Leadership studies is a multidisciplinary academic field of study that focuses on leadership

Leadership

Leadership has been described as the “process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task". Other in-depth definitions of leadership have also emerged.-Theories:...

 in organizational contexts and in human life. Leadership studies has origins in the social sciences (e.g., sociology

Sociology

Sociology is the study of society. It is a social science—a term with which it is sometimes synonymous—which uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social activity...

, anthropology

Anthropology

Anthropology is the study of humanity. It has origins in the humanities, the natural sciences, and the social sciences. The term "anthropology" is from the Greek anthrōpos , "man", understood to mean mankind or humanity, and -logia , "discourse" or "study", and was first used in 1501 by German...

, psychology

Psychology

Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. Its immediate goal is to understand individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases. For many, the ultimate goal of psychology is to benefit society...

), in humanities

Humanities

The humanities are academic disciplines that study the human condition, using methods that are primarily analytical, critical, or speculative, as distinguished from the mainly empirical approaches of the natural sciences....

 (e.g., history

History

History is the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. History can also mean the period of time after writing was invented. Scholars who write about history are called historians...

 and philosophy

Philosophy

Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...

), as well as in professional and applied fields of study (e.g., management

Management

Management in all business and organizational activities is the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively...

 and education

Education

Education in its broadest, general sense is the means through which the aims and habits of a group of people lives on from one generation to the next. Generally, it occurs through any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts...

). The field of leadership studies is closely linked to the field of organizational studies

Organizational studies

Organizational studies, sometimes known as organizational science, encompass the systematic study and careful application of knowledge about how people act within organizations...

.

As an academic area of inquiry, the study of leadership has been of interest to scholars from a wide variety of disciplinary backgrounds. Today, there are numerous academic programs (spanning several academic colleges and departments) related to the study of leadership. Leadership degree programs generally relate to: aspects of Leadership, Leadership Studies, and Organizational Leadership (although there are a number of leadership-oriented concentrations in other academic areas).

Leadership in Higher Education

Leadership has become one of the fastest growing academic fields in higher education At all levels, undergraduate through doctoral, an increasing number of colleges and universities have begun developing not only individual courses, but entire degree programs specifically devoted to the study of leadership.

Even among some of the more established and traditional academic disciplines such as engineering

Engineering

Engineering is the discipline, art, skill and profession of acquiring and applying scientific, mathematical, economic, social, and practical knowledge, in order to design and build structures, machines, devices, systems, materials and processes that safely realize improvements to the lives of...

, education

Education

Education in its broadest, general sense is the means through which the aims and habits of a group of people lives on from one generation to the next. Generally, it occurs through any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts...

, and medicine

Medicine

Medicine is the science and art of healing. It encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness....

, specialization and concentration areas have been developed around the study of leadership. Most of these academic programs have been designed to be multidisciplinary in nature—drawing upon theories and applications from related fields such as sociology

Sociology

Sociology is the study of society. It is a social science—a term with which it is sometimes synonymous—which uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social activity...

, psychology

Psychology

Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. Its immediate goal is to understand individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases. For many, the ultimate goal of psychology is to benefit society...

, philosophy

Philosophy

Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...

, and management

Management

Management in all business and organizational activities is the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively...

. Such an approach, Rost (1991) has argued “allows scholars and practitioners to think radically new thoughts about leadership that are not possible from a unidisciplinary approach” (p. 2).

History of Leadership as a Field of Study

The study of leadership

Leadership

Leadership has been described as the “process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task". Other in-depth definitions of leadership have also emerged.-Theories:...

 can be dated back to Plato

Plato

Plato , was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the...

, Sun Tzu

Sun Tzu

Sun Wu , style name Changqing , better known as Sun Tzu or Sunzi , was an ancient Chinese military general, strategist and philosopher who is traditionally believed, and who is most likely, to have authored The Art of War, an influential ancient Chinese book on military strategy...

 and Machiavelli

Niccolò Machiavelli

Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli was an Italian historian, philosopher, humanist, and writer based in Florence during the Renaissance. He is one of the main founders of modern political science. He was a diplomat, political philosopher, playwright, and a civil servant of the Florentine Republic...

; however, leadership has only become the focus of contemporary academic studies in the last 60 years, and particularly more so in the last two decades. Contemporary leadership scholars and researchers have often been questioned about the nature of their work, and its place within the academy, but much of the confusion surrounding leadership as a field of study may be attributed to a lack of understanding regarding transdisciplinary

Transdisciplinary studies

Transdisciplinary Studies are an area of research and education that addresses contemporary issues that cannot be solved by one or even a few points-of-view...

, inter-, and multi- disciplinary academic fields of study in general.

The discipline (which encompasses a host of sub-fields) is filled with definitions, theories, styles, functions, competencies, and historical examples of successful and diverse leaders. Collectively, the research findings on leadership provide a far more sophisticated and complex view of the phenomenon than most of the simplistic views presented in the popular press.

Some of the earliest studies on leadership include:

• The Ohio State Leadership Studies which began in the 1940s and focused on how leaders could satisfy common group needs. The findings indicated that the two most important dimensions in leadership included: "initiating structure," and "consideration." These characteristics could be either high or low and were independent of one another. The research was based on questionnaires to leaders and subordinates. These questionnaires are known as the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) and the Supervisor Behavior Description Questionnaire (SBDQ). By 1962, the LBDQ was on version XII.

• The Michigan Leadership Studies which began in the 1950s and indicated that leaders could be classified as either "employee centered," or "job centered." These studies identified three critical characteristics of effective leaders: task oriented behavior, relationship-oriented behavior, and participative leadership.

• McGregors Theory X & Theory Y
  Theory X and theory Y
  Theory X and Theory Y are theories of human motivation created and developed by Douglas McGregor at the MIT Sloan School of Management in the 1960s that have been used in human resource management, organizational behavior, organizational communication and organizational development...
  
   developed by Douglas McGregor
  Douglas McGregor
  Douglas Murray McGregor was a Management professor at the MIT Sloan School of Management and president of Antioch College from 1948 to 1954. He also taught at the Indian Institute of Management Calcutta. His 1960 book The Human Side of Enterprise had a profound influence on education practices...
  
   in the 1960s at MIT Sloan School of Management
  MIT Sloan School of Management
  The MIT Sloan School of Management is the business school of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, in Cambridge, Massachusetts....
  
  . These theories described employee motivation in the workforce. Both theories begin with the premise that the role of management is to assemble the factors of production, including people, for the economic benefit of the firm. Beyond this point, the two theories of management diverge.

• Blake & McCanse Leadership Grid developed the orientation of "task orientation" and "people orientation" in leader behavior. They developed the leadership grid which focused on concern for results (on the one axis) and concern for people (on the other axis).

In addition to these studies, leadership has been examined from an academic perspective through several theoretical lenses

Leadership

Leadership has been described as the “process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task". Other in-depth definitions of leadership have also emerged.-Theories:...

:

• Trait & Behavioral theories of Leadership: Attempt to describe the types of behavior and personality tendencies associated with effective leadership.

• Situational & Contingency theories of Leadership: Incorporate environmental and situational considerations into leader behavior.

• Functional Leadership theory: Suggests that a leader’s primary responsibility is to see that whatever is necessary in relation to group needs is taken care of.

• Information-Processing
  Information processing
  Information processing is the change of information in any manner detectable by an observer. As such, it is a process which describes everything which happens in the universe, from the falling of a rock to the printing of a text file from a digital computer system...
  
   Leadership theory: Focuses on the role of social perception in identifying leadership abilities.

• Self Leadership theory: Although behaviorally oriented, the essence of self leadership theory is that behaviors are directed toward the attainment of super-ordinate goals.

• Transactional & Transformational theories of Leadership: The transactional leader focuses on managerial reward and contingent valuation. The transformational leader focuses on motivation and goal attainment.

The first doctoral program in Leadership Studies was established at the University of San Diego

University of San Diego

The University of San Diego is a Roman Catholic university in San Diego, California. USD offers more than sixty bachelor's, master’s, and doctoral programs...

 in the School of Leadership and Education Sciences in 1979. The first undergraduate school of Leadership Studies was established at the University of Richmond

University of Richmond

The University of Richmond is a selective, private, nonsectarian, liberal arts university located on the border of the city of Richmond and Henrico County, Virginia. The University of Richmond is a primarily undergraduate, residential university with approximately 4,000 undergraduate and graduate...

 (The Jepson School) in 1992. The Jepson School of Leadership Studies at the University of Richmond studies leadership as a process that can be taught.
The growth of transpersonal psychology

Transpersonal psychology

Transpersonal psychology is a form of psychology that studies the transpersonal, self-transcendent or spiritual aspects of the human experience....

 means that this field has relevance to Transpersonal business studies

Transpersonal business studies

Since the foundation of transpersonal psychology by Abraham Maslow in the late 1960s, other transpersonal disciplines, considered by Boucouvalas , have been considered...

.

Notable Leadership Scholars

• Bruce Avolio: Was Clifton Chair in Leadership at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, the Director of the Gallup Leadership Institute, and a Senior Research Scientist at the Gallup Organization. Currently the Executive Director of the Center for Leadership and Strategic Thinking at the University of Washington, Michael G. Foster School of Business, Marion B. Ingersoll Professor, and Professor of Management at the University of Washington.
• Bernard Bass: Was a distinguished professor emeritus in the School of Management at Binghamton University (State University of New York) and a member of the Academy of Senior Professionals at Eckerd College
  Eckerd College
  Eckerd College is a private 4-year coeducational liberal arts college at the southernmost tip of St. Petersburg, Florida, in the Tampa Bay metropolitan area. The college is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools.- Campus :...
  
   in Florida. He was also the founding director of the Center for Leadership Studies at Binghamton and founding editor of The Leadership Quarterly journal.
• Warren Bennis
  Warren Bennis
  Warren Gamaliel Bennis is an American scholar, organizational consultant and author, widely regarded as a pioneer of the contemporary field of Leadership studies....
  
  : American scholar, organizational consultant and author, widely regarded as a pioneer of the contemporary field of Leadership Studies. Bennis is University Professor and Distinguished Professor of Business Administration and Founding Chairman of The Leadership Institute at the University of Southern California
  University of Southern California
  The University of Southern California is a private, not-for-profit, nonsectarian, research university located in Los Angeles, California, United States. USC was founded in 1880, making it California's oldest private research university...
  
  .
• Jean Lipman-Blumen: Thornton F. Bradshaw Professor of Public Policy and Professor of Organizational Behavior at the Peter F. Drucker and Masatoshi Ito Graduate School of Management Claremont Graduate University
  Claremont Graduate University
  Claremont Graduate University is a private, all-graduate research university located in Claremont, California, a city east of downtown Los Angeles...
  
  . In addition to her professorial roles at Claremont Graduate University, Professor Lipman-Blumen is co-founding director of the Institute for Advanced Studies in Leadership at the Drucker Ito Graduate School of Management. She also is Director of the Achieving Styles Institute, a Pasadena-based leadership and management consulting group.
• Stephen R. Covey
  Stephen Covey
  Stephen Richards Covey is the author of the best-selling book, The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People. Other books he has written include First Things First, Principle-Centered Leadership, and The Seven Habits of Highly Effective Families. In 2004, Covey released The 8th Habit...
  
  : An international respected leadership authority, author of Principle Centered Leadership, Seven Habits of Highly Effective People, and The 8th Habit. Founder and vice chairman of FranklinCovey Company.
• James McGregor Burns
  James MacGregor Burns
  James MacGregor Burns is an historian and political scientist, presidential biographer, and authority on leadership studies. He is the Woodrow Wilson Professor of Government Emeritus at Williams College and Distinguished Leadership Scholar at the of the School of Public Policy at the University...
  
  : Presidential biographer, authority on leadership studies, Woodrow Wilson Professor (emeritus) of Political Science at Williams College
  Williams College
  Williams College is a private liberal arts college located in Williamstown, Massachusetts, United States. It was established in 1793 with funds from the estate of Ephraim Williams. Originally a men's college, Williams became co-educational in 1970. Fraternities were also phased out during this...
  
  , and scholar at the James McGregor Burns Academy of Leadership at the University of Maryland, College Park
  University of Maryland
  When the term "University of Maryland" is used without any qualification, it generally refers to the University of Maryland, College Park.University of Maryland may refer to the following:...
  
  . He received a Pulitzer Prize
  Pulitzer Prize
  The Pulitzer Prize is a U.S. award for achievements in newspaper and online journalism, literature and musical composition. It was established by American publisher Joseph Pulitzer and is administered by Columbia University in New York City...
  
   and National Book Award
  National Book Award
  The National Book Awards are a set of American literary awards. Started in 1950, the Awards are presented annually to American authors for literature published in the current year. In 1989 the National Book Foundation, a nonprofit organization which now oversees and manages the National Book...
  
   in 1971 for his Roosevelt: Soldier of Freedom 1940-1945.
• Peter Drucker
  Peter Drucker
  Peter Ferdinand Drucker was an influential writer, management consultant, and self-described “social ecologist.”-Introduction:...
  
  : Writer, management consultant, and self-described “social ecologist.” Widely considered to be the father of “modern management,” his 39 books and countless scholarly and popular articles explored how humans are organized across all sectors of society—in business, government and the nonprofit world.
• Alice Eagly: Social psychologist
  Social psychology
  Social psychology is the scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others. By this definition, scientific refers to the empirical method of investigation. The terms thoughts, feelings, and behaviors include all...
  
   who has published widely on the psychology of attitudes, especially attitude change and attitude structure. She is equally devoted to the study of gender
  Gender
  Gender is a range of characteristics used to distinguish between males and females, particularly in the cases of men and women and the masculine and feminine attributes assigned to them. Depending on the context, the discriminating characteristics vary from sex to social role to gender identity...
  
   and social behavior
  Social behavior
  In physics, physiology and sociology, social behavior is behavior directed towards society, or taking place between, members of the same species. Behavior such as predation which involves members of different species is not social...
  
  .
• Ronald Heifitz: Co-founder of the Center for Public Leadership
  Center for Public Leadership
  The Center for Public Leadership is an American learning institution that provides teaching, research and training in the practical skills of leadership for people in government, nonprofits, and business. It was established in 2000, through a gift from the Wexner Foundation, at Harvard Kennedy...
  
   and King Hussein bin Talal Lecturer in Public Leadership at Harvard University's John F. Kennedy School of Government
  Kennedy School
  The Kennedy School is a former elementary school that has been converted to a hotel, movie theater and dining establishment in northeast Portland, Oregon. The facility is operated by the McMenamins chain.-External links:*...
  
  .
• Paul Hersey
  Paul Hersey
  Paul Hersey is a behavioral scientist and entrepreneur. He is best known for conceiving Situational Leadership. Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard published Management of Organization Behavior- now in its ninth edition....
  
  : Behavioral scientist and entrepreneur. He is best known for developing Situational Leadership
  Situational leadership theory
  The Hersey–Blanchard situational leadership theory, is a leadership theory conceived by Paul Hersey, a professor who wrote a well known book Situational Leader and Ken Blanchard, author of The One Minute Manager, while working on the first edition of Management of Organizational Behavior...
  
   with Ken Blanchard
  Ken Blanchard
  Kenneth Hartley Blanchard is an American author and management expert. His book The One Minute Manager has sold over 13 million copies and has been translated into 37 languages...
  
  , which is enunciated in their work Management of Organization Behavior, now in its ninth edition.
• Robert J. House: Principal Investigator of the Global Leadership And Organizational Behavior Effectiveness Research Program (GLOBE) from 1993 through 2003. He was appointed the Joseph Frank Bernstein Professor Endowed Chair of Organization Studies at the Wharton School
  Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania
  The Wharton School is the business school of the University of Pennsylvania, an Ivy League university in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Wharton was the world’s first collegiate business school and the first business school in the United States...
  
   of the University of Pennsylvania
  University of Pennsylvania
  The University of Pennsylvania is a private, Ivy League university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Penn is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States,Penn is the fourth-oldest using the founding dates claimed by each institution...
  
   in 1988. He has published 130 journal articles. In total, his articles have been reprinted in approximately 50 anthologies of readings in Management
  Management
  Management in all business and organizational activities is the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively...
  
   and Organizational Behavior
  Organizational studies
  Organizational studies, sometimes known as organizational science, encompass the systematic study and careful application of knowledge about how people act within organizations...
  
  
• John P. Kotter
  John Kotter
  John Paul Kotter is a professor at the Harvard Business School and author, who is regarded as an authority on leadership and change. He outlines eight steps that organizations need to implement to successfully change:1...
  
  : the Konosuke Matsushita Professor of Leadership, Emeritus, at Harvard Business School. His focus is on leadership as it applies to organizational change
• Jim Kouzes: Co-author with Barry Posner of the award-winning and best selling book, The Leadership Challenge, with over one million copies sold.
• Craig L. Pearce: University of Nebraska - Lincoln. Formerly Professor of Management at the Peter F. Drucker & Masatoshi Ito Graduate School of Management, Claremont Graduate University. He is currently the holder of the Clifton Chair in Leadership at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, the Director of the Institute for Innovative Leadership and the author of Shared Leadership: Reframing the Hows and Whys of Leadership (2003) with Jay A. Conger. His empirical work in the area of Shared Leadership has become the foundation to a new meta theory about how sharing leadership can affect organizational and team outcomes and performance.
• Glenn D. Paige
  Glenn D. Paige
  Glenn Durland Paige is an American political scientist. He is a Professor Emeritus of political science at the University of Hawai‘i and Chair of the Governing Council of the Center for Global Nonkilling...
  
  : Professor Emeritus
  Emeritus
  Emeritus is a post-positive adjective that is used to designate a retired professor, bishop, or other professional or as a title. The female equivalent emerita is also sometimes used.-History:...
  
   of political science
  Political science
  Political Science is a social science discipline concerned with the study of the state, government and politics. Aristotle defined it as the study of the state. It deals extensively with the theory and practice of politics, and the analysis of political systems and political behavior...
  
   at the University of Hawai‘i and Chair of the Governing Council of the Center for Global Nonkilling
  Center for Global Nonkilling
  The Center for Global Nonkilling, originally known as the Center for Global Nonviolence, is an international non-profit organization focused on the promotion of change toward the measurable goal of a killing-free world. The Center for Global Nonkilling is a member of the World Health...
  
  . Author of The Scientific Study of Political Leadership (New York: The Free Press, 1977).http://books.google.com/books?id=3iDvAAAAIAAJ&hl=en-EN&pgis=1.
• Barry Posner: Dean of the Leavey School of Business
  Leavey School of Business
  The SCU Leavey School of Business is a private academic institution at Santa Clara University. It is one of the professional schools of Santa Clara University. The School of Business was founded in 1923 and accredited by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business thirty years later...
  
   as well as a Professor of Leadership at Santa Clara University
  Santa Clara University
  Santa Clara University is a private, not-for-profit, Jesuit-affiliated university located in Santa Clara, California, United States. Chartered by the state of California and accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges, it operates in collaboration with the Society of Jesus , whose...
  
  .
• George Reed: Faculty member in the School of Leadership and Education Sciences at the University of San Diego
  University of San Diego
  The University of San Diego is a Roman Catholic university in San Diego, California. USD offers more than sixty bachelor's, master’s, and doctoral programs...
  
  . Before joining the faculty in 2007 he served for 27 years as a military police officer
  Military police
  Military police are police organisations connected with, or part of, the military of a state. The word can have different meanings in different countries, and may refer to:...
  
   including six as the Director of Command and Leadership Studies at the U.S. Army War College. Recipient of the American Society for Public Administration Marshall Dimock Award for the best lead article in Public Administration Review, 2007.
• Ronald Riggio: The Henry R. Kravis Professor of Leadership and Organizational Psychology
  Industrial and organizational psychology
  Industrial and organizational psychology is the scientific study of employees, workplaces, and organizations. Industrial and organizational psychologists contribute to an organization's success by improving the performance and well-being of its people...
  
   and Director of the Kravis Leadership Institute at Claremont McKenna College
  Claremont McKenna College
  Claremont McKenna College is a private, coeducational liberal arts college and a member of the Claremont Colleges located in Claremont, California. The campus is located east of Downtown Los Angeles...
  
  .
• Joseph Rost: Was professor emeritus of leadership studies in the School of Leadership and Education Sciences at the University of San Diego
  University of San Diego
  The University of San Diego is a Roman Catholic university in San Diego, California. USD offers more than sixty bachelor's, master’s, and doctoral programs...
  
  . Author of Leadership for the 21st Century.
• Georgia Sorenson: Georgia Sorenson, Ph.D., a pioneer in the field of leadership studies, founded the James MacGregor Burns Academy of Leadership at the University of Maryland
  University of Maryland
  When the term "University of Maryland" is used without any qualification, it generally refers to the University of Maryland, College Park.University of Maryland may refer to the following:...
  
   in 1980. It was the first academic institution to focus on leadership scholarship and education for emergent leaders, women, minorities, and other underrepresented groups.
• Ralph Stogdill: With the publication of his first article on leadership, "Personal Factors Associated with Leadership: A Survey of the Literature," Ralph Stogdill became a leader in leadership research. This influential and much reprinted 1948 paper marked a turning point in Ralph's career, but more importantly it marked a turning point in the study of leadership.
• Victor Vroom
  Victor Vroom
  Victor H. Vroom is a business school professor at the Yale School of Management, who was born on 9 August 1932 in Montreal, Canada. He holds a PhD from University of Michigan....
  
  : Business school professor at the Yale School of Management
  Yale School of Management
  The Yale School of Management is the graduate business school of Yale University and is located on Hillhouse Avenue in New Haven, Connecticut, United States. The School offers Master of Business Administration and Ph.D. degree programs. As of January 2011, 454 students were enrolled in its MBA...
  
  . Vroom's primary research was on the expectancy theory of motivation
  Expectancy theory
  Expectancy Theory proposes that a person will decide to behave or act in a certain way because they are motivated to select a specific behavior over other behaviors due to what they expect the result of that selected behavior will be. In essence, the motivation of the behavior selection is...
  
  , which attempts to explain why individuals choose to follow certain courses of action in organizations, particularly in decision-making and leadership. His most well-known books are Work and Motivation, Leadership and Decision Making, and The New Leadership. Vroom has also been a consultant to a number of corporations such as GE
  General Electric
  General Electric Company , or GE, is an American multinational conglomerate corporation incorporated in Schenectady, New York and headquartered in Fairfield, Connecticut, United States...
  
   and American Express
  American Express
  American Express Company or AmEx, is an American multinational financial services corporation headquartered in Three World Financial Center, Manhattan, New York City, New York, United States. Founded in 1850, it is one of the 30 components of the Dow Jones Industrial Average. The company is best...
  
  .
• Margaret Wheatley: Writer and management consultant who studies organizational behavior
  Organizational studies
  Organizational studies, sometimes known as organizational science, encompass the systematic study and careful application of knowledge about how people act within organizations...
  
  . Her approach includes systems thinking
  Systems thinking
  Systems thinking is the process of understanding how things influence one another within a whole. In nature, systems thinking examples include ecosystems in which various elements such as air, water, movement, plants, and animals work together to survive or perish...
  
  , theories of change, chaos theory
  Chaos theory
  Chaos theory is a field of study in mathematics, with applications in several disciplines including physics, economics, biology, and philosophy. Chaos theory studies the behavior of dynamical systems that are highly sensitive to initial conditions, an effect which is popularly referred to as the...
  
  , leadership
  Leadership
  Leadership has been described as the “process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task". Other in-depth definitions of leadership have also emerged.-Theories:...
  
   and the learning organization
  Learning organization
  A learning organization is the term given to a company that facilitates the learning of its members and continuously transforms itself. Learning organizations develop as a result of the pressures facing modern organizations and enables them to remain competitive in the business environment...
  
  : particularly its capacity to self-organize.
• Gary Yukl: Professor of the University of Albany, is leading writer on organizational leadership.

Academic Journals

• The International Journal of Leadership Studies: Representing the multidisciplinary field of leadership, the IJLS publishes theoretically grounded research that enhances knowledge and understanding of the phenomenon of leadership at all levels within a variety of industries and organizations and seeks contributions that present leadership from different perspectives unique to different cultures, settings, and religions around the world.
• The International Journal of Servant Leadership: The International Journal of Servant-Leadership is published by Gonzaga University in collaboration with the Larry Spears Center for Servant-leadership.
• The Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies: The Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies is the Official Journal of the Midwest Academy of Management. The Journal publishes articles to advance the theory, research and practice of all aspects of leadership and organizations. Research results are preferred, but theoretical contributions and new applications are also appropriate. Although leadership topics are emphasized, any area of interest in organizational behavior, human resource management, strategy, international management, or entrepreneurship is also encouraged.
• Journal of Leadership Studies: The mission of the Journal of Leadership Studies is to publish leadership research and theoretical contributions that bridge the gap between scholarship and practice and that exemplify critical inquiry into contemporary organizational issues and paradigms. The journal promotes interdisciplinary and interorganizational theory, fostering dialogue that transcends industry specific contexts and that explores leadership's role in improving organizational practices and human life. Published material in the journal will include research-based and theoretical papers that explicitly address leadership on various social, cultural, and organizational contexts.
• Leadership: Leadership is an international, peer-reviewed journal designed to provide an ongoing forum for academic researchers to exchange information, insights and knowledge based on both theoretical development and empirical research on leadership. It will publish original, high quality articles that contribute to the advancement of the study of leadership. The journal will be global in orientation and focus.
• The Leadership Quarterly: Is an international journal of political, social and behavioral science published in affiliation with the International Leadership Association (ILA).
• Leadership and Organization Development Journal: The Leadership & Organization Development Journal explores behavioral and managerial issues relating to all aspects of leadership, and of individual and organization development, from a global perspective.
• Journal of Leadership Education: An international, refereed journal that serves scholars and professional practitioners engaged in leadership education.

Associations and Organizations

• Association of Leadership Educators, Inc.
• The Center for Creative Leadership
• The Greenleaf Center for Servant-Leadership
• Center for Leadership Studies
• International Leadership Association (ILA)
• LeadCap: Building a nation of leaders
• National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs
• National School of Leadership

Research Centers

• Northern Leadership Center at University of Alaska Fairbanks
• Best Practice Institute
• Center for Civic Leadership at Fort Hays State University
• Center of Excellence in Research at National School of Leadership, India
• Center for Leadership at Florida International University
• Center for Leadership Studies at Binghamton University
• Center for Leadership Studies at the University of Exeter (UK)
• Institute for the Advanced Study of Management at the Drucker School of Management
• The Institute for Innovative Leadership at University of Nebraska-Lincoln
• Institute for Leadership Studies at Dominican University of California
• Judkins Institute for Leadership Studies at Vanguard University
• Kravis Leadership Institute at Claremont Mckenna College
• The Leadership Center Saint Mary's College of California
• Leadership Institute at University of San Diego
• Leadership Institute at University of Southern California
• Leadership Research Institute

Educational Materials

• Leadership Sample Syllabi

Research Methods in the Study of Leadership

Leadership has been studied using quantitative, qualitative

Qualitative research

Qualitative research is a method of inquiry employed in many different academic disciplines, traditionally in the social sciences, but also in market research and further contexts. Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such...

, and mixed methods (a combination of quantitative and qualitative) research methodologies. From a quantitative psychology

Quantitative psychology

Research in quantitative psychology develops psychological theory in relation to mathematics and statistics. Psychological research requires the elaboration of existing methods and the development of new concepts, so that quantitative psychology requires more than "applications" of statistics and...

 orientation, statistical and mathematical modeling has been used in the development of leadership scales and in testing established leader evaluation tools. Survey methodology

Survey research

Survey research a research method involving the use of questionnaires and/or statistical surveys to gather data about people and their thoughts and behaviours. This method was pioneered in the 1930s and 1940s by sociologist Paul Lazarsfeld. The initial use of the method was to examine the effects...

 has also been widely used in leadership research. As such, traditional methods of analysis in survey research have also extended to the analysis of survey research within the study of leadership (e.g., cross-tabulations

Cross tabulation

Cross tabulation is the process of creating a contingency table from the multivariate frequency distribution of statistical variables. Heavily used in survey research, cross tabulations can be produced by a range of statistical packages, including some that are specialised for the task. Survey...

, ANOVAs

Analysis of variance

In statistics, analysis of variance is a collection of statistical models, and their associated procedures, in which the observed variance in a particular variable is partitioned into components attributable to different sources of variation...

, regression analysis

Regression analysis

In statistics, regression analysis includes many techniques for modeling and analyzing several variables, when the focus is on the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables...

, log-linear analysis, factor analysis

Factor analysis

Factor analysis is a statistical method used to describe variability among observed, correlated variables in terms of a potentially lower number of unobserved, uncorrelated variables called factors. In other words, it is possible, for example, that variations in three or four observed variables...

, etc.). From a qualitative orientation, leadership research has included a host of research techniques: phenomenology

Phenomenology (science)

The term phenomenology in science is used to describe a body of knowledge that relates empirical observations of phenomena to each other, in a way that is consistent with fundamental theory, but is not directly derived from theory. For example, we find the following definition in the Concise...

, ethnography

Ethnography

Ethnography is a qualitative method aimed to learn and understand cultural phenomena which reflect the knowledge and system of meanings guiding the life of a cultural group...

, grounded theory

Grounded theory

Grounded theory is a systematic methodology in the social sciences involving the generation of theory from data. It is mainly used in qualitative research, but is also applicable to quantitative data....

, interviews

Interviews

Interviews is:# the plural form of "interview"# a compilation album by Bob Marley & the Wailers, see Interviews # a C++ toolkit for the X Window System, see InterViews...

, case studies, historiography, etc.

Online Searchable Directory of Leadership Education Programs

The International Leadership Association received a grant from the C. Charles Jackson Foundation to create an online searchable directory of leadership education programs. This resource launched in beta version in June 2010.

Academic programs

The following is a list of doctoral, masters, and undergraduate degree programs related to the study of leadership. With some notable exceptions (particularly in regard to the list of doctoral programs), this list does not include programs related to specific sub-areas of leadership (e.g., educational leadership, health care leadership, environmental leadership). The programs listed primarily focus on leadership, leadership studies, and organizational leadership.

Given that the study of leadership is interdisciplinary, leadership-related degree programs are often situated within various colleges, schools, and departments across different university campuses (e.g., Schools of Education at some universities, Business Schools at other universities, and Graduate and Professional Schools at still other universities). As such, at the doctoral level leadership related degree programs primarily include: Ph.D.

Doctor of Philosophy

Doctor of Philosophy, abbreviated as Ph.D., PhD, D.Phil., or DPhil , in English-speaking countries, is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities...

, Ed.D.

Doctor of Education

The Doctor of Education or Doctor in Education degree , in Latin, Doctor Educationis, is a research-oriented professional doctorate that prepares the student for academic, administrative, clinical, or research positions in educational, civil, and private organizations.-Differences between an Ed.D...

, and executive doctoral degrees (depending on the situation of the program within the university). At the masters level leadership related degree programs primarily include: Master of Science, Master of Arts, and executive Masters degrees. At the undergraduate level leadership related degree programs primarily include: Bachelor of Science and Bachelor of Arts degrees as well as leadership certificate and minor programs.

Doctoral Programs Related to the Study of Leadership

• Alliant University: Ph.D. in Leadership
• Alvernia College: Ph.D. in Leadership
• Andrews University: Ph.D. in Leadership
• Antioch University: Ph.D. in Leadership & Change
• Arizona State University: Ed.D. in Leadership & Innovation
• Ateneo de Manila University (Philippines): Ph.D. in Leadership Studies
• Barry University: Ph.D. specialization in Leadership
• Binghamton University: Ph.D. in Organizational Behavior (specialization in Leadership & the Center for Leadership Studies)
• Boston College: Ph.D. in Organization Studies (specialization and faculty expertise in Leadership)
• Bowling Green State University: Ed.D. in Leadership Studies
• California Institute of Integral Studies: Ph.D. in Transformative Studies, (Hybrid Program)
• Capella University: Ph.D. in Organization and Management, Leadership Specialization
• Cardinal Stritch University: Ph.D. in Leadership for the Advancement of Learning & Service
• Chicago School of Professional Psychology, The: Ph.D. in Organizational Leadership
• College of Notre Dame of Maryland: Ph.D. in Instructional Leadership for Changing Populations
• Cranfield University (U.K.): Ph.D. Managing Executive Learning, Management and Leadership Development, and Organizational Learning
• Creighton University: Ed.D in Leadership
• Dallas Baptist University: Ph.D and Ed.D in Leadership Studies
• Eastern University: Ph.D in Organizational Leadership
• Edgewood College: Ed.D in Educational Leadership
• Gannon University: Ph.D. in Organizational Learning and Leadership
• George Washington University, The: Ed.D. Executive Leadership
• Gonzaga University: Ph.D. in Leadership Studies
• Grand Canyon University: Ed.D. in Organizational Leadership
• Illinois State University: Education/leadership (Ph.D. in PK-12 Administration or Ph.D./Ed.M. in Higher Education Administration)
• Indiana Institute of Technology: Ph.D. in Global Leadership
• Indiana University of Pennsylvania: Ph.D. in Administration & Leadership Studies
• Indiana Wesleyan University: Ed.D. in Organizational Leadership
• James Madison University: Ph.D. in Strategic Leadership
• Lancaster University (U.K.): Management Learning and Leadership
• Lincoln Memorial University: Ed.D. in Executive Leadership
• Louisiana State University: Ph.D. in Human Resource and Leadership Development
• Marian University: Ph.D. in Organizational Leadership
• Mountain State University: Doctor of Executive Leadership
• National School of Leadership, India: PhD in Leadership
• North Carolina A&T University: Ph.D. in Leadership Studies
• Northeasten University: Ed.D. with Organizational Leadership and Communication specialization

• Northcentral University: Ph.D. specialization in Organizational Leadership
• Northwestern University: Ph.D. in Management and Organizations and Sociology (concentration in Leadership)
• Nova Southeastern University: Ed.D. in Organizational Leadership
• Our Lady of the Lake University: Ph.D. in Leadership Studies
• Pepperdine University: Ed.D. in Organizational Leadership
• Regent University: Ph.D. and D.S.L. in Leadership Studies
• Saint John Fisher College: Ed.D. in Executive Leadership
• Saint Mary's University: Ed.D. in Leadership
• Shenandoah University: DProf program in Organizational Leadership
• Simmons College: Ph.D. concentration in Managerial Leadership in the Information Professions
• Spalding University: Ed.D. in Leadership Education
• Stanford University: Ph.D. in Organization Studies (Policy, Organization, and Leadership Studies)
• Teacher's College (Columbia University): Ph.D. in Adult Learning and Leadership
• Union Institute & University: Ph.D. in Interdisciplinary Studies with a concentration in Ethical & Creative Leadership
• University of Arkansas: Ph.D. in Public Policy with a specialization in Public Policy Leadership
• University of Central Arkansas: Ph.D. in Leadership Studies
• University of Colorado, Colorado Springs: Ph.D. in Leadership, Research, and Policy
• University of Exeter (U.K.): Ph.D. in Leadership Studies
• University of the Incarnate Word: Ph.D. Organizational Leadership
• University of Laverne: Ed.D. in Organizational Leadership
• University of Louisville: Ph.D. in Educational Leadership and Organization Development
• University of Maryland: Ed.D. in Organizational Leadership and Policy Studies Specialization
• University of Maryland, Eastern Shore: Ph.D. in Organizational Leadership
• University of Nebraska, Lincoln: Ph.D. in Management with Leadership emphasis
• University of Oklahoma (offered only to military): Ph.D. in Organizational Leadership
• University of San Diego: Ph.D. in Leadership Studies
• University of San Francisco: Ed.D. in Organizations & Leadership
• University of Victoria (Canada): Ph.D. in Leadership Studies (focus on social justice, school and/or community emphasis and life-long learning)
• Vanderbilt University: Ph.D. in Community Research and Action
• Walden University: Ph.D. in Applied Management and Decision Sciences, Leadership and Organizational Change Specialization
• Western Kentucky University: Ed.D. with Organizational Leader specialty
• Wilmington University: Ed.D in Organizational Leadership

Masters Programs Related to the Study of Leadership

• Albertus Mangus College: M.A. in Leadership
• American College, The: M.S. in Leadership
• Augsburg College: M.A. in Leadership
• Asbury Theological Seminary: M.A in Christian Leadership
• Azusa Pacific University: M.A. in Organizational Leadership
• Bastyr University: M.A. Applied Behavioral Science Degree in Consulting & Coaching in Organizations
• Bellevue University: M.A. in Leadership
• Bethel University: M.A. in Organizational Leadership
• Biola University: M.A. in Organizational Leadership
• Cabrini College: M.S. in Organizational Leadership
• California Institute of Integral Studies: M.A. in Transformative Leadership (Online Program)
• Cameron University: Master of Science in Organizational Leadership
• Canisius College: Master's in Communication and Leadership
• Central Connecticut State University: Master of Science in Educational Leadership
• Chapman University: M.A. Organizational Leadership
• Chatham University: M.A. in Leadership and Organizational Transformation
• College Of Mount Saint Joseph: M.S. Organizational Leadership
• College Of Saint Catherine, The: M.A. Organizational Leadership
• College of Saint Mary: Master in Organizational Leadership
• Colorado State University (online): M.S. in Organizational Leadership
• Daemen College: M.S. in Executive Leadership and Change
• Dominican University: M.S. in Organizational Leadership
• Duquesne University: Several Master's Degree Programs
• Drake University: Adult Learning and Organizational Performance
• Eastern University: M.A. in Organizational Leadership
• Fort Hays State University: Department of Leadership Studies, Master of Liberal Studies
• Forum for the Future/Middlesex University (UK): MA in Leadership in Sustainable Development http://www.forumforthefuture.org/masters-course
• Fresno Pacific University: Master's in Leadership and Organizational Studies
• Fuller Theological Seminary Master of Arts in Global Leadership
• Geneva College: M.S. in Organizational Leadership
• Gonzaga University: M.A. in Organizational Leadership
• Hawai'i Pacific University: M.A. in Global Leadership and Sustainable Development
• Illinois State University: Education Administration and Foundations (Education/leadership: PK-12 Administration and College Student Personnel Administration
• Indiana University-Purdue University: M.S. Organizational Leadership and Supervision
• Karlshochschule International University: Consecutive Master (M. A.) in Leadership
• LaGrange University: Master's in Organizational Leadership
• Lincoln Christian University (Lincoln, Illinois): M.A. in Organizational Leadership
• Lewis University: M.A. in Leadership
• Lourdes College: Master of Organizational Leadership
• Mansfield University: Leadership Studies Minor
• Marietta College: Executive Masters in Leadership Studies
• Marquette University: Master in Leadership Studies
• Marshall University: M.A. in Leadership Studies
• Maryville University: M.A. in Leadership Education
• Mercy College: Master of Organizational Leadership
• Mercyhurst College: M.S. in Organizational Leadership
• Mountain State University: M.S.S.L. in Strategic Leadership
• National School of Leadership, India: Master of Leadership Sciences (MLS)
• National University: M.S. in Organizational Leadership

• Neuman College: M.S. in Strategic Leadership
• North Central College: Master of Leadership Degree
• Northeastern University: M.S. in Leadership
• Northern Kentucky University: M.S. in Executive Leadership and Organizational Change
• Northwestern College: Master of Organizational Leadership
• Northwestern University: M.S. Learning and Organizational Change
• Norwich University: M.S. in Organizational Leadership
• Nova Southeastern University: M.S. in Leadership
• Nyack College: M.S. in Organizational Leadership
• Our Lady of the Lake University: M.S. in Leadership Studies
• Palm Beach Atlantic University: M.S. in Organizational Leadership
• Pennsylvania State University: Master of Leadership Development
• Pfeiffer University At Charlotte: M.S. Organizational Change and Leadership
• Purdue University: M.S. in Technology, Organizational Leadership Concentration
• Regent University: M.A. in Leadership Studies
• Rider University: M.A. in Organizational Leadership
• Roberts Wesleyan University: M.S. in Strategic Leadership
• Royal Roads University: M.A. in Leadership
• Saint Edwards: M.S. in Organizational Leadership and Ethics
• Saint Ambrose University: Master of Organizational Leadership
• Saint Mary's College of California: http://www.leadershipskills-saintmarys.com/leadership_info.html
• Saint Mary of the Woods College: Master in Leadership Development
• Saint Mary's College of California: M.A. in Leadership
• Seton Hall University: M.A. in Strategic Communication and Leadership
• Shenandoah University: MS in Organizational Leadership
• Southern New Hampshire University: M.S. Organizational Leadership
• Stanford University: M.A. in Policy, Organization, and Leadership Studies
• Trinity Western University: M.A. in Leadership
• University of Exeter (UK): PgCert/PgDip/MA Leadership Studies by Distance Learning
• University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign: Educational Organization and Leadership
• University of Pennsylvania: Master of Organizational Dynamics
• University of Saint Francis: M.A. in Leadership Studies
• University of San Diego: M.A. in Leadership Studies
• University of San Diego: M.S. in Executive Leadership (School of Business)
• University of San Diego: M.S. in Global Leadership (School of Business)
• University of San Francisco: M.A. in Organizations & Leadership
• University of South Florida: MSM in Leadership and Organizational Effectiveness
• University of Southern California: Executive Masters of Leadership
• University of Southern Maine: Master of Leadership Studies
• University of Texas, El Paso: Master of Leadership Studies
• University of Victoria (Canada): Master's Degree in Leadership Studies
• Vanderbilt University: M.Ed. program in Organizational Leadership
• Virginia Commonwealth University: M.Ed. Leadership Studies
• Viterbo University: M.A. in Servant Leadership
• Western Kentucky University: MA Leadership Dynamics and Graduate Certificate in Leadership Studies
• Widener University: MS in Human Resources and Organizational Leadership or Psychology Doctorate and MBA Joint Degree Program
• Woodbury College: Master of Organizational Leadership
• Worcester Polytechnic Institute: M.S. in Operations Design and Leadership

Undergraduate Programs Related to the Study of Leadership

• Albertson College: Leadership Studies Minor
• Alice Lloyd College: Leadership Education Program
• Appalachian State University: Minor in Leadership Studies
• Asbury College: Leadership Studies Concentration
• Baldwin-Wallace College: The Brain Leadership Program, Minor in Leadership Studies
• Bellevue University: Leadership B.A., College of Arts and Sciences
• Brescia University College, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada:Major in Dimensions of Leadership
• California State University, Chico: Leadership Studies Minor
• Central Michigan University: Leadership Minor
• Chapman University: Bachelor of Arts, Organizational Leadership Minor
• Christopher Newport University: Leadership Studies Minor
• Claflin University: Leadership Studies Minor
• Columbia College: Leadership Studies
• East Tennessee State University: Minor in Leadership Studies
• Fitchburg State College: Leadership Academy
• Fort Hays State University: Department of Leadership Studies
• Georgetown University: Bachelor of Arts in Liberal Studies (Leadership)
• Graceland University: Leadership Minor
• Hardin-Simmons University: Minor in Leadership Studies
• Hollins University: Certificate in Leadership Studies
• Humboldt State University: Leadership Studies Minor
• Idaho State University Minor in Leadership Studies
• Indiana University, College of Arts and Sciences: Leadership Minor
• Indiana University, School of Health: Leadership Minor
• Kansas State University: Leadership Studies Minor
• Lincoln Memorial University: Bachelors in Management and Leadership Studies
• Marietta College: Leadership Studies Major & Minor
• Marquette University: Organizations & Leadership
• Methodist College: Tally Leadership Program
• Middle Tennessee State University: Leadership Studies Minor
• Mississippi State University: Leadership Studies Minor
• Morehouse University: Leadership Studies Minor
• Mount Ida College: Leadership Studies Minor
• Mountain State University: Bachelor of Science in Organizational Leadership
• National University: Bachelor of Science in Organizational Leadership
• North Central College: Organizational Leadership Minor
• North Central University: Leadership Development Minor
• Northern Kentucky University: Bachelors in Organizational Leadership
• Peace College: Leadership Studies Major
• Pennsylvania State University: Bachelors in Organizational Leadership

• Purdue University: Organizational Leadership/Supervision
• Regent University: B.S. in Organizational Leadership and Management
• Renaissance College, University of New Brunswick: Bachelor of Leadership Studies
• St. Norbert College: Leadership Studies Minor
• Seattle Pacific University: Leadership Studies Minor
• Texas A&M University: Leadership Studies Concentration
• University of California, Berkeley: Technology & Leadership Studies Program (Engineering)
• Thomas Edison State College, B.S. in Organizational Leadership
• University of California, Davis: Contemporary Leadership Minor
• University of Central Florida: The LEAD Scholars Program
• University of Colorado at Boulder: Presidents Leadership Class and the Leadership Residential Academic Program at Williams Village
• University of Denver: Pioneer Leadership Program Minor
• University of Kansas: Leadership Studies Minor
• University of Maryland: Minor in Leadership Studies
• University of Minnesota: Leadership Minor
• University of Missouri: Leadership & Public Service Minor
• University of Nebraska, Lincoln: Leadership & Communication Minor
• University of Nevada, Las Vegas: Leadership and Civic Engagement Minor
• University of North Carolina, Wilmington: Leadership Studies Minor
• University of Northern Iowa: Leadership Studies Minor & Certificate
• University of Rhode Island: Leadership Minor
• University of Richmond: Jepson School of Leadership Studies
• University of San Diego: Leadership Studies Minor
• University of South Dakota: Leadership Studies Minor
• University of South Florida: Leadership Studies Minor
• University of Southern California: Critical Approaches to Leadership Minor
• University of Southern Maine: Leadership and Organizational Studies, B.A.
• University of Texas, Permian Basin: Leadership Studies Major & Minor
• University of Utah: Minor in Leadership Studies
• Virginia Military Institute: Leadership Studies Minor
• Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University: Residential Leadership Community of Virginia Tech
• Wartburg College: Wartburg College Leadership Certificate Program
• Washington State University: Leadership Minor
• Western Kentucky University: Certificate in Leadership Studies
• Westminster College: Leadership Studies Minor
• West Virginia University: Leadership Studies Minor
• Williams College: Leadership Studies Concentration
• Wright State University: Organizational Leadership Major

Further reading

• Scharmer, C. O. (2009). Theory U: Leading from the Future as It Emerges. Berrett-Koehler Publishers
• Young, M. (2009). 3 Handbook of Research on Leadership Education. Routledge
• Bennis, W. (2009). On Becoming a Leader. Basic Books
• Bass, B, & Bass, R. (2008). The Bass Handbook of Leadership: Theory, Research, and Managerial Applications. Free Press
• Northouse, P. (2006). Leadership: Theory and Practice. Sage Publications
• Parks, S. D. (2005). Leadership Can Be Taught: A Bold Approach for a Complex World. Harvard Business School
• Cooperrider, D., & Whitney, D. (2005). Appreciative Inquiry: A Positive Revolution in Change. Berrett-Koehler Publishers
• Lindebaum D, Cartwright S (2010) A critical examination of the relationship between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership.Journal of Management Studies vol 47 issue 7 pp 1317–1342
• Lindebaum D, Fielden S (2011) “It’s good to be angry”: Enacting anger in construction project management to achieve perceived leader effectiveness. Human Relations vol 64 issue 3 pp 437–458
• Burns, J. M. (2004). Transforming Leadership. Grove Press
• Goethals, G. R., Sorenson, G., & Burns, J. M. (2004). Encyclopedia of Leadership (4 vol. set). Sage Publications
• Schein, E. (2004). Organizational Culture and Leadership. Jossey Bass
• Hiebert, M., & Klatt, B. (2000). The Encyclopedia of Leadership: A Practical Guide to Popular Leadership Theories and Techniques. McGraw Hill
• Center for Creative Leadership (1998). The Center for Creative Leadership Handbook of Leadership Development. Jossey Bass
• Heifitz, R. (1998). Leadership Without Easy Answers. Harvard University Press
• Rost, J. (1993). Leadership for the Twenty-First Century. Praeger
• Bass, B. (1990). Bass & Stogdill's Handbook of Leadership. Free Press
• Burns, J. M. (1982). Leadership. Harper Perennial Modern Classics
• Greenleaf, R. (1977). Servant Leadership: A Journey Into the Nature Of Legitimate Power and Greatness. Paulist Press
• Paige, G. D. (1977). The Scientific Study of Political Leadership. The Free Press