannis, and was finally published in 1983 by Angelos Papakostas, aptly titled Visions and Wonders. It has, according to Papakostas, far less historical significance than the Memoirs. The events described therein are given briefly, and are used only as an excuse for his meditations and the interpretation of his Visions, on which he particularly insists. Vlahogiannis, according to Sphyroeras, considered the manuscript to be a religiously overzealous work of a deranged mind, and that is the reason he did not publish it. The work, however, is also the product of a physically and mentally tormented soul, who, being isolated at the age of 54, instead converses with God, the Panagia
Panagia
Panagia , also transliterated Panayia or Panaghia, is one of the titles of Mary, the mother of Jesus, used especially in Orthodox Christianity....
, and the saints. It also shows Makriyannis's deep religious feeling; he turns away from guns, instead seeking the nation's salvation through divine intervention. Furthermore, as Sphyroeras points out, the work is unique in Modern Greek literature in its subject matter, and is, as the Memoirs, a significant source of linguistic and cultural information.
Works
Απομνημονεύματα (Memoirs) first published: Athens: 1907Οράματα και Θάματα (Visions and Wonders) first published: Athens: 1983
External links
- Significant parts of the "Memoirs" (in Greek) and a painting of the general.
- The text of the "Memoirs" on the Greek Wikisource in monotonic.
- The Ἀπομνημονεύματα in polytonicGreek diacriticsGreek orthography has used a variety of diacritics starting in the Hellenistic period. The complex polytonic orthography notates Ancient Greek phonology...
. - An image of the 50 drachma coin featuring General Makriyannis.
