Kisaeng
Encyclopedia
Kisaeng sometimes called ginyeo (기녀), were female Korea
n official prostitute or entertainers. Kisaeng are artists who work to entertain others, such as the yangban
s and kings.
First appearing in the Goryeo Dynasty, kisaeng were legally entertainers of the government, required to perform various functions for the state. Many were employed at court, but they were also spread throughout the country. They were carefully trained, and frequently accomplished in the fine arts, poetry, and prose, although their talents were often ignored due to their inferior social status
.
Women of the kisaeng class performed various roles, although they were all of the same low status in the eyes of yangban
society. Aside from entertainment
, these roles included medical care and needlework. In some cases, such as at army bases, kisaeng were expected to fill several such roles.
Kisaeng, both historic and fictional, play an important role in Korean conceptions of the traditional culture of the Joseon Dynasty
. Some of Korea's oldest and most popular stories, such as the tale of Chunhyang
, feature kisaeng as heroines. Although the names of most real kisaeng have been forgotten, a few are remembered for an outstanding attribute, such as talent
or loyalty
. The most famous of these is the 16th-century kisaeng Hwang Jin-i
.
, the lowest rank of society. They shared this status with other entertainers, as well as butchers and slaves. Status was hereditary, so the children of a kisaeng were also of cheonmin status, and the daughters automatically became kisaeng as well. Beginning in the Goryeo period, the governing offices in each district kept a registry of kisaeng, to ensure thorough oversight. The same practice was followed for conscripted slaves. Kisaeng could only be released from their position if a hefty price was paid to the government; this could usually only be done by a wealthy patron, typically a high government official.
Many kisaeng were skilled in poetry, and numerous sijo
composed by kisaeng have survived. These often reflect themes of heartache and parting, similar to poems composed by scholars
in exile. In addition, some of the most famous kisaeng poems were composed to persuade prominent scholars to spend the night. Indeed, the sijo style came to be associated with kisaeng women, while women of yangban
status focused on the gasa
form.
Kisaeng attached to a local government office were known as gwan-gi, and their status was carefully differentiated from that of the common slaves also attached to the office. They were separately entered on the census rolls. The kisaeng were regarded as of significantly higher status than the slaves, although technically they were all of cheonmin rank.
In Korea's structured, hierarchical society, gisaeng were technically slaves. For this reason, they were sometimes spoken of as "possessing the body of the lower class but the mind of the aristocrat."
In the later period of Joseon, a three-tiered system developed. The highest tier was occupied by haengsu (행수,行首) who sang and danced at upper-class feasts. Haengsu kisaeng were not permitted to entertain after they turned thirty. However, they could continue working in other duties, such as dressmaking and medicine, until the age of fifty. They received guests only by choice. Most of the kisaeng of the court were of the haengsu tier, also called seonsang (선상,選上). The haengsu kisaeng of each district also took charge of discipline and training new kisaeng.
Kisaeng of the lowest tier were called samsu (삼수, 三首). The samsu were forbidden to perform the songs and dances of the haengsu. The tiered system, like other aspects of Joseon class division, broke down in the late nineteenth century.
In the course of their careers, some kisaeng were able to amass considerable personal wealth. However, these were the exception. Kisaeng were required to meet their expenses, including food, clothes, and makeup, out of their own personal funds.
Women entered the kisaeng class through various paths. Some were the daughters of kisaeng, who inherited their mother's status. Others were sold into the gijeok by families who could not afford to support them. Most such families were of cheonmin rank, but sometimes poor families of higher status sold their children in this fashion. On occasion, even women from the yangban
aristocracy were made kisaeng, usually because they had violated the strict sexual mores of the Joseon period.
As kisaeng were skilled workers from the beginning, the government took an early interest in ensuring correct education. This first emerged with the establishment of gyobang
, training institutes for palace kisaeng during the Goryeo period. During the Joseon period, this became further codified. Instruction focused on music and dance.
In the three-tiered system of later Joseon, more specialized training schools were established for kisaeng of the first tier. The course of study lasted three years and covered poetry, dance, music, and art. The most advanced such school was located in Pyongyang
. This system continued well into the Japanese colonial period
, during which time the schools training kisaeng were known as gwonbeon
(권번).
. The hojang was also in charge of maintaining the kisaeng register, and ensuring that none of the district's kisaeng had fled. Kisaeng were required to answer the requests of patrons, unless they had previously notified the hojang. The kisaeng of the district were expected to appear for inspection twice a month and also when a new official arrived in the area. In addition, they were required to report for continuing education
, usually focused on music and dance. The frequency and content of this training varied from region to region.
However, the detailed affairs of the kisaeng were not directly overseen by the state. Order was kept within each gyobang, which might include some tens of kisaeng, by the haengsu kisaeng, those of the highest tier. When problems arose between a kisaeng and a client, or when charges of criminal conduct were made against a kisaeng, the haengsu kisaeng usually took the leading role in resolving the situation.
In addition, most kisaeng had a gibu, or "kisaeng husband," who provided protection and economic support, such as buying them pretty things or granting them social status in return for entertainment. Most gibu were former soldiers, government enforcers, or servants of the royal household. At times, there was friction between would-be customers and possessive gibu, although the gibu was not the kisaeng's husband and had no legal claim to her. The role of the gibu changed over time; at first, many kisaeng in government service had no such patron. However, by the late Joseon dynasty, the gibu system was more or less universal.
Joseon Dynasty kisaeng houses were typically located near the center of a town, often close to the marketplace. They were laid out to create a welcoming effect; in many cases, a location was chosen with a fine view, and the area around the house was carefully landscaped with an ornamental pool and plantings.
, and to accompany them if they travelled through the country.
Thanks to their frequenting the taverns and guest-houses of the town, kisaeng were often among of the most knowledgeable on local affairs. For this reason, they were at times a key source of intelligence. It was through information supplied by kisaeng that the rebel army of Hong Gyeong-rae was able to easily take the fortress of Jeongju in the early 19th century.
When cities fell, as many of Korea's cities did during the Seven Year War in the late 16th century, kisaeng were often made to entertain the generals of the victorious army. Some of Korea's most famous kisaeng, including Non Gae
of Jinju
, are remembered today for their bravery in killing or attempting to kill leaders of the imperial Japanese army.
Some kisaeng were also active in the Korean independence movements of the early 20th century. In this they resembled other women of Joseon, who often took a leading role in the independence struggle. Aengmu
, a kisaeng of Daegu
, was a major donor to the National Debt Repayment Movement
in the early 20th century. Some fifty kisaeng of Jinju took part in a demonstration as part of the March First Movement in 1919.
Kisaeng seem to have been relatively few in number, at the most a few thousand. They were spread throughout the country, with a few hundred in the larger centers and smaller numbers in the hyeon
villages. They were also found in the "stations" and inns which provided food and shelter to travellers along the country's arterial roads, such as the Great Yeongnam Road
.
The number and characteristics of the kisaeng varied greatly from region to region. During the Joseon period, the city with the most kisaeng by far was Seoul
(then called Hanseong), with perhaps 1,000. Many of these worked for the court, and helped to fill the vast number of trained entertainers needed for grand festivals. Beautiful or talented kisaeng were often taken from the provinces to Seoul. The required training for kisaeng in Seoul was regular and very strict, with inattentive kisaeng sent home.
There were also large numbers of kisaeng in the old capitals of Gaeseong and Pyeongyang. The kisaeng of Pyeongyang were noted for their high level of skill and beauty. The kisaeng school of Pyeongyang was one of the country's most advanced, and continued operating until late in the colonial period. The kisaeng of Pyeongyang were also known for their ability to recite the gwan san yung ma, a song by the 18th-century composer Sin Gwang-su
.
Other large concentrations existed around army camps, particularly along the northern border. For instance, in the time of King Sejong in the 15th century, there were some 60 kisaeng attached to the army base at Yeongbyeon. In these areas, kisaeng essentially filled the role of wives for the army, and their role was commensurately more focused on domestic tasks than on entertainment.
The kisaeng of other regions also maintained distinctive local identities. The kisaeng of Jinju were particularly adept at the Geommu
, a traditional sword dance. Those of Jeju were known for their equestrian prowess. In many cases, the noted skills of a region's kisaeng corresponded with some other local claim to fame. The kisaeng of the Gwandong region on the east coast, home to many famous sights including Geumgangsan, memorized the gwan dong byeol gok (Hangeul:관동별곡 Hanja
:關東別曲), a poem recounting their region's scenery. Those of the Honam
region in the southwest were trained in pansori
, while those of the seonbi city Andong
could recite the Greater Learning by heart.
or Joseon Wangjo Sillok. Yet references to kisaeng are quite widespread in the "anecdotal histories" of later Joseon, and Silhak thinkers such as Yi Ik
and Dasan gave some thought to their role and station in society. Even today, many formal histories of Korea pay little or no heed to the story of the kisaeng. For example, Ki-baek Lee
's New History of Korea does not contain a single reference to the kisaeng.
One theory actually places their origins in the Silla
dynasty, among the wonhwa
, female predecessors of the hwarang
. However, there is little to suggest a concrete link between Silla's wonhwa and the later kisaeng. Also, the wonhwa seem to have been chosen from among the aristocracy, whereas kisaeng were always members of the lower classes. For these reasons, few contemporary scholars support this theory.
Many others trace their origins to the early years of Goryeo, when many people were displaced following the end of the Later Three Kingdoms period in 936. At this time, a large number of Baekje
people wandered the country. It is not clear whether this nomadic lifestyle was already established, or a consequence of the recent turmoil. In fact, a connection between these wanderers and the nomadic tribes of Manchuria
has been conjectured. The first king of Goryeo, Taejo
, considered these wanderers to be a threat to the stability of the state. He ordered that they be made into slaves of the government. Although no certain records exist, it is likely that the first kisaeng were drawn from these former wanderers.
Dynasty, 935-1394. They are first mentioned in the early 11th century. At this time, they were primarily engaged in skilled trades such as needlework
, music, and medicine. The female entertainers of the court during this period filled a role similar to that later filled by almost all kisaeng.
Due to the growth of the kisaeng class, during the reign of Myeongjong
the state began to keep records (called gijeok
) of the kisaeng living in each jurisdiction. Around this time, the state also made its first efforts to set up educational institutions to train kisaeng entertainers. These academies were known as gyobang
, and first appear in history with their abolition by King Hyeonjong
in 1010. However, they were re-established in the reign of Chungnyeol
. The gyobang provided training in the dangak
and sogak
musical styles.
The women trained in the gyobang were exclusively court entertainers. Their role in the affairs of the court became increasingly important as the dynasty progressed. They entertained both the king and visiting dignitaries, a role which continued into the Joseon period. In addition, beginning in the reign of Munjong
, they performed at official ceremonies of the state.
Just as the origin of the kisaeng is unclear, so is their precise relation to other strata of society. The female entertainers who appear in records are exclusively kisaeng of the court, and are recorded as slaves of the government.
Goryeo was succeeded by the Joseon Dynasty
, 1394-1910. During the Joseon dynasty, the kisaeng system continued to flourish and develop, despite the government's deeply ambivalent attitude toward it.
Joseon was founded on Korean Confucian ideals, and these scholars of the time took a very dim view of professional women and of the kisaeng class in particular. There were many calls for the abolition of the kisaeng, or for their exclusion from court, but these were not successful—perhaps because of the influence of the women themselves, or perhaps because of fear that officials would take to stealing the wives of other men. One such proposal was made during the reign of Sejong, but when an advisor of the court suggested that the abolition of the class would lead to government officials committing grave crimes, the king chose to preserve the kisaeng.
During the brief and violent reign of Yeonsan-gun, 1494–1506, kisaeng became symbolic of royal excess. Yeonsan-gun treated women as primarily objects of pleasure, and made even the medicinal kisaeng (yakbang gisaeng) into entertainers. Yeonsan-gun brought 1,000 women and girls from the provinces to serve as palace kisaeng; many of them were paid from the public treasury. He may have been the first to institute a formal hierarchy among them, dividing the kisaeng of the palace into "Heaven," those with whom he slept, and "Earth," those who served other functions.
In 1650, all kisaeng were made slaves of the government. The kisaeng attached to a government office were known as gwan-gi, or "kisaeng of the office." Their role did not, by law, include sexual service to the officeholder; in fact, government officials could be punished severely for consorting with a kisaeng. However, in practice kisaeng were often forced to serve the officeholder. A distinction was sometimes made between those gwan-gi who were obliged to sleep with the officeholder, and those who were not. This distinction was featured in the popular play Chunhyangga
.
The Gabo Reform
of 1895 officially abolished the class system of Joseon dynasty, and slavery as well. From that year forward, all kisaeng became nominally free. In practice, many kisaeng, like many other slaves, continued in servitude for many years. In addition, many of those who were freed had no alternative career; they continued as entertainers, now without the protections afforded by kisaeng status. During the subsequent decade, many of these kisaeng went to elsewhere to work.
Today the kisaeng's evolution and impact on Korean society are receiving new attention as Koreans devote increasing efforts to rediscovering and re-invigorating their cultural and historical heritage. However, this interest is focused almost entirely on the historical kisaeng of the Joseon period, and not on the traces of the kisaeng which endure today.
Kisaeng have played important roles in Korean popular literature since the mid-Joseon Dynasty. As popular literature such as novels and pansori
emerged, kisaeng often took a leading role. This was in part due to their unique role as women who could move freely in society. Kisaeng appear as heroines in stories such as Chunhyangga
, and as important figures in many other Joseon-era narratives.
Kisaeng also began to appear in the vernacular art of later Joseon. They are particularly common in the work of the famed early 19th-century painter Hyewon
, whose work focused on both the life of the cheonmin and erotic themes.
Kisaeng continue to be central to the understanding and imagining of Joseon Dynasty culture in contemporary South
and North Korea
. For example, the female lead in the film Chwihwaseon was a kisaeng, the companion of painter Owon
. Fresh treatments of popular kisaeng stories, including the fictional Chunhyang and the historical Hwang Jin-Yi, continue to emerge in popular novels and cinema.
(Tr. from Japanese original)
Korea
Korea ) is an East Asian geographic region that is currently divided into two separate sovereign states — North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by the People's Republic of China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the...
n official prostitute or entertainers. Kisaeng are artists who work to entertain others, such as the yangban
Yangban
The yangban were part of the traditional ruling class or nobles of dynastic Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. The yangban were either landed or unlanded aristocracy who comprised the Korean Confucian idea of a "scholarly official." In reality, they were basically administrators and bureaucrats who...
s and kings.
First appearing in the Goryeo Dynasty, kisaeng were legally entertainers of the government, required to perform various functions for the state. Many were employed at court, but they were also spread throughout the country. They were carefully trained, and frequently accomplished in the fine arts, poetry, and prose, although their talents were often ignored due to their inferior social status
Social status
In sociology or anthropology, social status is the honor or prestige attached to one's position in society . It may also refer to a rank or position that one holds in a group, for example son or daughter, playmate, pupil, etc....
.
Women of the kisaeng class performed various roles, although they were all of the same low status in the eyes of yangban
Yangban
The yangban were part of the traditional ruling class or nobles of dynastic Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. The yangban were either landed or unlanded aristocracy who comprised the Korean Confucian idea of a "scholarly official." In reality, they were basically administrators and bureaucrats who...
society. Aside from entertainment
Entertainment
Entertainment consists of any activity which provides a diversion or permits people to amuse themselves in their leisure time. Entertainment is generally passive, such as watching opera or a movie. Active forms of amusement, such as sports, are more often considered to be recreation...
, these roles included medical care and needlework. In some cases, such as at army bases, kisaeng were expected to fill several such roles.
Kisaeng, both historic and fictional, play an important role in Korean conceptions of the traditional culture of the Joseon Dynasty
Joseon Dynasty
Joseon , was a Korean state founded by Taejo Yi Seong-gye that lasted for approximately five centuries. It was founded in the aftermath of the overthrow of the Goryeo at what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul...
. Some of Korea's oldest and most popular stories, such as the tale of Chunhyang
Chunhyang
-Pansori:* Chunhyangga, one of the five surviving stories of the Korean pansori storytelling tradition-Book:* Chunhyangjeon, one of the best known ancient novels of Korea...
, feature kisaeng as heroines. Although the names of most real kisaeng have been forgotten, a few are remembered for an outstanding attribute, such as talent
Skill
A skill is the learned capacity to carry out pre-determined results often with the minimum outlay of time, energy, or both. Skills can often be divided into domain-general and domain-specific skills...
or loyalty
Loyalty
Loyalty is faithfulness or a devotion to a person, country, group, or cause There are many aspects to...
. The most famous of these is the 16th-century kisaeng Hwang Jin-i
Hwang Jin-i
Hwang Jin-i , also known by her gisaeng name Myeongwol , is one of the most famous gisaeng of the Joseon Dynasty who lived during the reign of King Jungjong. She was noted for her exceptional beauty, charming quick wit, and extraordinary intellect...
.
Social position
Throughout the Goryeo and Joseon periods, kisaeng held the status of cheonminCheonmin
Cheonmin, or "vulgar commoners," were the lowest caste of commoners in dynastical Korea. They abounded during the Goryeo and Joseon periods of Korea's agrarian bureaucracy. Like the caste system in India, this social class was largely hereditary and based on certain professions considered...
, the lowest rank of society. They shared this status with other entertainers, as well as butchers and slaves. Status was hereditary, so the children of a kisaeng were also of cheonmin status, and the daughters automatically became kisaeng as well. Beginning in the Goryeo period, the governing offices in each district kept a registry of kisaeng, to ensure thorough oversight. The same practice was followed for conscripted slaves. Kisaeng could only be released from their position if a hefty price was paid to the government; this could usually only be done by a wealthy patron, typically a high government official.
Many kisaeng were skilled in poetry, and numerous sijo
Sijo
Sijo is a Korean poetic form. Bucolic, metaphysical and cosmological themes are often explored. The three lines average 14-16 syllables, for a total of 44-46: theme ; elaboration ; counter-theme and completion [Ibid., Rutt, pp. 10 ff]...
composed by kisaeng have survived. These often reflect themes of heartache and parting, similar to poems composed by scholars
Seonbi
Seonbi means "virtuous scholar" in Korean and typically denotes young nobleman who was preparing for the gwageo examination or passed it but did not take on government position during Joseon Dynasty...
in exile. In addition, some of the most famous kisaeng poems were composed to persuade prominent scholars to spend the night. Indeed, the sijo style came to be associated with kisaeng women, while women of yangban
Yangban
The yangban were part of the traditional ruling class or nobles of dynastic Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. The yangban were either landed or unlanded aristocracy who comprised the Korean Confucian idea of a "scholarly official." In reality, they were basically administrators and bureaucrats who...
status focused on the gasa
Gasa (poetry)
Gasa was a form of poetry popular during the Joseon Dynasty in Korea. They were commonly sung, and were popular among yangban women. Jeong Cheol, a poet of the 16th century, is regarded as having perfected the form, which consisted of parallel lines, each broken into two four-syllable units...
form.
Kisaeng attached to a local government office were known as gwan-gi, and their status was carefully differentiated from that of the common slaves also attached to the office. They were separately entered on the census rolls. The kisaeng were regarded as of significantly higher status than the slaves, although technically they were all of cheonmin rank.
In Korea's structured, hierarchical society, gisaeng were technically slaves. For this reason, they were sometimes spoken of as "possessing the body of the lower class but the mind of the aristocrat."
Career
The career of most kisaeng was very short, generally peaking at age 16 or 17, and over by age 22. Only a few kisaeng were able to maintain their business for very long beyond this time. It may be for this reason that the kisaeng training institutes accepted entrants as young as eight. All kisaeng, even those who did not work as prostitute or entertainers, were obliged by law to retire at age 50. The best prospect most kisaeng had for long-term support was through becoming the concubine of a patron. However, even this was not an option unless their patron first purchased them from the state, which few men of the Joseon period could afford. Thus, most former kisaeng went on to work in or manage a local tavern.In the later period of Joseon, a three-tiered system developed. The highest tier was occupied by haengsu (행수,行首) who sang and danced at upper-class feasts. Haengsu kisaeng were not permitted to entertain after they turned thirty. However, they could continue working in other duties, such as dressmaking and medicine, until the age of fifty. They received guests only by choice. Most of the kisaeng of the court were of the haengsu tier, also called seonsang (선상,選上). The haengsu kisaeng of each district also took charge of discipline and training new kisaeng.
Kisaeng of the lowest tier were called samsu (삼수, 三首). The samsu were forbidden to perform the songs and dances of the haengsu. The tiered system, like other aspects of Joseon class division, broke down in the late nineteenth century.
In the course of their careers, some kisaeng were able to amass considerable personal wealth. However, these were the exception. Kisaeng were required to meet their expenses, including food, clothes, and makeup, out of their own personal funds.
Becoming a kisaeng
Yangban
The yangban were part of the traditional ruling class or nobles of dynastic Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. The yangban were either landed or unlanded aristocracy who comprised the Korean Confucian idea of a "scholarly official." In reality, they were basically administrators and bureaucrats who...
aristocracy were made kisaeng, usually because they had violated the strict sexual mores of the Joseon period.
As kisaeng were skilled workers from the beginning, the government took an early interest in ensuring correct education. This first emerged with the establishment of gyobang
Gyobang
The gyobang were the principal buildings associated with kisaeng during the Goryeo and Joseon Dynasties. They provided instruction in music including Hyangak The gyobang were the principal buildings associated with kisaeng during the Goryeo and Joseon Dynasties. They provided instruction in music...
, training institutes for palace kisaeng during the Goryeo period. During the Joseon period, this became further codified. Instruction focused on music and dance.
In the three-tiered system of later Joseon, more specialized training schools were established for kisaeng of the first tier. The course of study lasted three years and covered poetry, dance, music, and art. The most advanced such school was located in Pyongyang
Pyongyang
Pyongyang is the capital of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, commonly known as North Korea, and the largest city in the country. Pyongyang is located on the Taedong River and, according to preliminary results from the 2008 population census, has a population of 3,255,388. The city was...
. This system continued well into the Japanese colonial period
Korea under Japanese rule
Korea was under Japanese rule as part of Japan's 35-year imperialist expansion . Japanese rule ended in 1945 shortly after the Japanese defeat in World War II....
, during which time the schools training kisaeng were known as gwonbeon
Gwonbeon
The gwonbeon were institutions set up for the training and oversight of kisaeng and other entertainers during in the early 20th century. They were the successors of the gyobang, government-supported institutions which had provided such education and oversight in the Goryeo and Joseon...
(권번).
Daily life
As slaves of the government, the lives of kisaeng were closely regulated. They were overseen by the officer in charge of kisaeng, known as the hojangHojang
The hojang was a local official of low rank during the Goryeo and Joseon periods of Korean history. His role was similar to that of a village headman....
. The hojang was also in charge of maintaining the kisaeng register, and ensuring that none of the district's kisaeng had fled. Kisaeng were required to answer the requests of patrons, unless they had previously notified the hojang. The kisaeng of the district were expected to appear for inspection twice a month and also when a new official arrived in the area. In addition, they were required to report for continuing education
Continuing education
Continuing education is an all-encompassing term within a broad spectrum of post-secondary learning activities and programs. The term is used mainly in the United States and Canada...
, usually focused on music and dance. The frequency and content of this training varied from region to region.
However, the detailed affairs of the kisaeng were not directly overseen by the state. Order was kept within each gyobang, which might include some tens of kisaeng, by the haengsu kisaeng, those of the highest tier. When problems arose between a kisaeng and a client, or when charges of criminal conduct were made against a kisaeng, the haengsu kisaeng usually took the leading role in resolving the situation.
In addition, most kisaeng had a gibu, or "kisaeng husband," who provided protection and economic support, such as buying them pretty things or granting them social status in return for entertainment. Most gibu were former soldiers, government enforcers, or servants of the royal household. At times, there was friction between would-be customers and possessive gibu, although the gibu was not the kisaeng's husband and had no legal claim to her. The role of the gibu changed over time; at first, many kisaeng in government service had no such patron. However, by the late Joseon dynasty, the gibu system was more or less universal.
Joseon Dynasty kisaeng houses were typically located near the center of a town, often close to the marketplace. They were laid out to create a welcoming effect; in many cases, a location was chosen with a fine view, and the area around the house was carefully landscaped with an ornamental pool and plantings.
Politics and diplomacy
Kisaeng played a number of important political roles, as servants of the state and in their own right. They were employed to entertain visiting foreign dignitaries from parts of ChinaChina
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
, and to accompany them if they travelled through the country.
Thanks to their frequenting the taverns and guest-houses of the town, kisaeng were often among of the most knowledgeable on local affairs. For this reason, they were at times a key source of intelligence. It was through information supplied by kisaeng that the rebel army of Hong Gyeong-rae was able to easily take the fortress of Jeongju in the early 19th century.
When cities fell, as many of Korea's cities did during the Seven Year War in the late 16th century, kisaeng were often made to entertain the generals of the victorious army. Some of Korea's most famous kisaeng, including Non Gae
Non Gae
Nongae was a gisaeng of Jinju in the late 16th century. She was born in Jangsu, Jeolla province.The fortress of Jinju was occupied by the Japanese during the Seven Year War, after a long battle in which Nongae's lover Choe Gyeong-hoe was slain...
of Jinju
Jinju
Jinju is a city in South Gyeongsang Province, South Korea. It was the location of the first and second Sieges of Jinju by Japanese forces during the Imjin War...
, are remembered today for their bravery in killing or attempting to kill leaders of the imperial Japanese army.
Some kisaeng were also active in the Korean independence movements of the early 20th century. In this they resembled other women of Joseon, who often took a leading role in the independence struggle. Aengmu
Aengmu
Aengmu was the working name of a famed kisaeng of Daegu in the early 20th century. The name literally means "parrot." She was a leading donor to the National Debt Repayment Movement...
, a kisaeng of Daegu
Daegu
Daegu , also known as Taegu, and officially the Daegu Metropolitan City, is a city in South Korea, the fourth largest after Seoul, Busan, and Incheon, and the third largest metropolitan area in the country with over 2.5 million residents. The city is the capital and principal city of the...
, was a major donor to the National Debt Repayment Movement
National Debt Repayment Movement
The National Debt Repayment Movement was a movement by the people of the Korean Empire to repay their country's debt through collecting individual donations. It was started by Seo Sang-dong of Daegu on 30 January, 1907. At that time the national debt was 13 million won...
in the early 20th century. Some fifty kisaeng of Jinju took part in a demonstration as part of the March First Movement in 1919.
Regional differences
Hyeon
The hyeon were administrative subdivisions of Korea during the Silla, Goryeo, and Joseon periods. They were typically slightly smaller than today's si and gun . They were abolished in the Gabo Reform of 1895.During the Goryeo period, there were about 335 Hyeon; during the Joseon period, 164....
villages. They were also found in the "stations" and inns which provided food and shelter to travellers along the country's arterial roads, such as the Great Yeongnam Road
Great Yeongnam Road
The Great Yeongnam Road, or Yeongnamdaero, was one of the principal roads of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty, 1392-1910. It ran between Hanseong and Dongnae . More generally, it served to connect the Gyeongsang province to the capital. It takes its name from Yeongnam, an alternate name for the...
.
The number and characteristics of the kisaeng varied greatly from region to region. During the Joseon period, the city with the most kisaeng by far was Seoul
Seoul
Seoul , officially the Seoul Special City, is the capital and largest metropolis of South Korea. A megacity with a population of over 10 million, it is the largest city proper in the OECD developed world...
(then called Hanseong), with perhaps 1,000. Many of these worked for the court, and helped to fill the vast number of trained entertainers needed for grand festivals. Beautiful or talented kisaeng were often taken from the provinces to Seoul. The required training for kisaeng in Seoul was regular and very strict, with inattentive kisaeng sent home.
There were also large numbers of kisaeng in the old capitals of Gaeseong and Pyeongyang. The kisaeng of Pyeongyang were noted for their high level of skill and beauty. The kisaeng school of Pyeongyang was one of the country's most advanced, and continued operating until late in the colonial period. The kisaeng of Pyeongyang were also known for their ability to recite the gwan san yung ma, a song by the 18th-century composer Sin Gwang-su
Sin Gwang-su
Sin Gwang-su could refer to:*Sin Gwang-su , a North Korean operative involved in the North Korean abductions of Japanese.*Sin Gwang-su , , a noted poet of the late Joseon Dynasty....
.
Other large concentrations existed around army camps, particularly along the northern border. For instance, in the time of King Sejong in the 15th century, there were some 60 kisaeng attached to the army base at Yeongbyeon. In these areas, kisaeng essentially filled the role of wives for the army, and their role was commensurately more focused on domestic tasks than on entertainment.
The kisaeng of other regions also maintained distinctive local identities. The kisaeng of Jinju were particularly adept at the Geommu
Geommu
Geommu is a traditional sword dance practiced in Korea. Geommu is performed with special costume, dance motions, and music. The dance is known for its grace in performance. Extra emphasis is placed on the movement of the costuming, notably the sleeves, in harmony with the movements of the dancer...
, a traditional sword dance. Those of Jeju were known for their equestrian prowess. In many cases, the noted skills of a region's kisaeng corresponded with some other local claim to fame. The kisaeng of the Gwandong region on the east coast, home to many famous sights including Geumgangsan, memorized the gwan dong byeol gok (Hangeul:관동별곡 Hanja
Hanja
Hanja is the Korean name for the Chinese characters hanzi. More specifically, it refers to those Chinese characters borrowed from Chinese and incorporated into the Korean language with Korean pronunciation...
:關東別曲), a poem recounting their region's scenery. Those of the Honam
Honam
Honam is a region coinciding with the former Jeolla Province in what is now South Korea. Today, the term refers to North and South Jeolla Provinces....
region in the southwest were trained in pansori
Pansori
Pansori is a genre of Korean traditional music. It is a vocal and percussional music performed by one sorikkun and one gosu . The term pansori is derived from pan , and sori .- Overview :...
, while those of the seonbi city Andong
Andong
Andong is a city in Gyeongsangbuk-do Province, South Korea. It is the largest city in the northern part of the province with a population of 167,821 in October 2010. The Nakdong River flows through the city...
could recite the Greater Learning by heart.
History
An overwhelming silence hangs over the official histories of Korea when it comes to the kisaeng. They enter only occasionally into official records such as the GoryeosaGoryeosa
The Goryeosa or History of Goryeo is the principal surviving history of Korea's Goryeo Dynasty. It was composed nearly a century after the fall of Goryeo, during the reign of King Sejong...
or Joseon Wangjo Sillok. Yet references to kisaeng are quite widespread in the "anecdotal histories" of later Joseon, and Silhak thinkers such as Yi Ik
Seongho Yi Ik
Seongho Yi Ik was an early Silhak philosopher and social critic. He was born to a yangban family of the Yeoju Yi clan. Like most in his position, he studied for the gwageo in order to gain a position of rank; but failed in his first attempt in 1705...
and Dasan gave some thought to their role and station in society. Even today, many formal histories of Korea pay little or no heed to the story of the kisaeng. For example, Ki-baek Lee
Ki-baek Lee
Lee Ki-baek was a leading South Korean historian. He was born in Jeongju-gun, in North Pyeongan province in what is today North Korea...
's New History of Korea does not contain a single reference to the kisaeng.
Origins
There are various theories concerning the origin of the kisaeng. The first such theory was formulated by the scholar Dasan, and theories have multiplied as the kisaeng themselves have receded further into the past.One theory actually places their origins in the Silla
Silla
Silla was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and one of the longest sustained dynasties in...
dynasty, among the wonhwa
Wonhwa
The wonhwa were a class of cadets in 6th-century Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. It is not clear to what extent they ever engaged in battle. Created in the reign of King Jinheung, the first group of wonhwa consisted of about 300 young people chosen for their beauty and skill. Their...
, female predecessors of the hwarang
Hwarang
The Hwarang, or "Flower Boys"., were an elite group of male youth in Silla, an ancient Korean kingdom that lasted until the 10th century. There were educational institutions as well as social clubs where members gathered for all aspects of study, originally for arts and culture steeped mainly in...
. However, there is little to suggest a concrete link between Silla's wonhwa and the later kisaeng. Also, the wonhwa seem to have been chosen from among the aristocracy, whereas kisaeng were always members of the lower classes. For these reasons, few contemporary scholars support this theory.
Many others trace their origins to the early years of Goryeo, when many people were displaced following the end of the Later Three Kingdoms period in 936. At this time, a large number of Baekje
Baekje
Baekje or Paekche was a kingdom located in southwest Korea. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla....
people wandered the country. It is not clear whether this nomadic lifestyle was already established, or a consequence of the recent turmoil. In fact, a connection between these wanderers and the nomadic tribes of Manchuria
Manchuria
Manchuria is a historical name given to a large geographic region in northeast Asia. Depending on the definition of its extent, Manchuria usually falls entirely within the People's Republic of China, or is sometimes divided between China and Russia. The region is commonly referred to as Northeast...
has been conjectured. The first king of Goryeo, Taejo
Taejo of Goryeo
Taejo of Goryeo was the founder of the Goryeo Dynasty, which ruled Korea from the 10th to the 14th century. Taejo ruled from 918 to 943.-Background:...
, considered these wanderers to be a threat to the stability of the state. He ordered that they be made into slaves of the government. Although no certain records exist, it is likely that the first kisaeng were drawn from these former wanderers.
Goryeo
Regardless of their origins, kisaeng first emerged as a class and rose to prominence during the GoryeoGoryeo
The Goryeo Dynasty or Koryŏ was a Korean dynasty established in 918 by Emperor Taejo. Korea gets its name from this kingdom which came to be pronounced Korea. It united the Later Three Kingdoms in 936 and ruled most of the Korean peninsula until it was removed by the Joseon dynasty in 1392...
Dynasty, 935-1394. They are first mentioned in the early 11th century. At this time, they were primarily engaged in skilled trades such as needlework
Needlework
Needlework is a broad term for the handicrafts of decorative sewing and textile arts. Anything that uses a needle for construction can be called needlework...
, music, and medicine. The female entertainers of the court during this period filled a role similar to that later filled by almost all kisaeng.
Due to the growth of the kisaeng class, during the reign of Myeongjong
Myeongjong of Goryeo
King Myeongjong was monarch of the Goryeo dynasty of Korea. He was the third son of Emperor Injong.Although it was intended that Injong's second son should succeed his father, he was assassinated because Jeong Jung-bu feared that he might become a threat to him in the future...
the state began to keep records (called gijeok
Gijeok
The gijeok was a list of all the kisaeng working in a particular district. It was maintained by the local chief, or hojang. Those not on the list were not permitted to work as kisaeng; those on it were required to...
) of the kisaeng living in each jurisdiction. Around this time, the state also made its first efforts to set up educational institutions to train kisaeng entertainers. These academies were known as gyobang
Gyobang
The gyobang were the principal buildings associated with kisaeng during the Goryeo and Joseon Dynasties. They provided instruction in music including Hyangak The gyobang were the principal buildings associated with kisaeng during the Goryeo and Joseon Dynasties. They provided instruction in music...
, and first appear in history with their abolition by King Hyeonjong
Hyeonjong of Goryeo
Hyeonjong of Goryeo was the 8th ruler of the Goryeo dynasty of Korea. He was a grandson of Emperor Taejo. He was appointed by the military leader Gang Jo, whom the previous Emperor Mokjong had called upon to destroy a plot by Kim Chi-yang.In 1010, The Khitan attacked again during an internal...
in 1010. However, they were re-established in the reign of Chungnyeol
Chungnyeol of Goryeo
Chungnyeol of Goryeo was the 25th ruler of the medieval Korean kingdom of Goryeo. He was the son of Wonjong, his predecessor on the throne....
. The gyobang provided training in the dangak
Dangak
Dangak is a genre of traditional Korean court music. The name means "Tang music," and the style was first adapted from Tang Dynasty Chinese music during the Unified Silla period in the late first millennium...
and sogak
Sogak
So-gak or minsogak is a category of Korean music traditionally associated with the lower classes. It includes genres such as pansori and minyo. It is typically distinguished from jeongak, or court music. The terms were used during the Goryeo and Joseon periods....
musical styles.
The women trained in the gyobang were exclusively court entertainers. Their role in the affairs of the court became increasingly important as the dynasty progressed. They entertained both the king and visiting dignitaries, a role which continued into the Joseon period. In addition, beginning in the reign of Munjong
Munjong of Goryeo
Munjong was the 11th monarch of the Goryeo that ruled Korea from 1046 to 1083.Emperor Munjong was born in 1019 and reigned from 1046 until his death in 1083. During his reign, the central government of Goryeo gained complete authority and power over local lords. Munjong and later emperors...
, they performed at official ceremonies of the state.
Just as the origin of the kisaeng is unclear, so is their precise relation to other strata of society. The female entertainers who appear in records are exclusively kisaeng of the court, and are recorded as slaves of the government.
Joseon dynasty
Joseon Dynasty
Joseon , was a Korean state founded by Taejo Yi Seong-gye that lasted for approximately five centuries. It was founded in the aftermath of the overthrow of the Goryeo at what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul...
, 1394-1910. During the Joseon dynasty, the kisaeng system continued to flourish and develop, despite the government's deeply ambivalent attitude toward it.
Joseon was founded on Korean Confucian ideals, and these scholars of the time took a very dim view of professional women and of the kisaeng class in particular. There were many calls for the abolition of the kisaeng, or for their exclusion from court, but these were not successful—perhaps because of the influence of the women themselves, or perhaps because of fear that officials would take to stealing the wives of other men. One such proposal was made during the reign of Sejong, but when an advisor of the court suggested that the abolition of the class would lead to government officials committing grave crimes, the king chose to preserve the kisaeng.
During the brief and violent reign of Yeonsan-gun, 1494–1506, kisaeng became symbolic of royal excess. Yeonsan-gun treated women as primarily objects of pleasure, and made even the medicinal kisaeng (yakbang gisaeng) into entertainers. Yeonsan-gun brought 1,000 women and girls from the provinces to serve as palace kisaeng; many of them were paid from the public treasury. He may have been the first to institute a formal hierarchy among them, dividing the kisaeng of the palace into "Heaven," those with whom he slept, and "Earth," those who served other functions.
In 1650, all kisaeng were made slaves of the government. The kisaeng attached to a government office were known as gwan-gi, or "kisaeng of the office." Their role did not, by law, include sexual service to the officeholder; in fact, government officials could be punished severely for consorting with a kisaeng. However, in practice kisaeng were often forced to serve the officeholder. A distinction was sometimes made between those gwan-gi who were obliged to sleep with the officeholder, and those who were not. This distinction was featured in the popular play Chunhyangga
Chunhyangga
The Chunhyangga is the most famous Pansori in Korea. The Chunhyangga has delighted all Korean for a century. The Chunhyangga is the best Pansori as musically, literary, and a well-made play....
.
The Gabo Reform
Gabo Reform
The Gabo Reform describes a series of sweeping reforms introduced in Joseon Dynasty Korea beginning in 1894 and ending in 1896, during the reign of King Gojong, in response to the Donghak Peasant Revolution. Historians debate the degree of Japanese influence in this program, as well as its effect...
of 1895 officially abolished the class system of Joseon dynasty, and slavery as well. From that year forward, all kisaeng became nominally free. In practice, many kisaeng, like many other slaves, continued in servitude for many years. In addition, many of those who were freed had no alternative career; they continued as entertainers, now without the protections afforded by kisaeng status. During the subsequent decade, many of these kisaeng went to elsewhere to work.
Modern kisaeng
Very few traditional kisaeng houses continue to operate in South Korea, and many of the traditions and dances have been lost forever. Some South Korean business circles escort visiting foreign businesspeople to a kisaeng house, but the place is mostly a modern interpretation or a shadow of what the kisaeng house was in the past.Today the kisaeng's evolution and impact on Korean society are receiving new attention as Koreans devote increasing efforts to rediscovering and re-invigorating their cultural and historical heritage. However, this interest is focused almost entirely on the historical kisaeng of the Joseon period, and not on the traces of the kisaeng which endure today.
Literary and artistic depictions
Pansori
Pansori is a genre of Korean traditional music. It is a vocal and percussional music performed by one sorikkun and one gosu . The term pansori is derived from pan , and sori .- Overview :...
emerged, kisaeng often took a leading role. This was in part due to their unique role as women who could move freely in society. Kisaeng appear as heroines in stories such as Chunhyangga
Chunhyangga
The Chunhyangga is the most famous Pansori in Korea. The Chunhyangga has delighted all Korean for a century. The Chunhyangga is the best Pansori as musically, literary, and a well-made play....
, and as important figures in many other Joseon-era narratives.
Kisaeng also began to appear in the vernacular art of later Joseon. They are particularly common in the work of the famed early 19th-century painter Hyewon
Hyewon
Shin Yun-bok, better known by his pen name Hyewon, was a Korean painter of the Joseon Dynasty. Like his contemporaries Danwon and Geungjae, he is known for his realistic depictions of daily life in his time. His genre paintings are distinctly more erotic than Danwon's, a fact which contributed to...
, whose work focused on both the life of the cheonmin and erotic themes.
Kisaeng continue to be central to the understanding and imagining of Joseon Dynasty culture in contemporary South
South Korea
The Republic of Korea , , is a sovereign state in East Asia, located on the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula. It is neighbored by the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the east, North Korea to the north, and the East China Sea and Republic of China to the south...
and North Korea
North Korea
The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea , , is a country in East Asia, occupying the northern half of the Korean Peninsula. Its capital and largest city is Pyongyang. The Korean Demilitarized Zone serves as the buffer zone between North Korea and South Korea...
. For example, the female lead in the film Chwihwaseon was a kisaeng, the companion of painter Owon
Owon
Jang Seung-eop , was a painter of the late Joseon Dynasty in Korea. His life was dramatized in the award-winning 2002 film Chi-hwa-seon directed by Im Kwon-taek. He was one of the few painters to hold a position of rank in the Joseon court.Growing up as an orphan, Owon learned painting while...
. Fresh treatments of popular kisaeng stories, including the fictional Chunhyang and the historical Hwang Jin-Yi, continue to emerge in popular novels and cinema.
Famous kisaeng
Notable kisaeng include:- Du-hyang, lover of Toegye Yi HwangYi HwangYi Hwang is one of the two most prominent Korean Confucian scholars of the Joseon Dynasty, the other being his younger contemporary Yi I . A key figure of the Neo-Confucian literati, he established the Yeongnam School and set up the Dosan Seowon, a private Confucian academy. Yi Hwang is often...
, committed suicide in a river in her hometown Danyang after Toegye's death. - Sangchunrim, kisaeng of Seoul during JungjongJungjong of JoseonJungjong of Joseon , born Yi Yeok, ruled during the 16th century in what is now Korea. He succeeded his half-brother, Yeonsangun, because of the latter's tyranical misrule, which culminated in a coup placing Jungjong on the throne.-Jo Gwang-jo's reforms:On the day Yeonsangun was deposed, soldiers...
, associated with many scholars. - Gang-a, kisaeng of Jeolla during SeonjoSeonjo of JoseonKing Seonjo ruled in Korea between 1567 and 1608. He was the fourteenth king of the Joseon Dynasty. He is known for encouraging Confucianism and renovating state affairs at the beginning of his reign, although political chaos and his incompetent leadership during the Japanese invasions of Korea...
, Jeong Cheol's lover. - Juk-hyang, kisaeng during SunjoSunjo of JoseonSunjo was the 23rd king of the Korean Joseon Dynasty.He was born His Royal Highness Prince Yi Gong, the 2nd son of King Jeongjo by his concubine, Lady Subin....
, Kim Jeong-hui's lover. - Chu-hyang, Sim Yook's lover, best female poet during her time.
- Yi Mae-changYi Mae-changYi Mae-chang , born Yi Hyang-geum, was a famed kisaeng of the Buan area during the Joseon Dynasty. She was noted for her talent in playing the geomungo and composing sijo and other poetry...
, poet of Buan - Hong Rang
- Seol-mae, noted wit.
- Hwang Jin-iHwang Jin-iHwang Jin-i , also known by her gisaeng name Myeongwol , is one of the most famous gisaeng of the Joseon Dynasty who lived during the reign of King Jungjong. She was noted for her exceptional beauty, charming quick wit, and extraordinary intellect...
, musician and intellectual of Gaeseong. - Non GaeNon GaeNongae was a gisaeng of Jinju in the late 16th century. She was born in Jangsu, Jeolla province.The fortress of Jinju was occupied by the Japanese during the Seven Year War, after a long battle in which Nongae's lover Choe Gyeong-hoe was slain...
, remembered for killing a Japanese general during the battle of JinjuJinjuJinju is a city in South Gyeongsang Province, South Korea. It was the location of the first and second Sieges of Jinju by Japanese forces during the Imjin War...
. - Gyewolhyang, who attempted to have the Japanese general Konishi YukinagaKonishi YukinagaKonishi Yukinaga was a Kirishitan daimyō under Toyotomi Hideyoshi. He was the son of a wealthy Sakai merchant, Konishi Ryūsa...
killed in Pyeongyang. - Man-hyang of Hamheung
- Yuji of HwangjuHwangju-Geography:Hwangju is bordered to the northwest by Sariwŏn, to the northeast by Songrim and Kangnam, to the southwest by Yŏnt'an, to the south by Pongsan, and to the southeast by Ŭnch'ŏn-History:...
- Kim Ja-ya, the last classically-trained kisaeng in South Korea.
- Lee Hwajungseon, a kisaeng who gave an interview on the March 1923 issue of Contemporary Review.
- Garr Dicesan, intellectual, noted for musing on social interactions.
See also
- Korean culture
- History of KoreaHistory of KoreaThe Korean Peninsula was inhabited from the Lower Paleolithic about 400,000-500,000 years ago. Archeological evidence indicates that the presence of modern humans in northeast Asia dates to 39,000 years ago. The earliest known Korean pottery dates to around 8000 BC, and the Neolithic period began...
- List of Korea-related topics
- K-popK-popK-pop is a musical genre consisting of electropop, hip hop, pop, rock, and R&B music originating in South Korea...
K-pop - modern Korean culture.
Further reading
(In two volumes).(Tr. from Japanese original)
- Kim, Dong-uk. (1963). Women's literary achievements (Yi Dynasty). Korea Journal 3(11), 33-36. http://www.ekoreajournal.net/archive/detail.jsp?VOLUMENO=3&BOOKNUM=11&PAPERNUM=24&TOTALSEARCH=&AUTHORENAME=&PAPERTITLE=women&KEYWORD=&PAPERTYPE=0&SUBJECT=0&STARTYEAR=1961&ENDYEAR=2003&LISTOPTION=1&KEYPAGE=10&PAGE=4
- McCann, David. (1977). Traditional world of kisaeng. Korea Journal 14(2), 40-43. http://www.ekoreajournal.net/archive/detail.jsp?VOLUMENO=14&BOOKNUM=2&PAPERNUM=5&TOTALSEARCH=&AUTHORENAME=&PAPERTITLE=kisaeng&KEYWORD=&PAPERTYPE=0&SUBJECT=0&STARTYEAR=1961&ENDYEAR=2003&LISTOPTION=1&KEYPAGE=10&PAGE=1
External links
- Chosun Ilbo article on the vestiges of the kisaeng
- http://www.seoulselection.com/asiana_newsletter_read.html?nid=159
- http://www.boaeditions.org/books/songsof.html
- Korean-language profile of the Pyeongyang Kisaeng School