Literature of Malaysia
Encyclopedia
Malaysian literature is the collection of literary works produced in the Malay peninsula
until 1963 and in Malaysia thereafter. Malaysian literature is typically written in any of the country's three main languages: Malay
, English
and Chinese
. It portrays various aspects of Malaysian life and comprises an important part of the culture of Malaysia
.
The earliest works of Malaysian literature were transmitted orally, in the absence of writing scripts. Oral literature
encompasses a variety of genres of Malay folklore
, such as myths, legend
s, folk tales, romance
s, epics
, poetry
, proverb
s, origin stories and oral histories. Oral tradition thrived among the Malays
, but continues to survive among the indigenous people of Malaysia, including the Orang Asli
and numerous ethnic groups in Sarawak
and Sabah
.
and the Ramayana
, which later included other traditions that now form the Malay literary heritage, such as the Hikayat Mara Karma, Hikayat Panca Tanderan
and Hikayat Gul Bakawali. Malay romantic tales were also sourced from the Panji cycle of Hindu Java
. There were also several forms of Malay poetry, which still remain popular until today.
For the Orang Asli
, literature was and still is constituted by accounts of actual events. Different ethnic groups have different versions of the same story, although there are several recurring themes and elements in every tale.
The cultural practices of the indigenous people in Sarawak
are shaped in part by oral traditions. Themes like the relationship of the people to their past, particularly their ancestry, and the spirit world, including its influence on the production of food and health are the primary themes of the oral literature of various ethnic groups in Sarawak. The recitation of oral literature
is often accompanied by rituals.
The oral traditions of Sabah
encompass folk tales and legends, such as creation myths, that have been preserved by the ethnic groups in the state. This oral literature is recited during ceremonies conducted by priestesses, who serve as ritual specialists, faith healers and spirit mediums.
By the 19th century, oral literature on the Malay peninsula was superseded by written literature. This was attributed largely in part to the introduction of Islam
to the Peninsula by the 15th century and the adoption of the Jawi script. This tradition was influenced both by earlier oral traditions and Islamic literature
from the Middle East
. Works during this time ranged from theological literature and legal digests, to romances, moral anecdotes, popular tales of Islamic prophets and even animal tales, which were written in a number of styles ranging from religious to the Hikayat form.
The literary traditions of the Malay sultanates were distinct in that scribes were hired to record the significant events of the time. One important work of this period was Sejarah Melayu
(The Malay Annals), which was written during the era of the Malacca Sultanate
, rewritten in 1536 and revised in 1612.
, the pantun
and the syair
. Modern Malay poetry consists of the sajak.
Malay Peninsula
The Malay Peninsula or Thai-Malay Peninsula is a peninsula in Southeast Asia. The land mass runs approximately north-south and, at its terminus, is the southern-most point of the Asian mainland...
until 1963 and in Malaysia thereafter. Malaysian literature is typically written in any of the country's three main languages: Malay
Malay language
Malay is a major language of the Austronesian family. It is the official language of Malaysia , Indonesia , Brunei and Singapore...
, English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
and Chinese
Chinese language
The Chinese language is a language or language family consisting of varieties which are mutually intelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages...
. It portrays various aspects of Malaysian life and comprises an important part of the culture of Malaysia
Culture of Malaysia
The Culture of Malaysia draws on the varied cultures of the different people of Malaysia. The first people to live in the area were indigenous tribes that still remain; they were followed by the Malays, who moved there from mainland Asia in ancient times...
.
The earliest works of Malaysian literature were transmitted orally, in the absence of writing scripts. Oral literature
Oral literature
Oral literature corresponds in the sphere of the spoken word to literature as literature operates in the domain of the written word. It thus forms a generally more fundamental component of culture, but operates in many ways as one might expect literature to do...
encompasses a variety of genres of Malay folklore
Malay folklore
Malay Folklore refers to a series of knowledge, traditions and taboos that have been passed down through many generations in oral, written and symbolic forms among the indigenous populations residing within the Maritime Southeast Asia...
, such as myths, legend
Legend
A legend is a narrative of human actions that are perceived both by teller and listeners to take place within human history and to possess certain qualities that give the tale verisimilitude...
s, folk tales, romance
Romance (genre)
As a literary genre of high culture, romance or chivalric romance is a style of heroic prose and verse narrative that was popular in the aristocratic circles of High Medieval and Early Modern Europe. They were fantastic stories about marvel-filled adventures, often of a knight errant portrayed as...
s, epics
Epic poetry
An epic is a lengthy narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and events significant to a culture or nation. Oral poetry may qualify as an epic, and Albert Lord and Milman Parry have argued that classical epics were fundamentally an oral poetic form...
, poetry
Poetry
Poetry is a form of literary art in which language is used for its aesthetic and evocative qualities in addition to, or in lieu of, its apparent meaning...
, proverb
Proverb
A proverb is a simple and concrete saying popularly known and repeated, which expresses a truth, based on common sense or the practical experience of humanity. They are often metaphorical. A proverb that describes a basic rule of conduct may also be known as a maxim...
s, origin stories and oral histories. Oral tradition thrived among the Malays
Malay people
Malays are an ethnic group of Austronesian people predominantly inhabiting the Malay Peninsula, including the southernmost parts of Thailand, the east coast of Sumatra, the coast of Borneo, and the smaller islands which lie between these locations...
, but continues to survive among the indigenous people of Malaysia, including the Orang Asli
Orang Asli
Orang Asli , is a generic Malaysian term used for people indigenous to Peninsular Malaysia...
and numerous ethnic groups in Sarawak
Sarawak
Sarawak is one of two Malaysian states on the island of Borneo. Known as Bumi Kenyalang , Sarawak is situated on the north-west of the island. It is the largest state in Malaysia followed by Sabah, the second largest state located to the North- East.The administrative capital is Kuching, which...
and Sabah
Sabah
Sabah is one of 13 member states of Malaysia. It is located on the northern portion of the island of Borneo. It is the second largest state in the country after Sarawak, which it borders on its southwest. It also shares a border with the province of East Kalimantan of Indonesia in the south...
.
History
Early Malay literature was influenced by Indian epics, such as the MahabharataMahabharata
The Mahabharata is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India and Nepal, the other being the Ramayana. The epic is part of itihasa....
and the Ramayana
Ramayana
The Ramayana is an ancient Sanskrit epic. It is ascribed to the Hindu sage Valmiki and forms an important part of the Hindu canon , considered to be itihāsa. The Ramayana is one of the two great epics of India and Nepal, the other being the Mahabharata...
, which later included other traditions that now form the Malay literary heritage, such as the Hikayat Mara Karma, Hikayat Panca Tanderan
Hikayat Panca Tanderan
Hikayat Panca Tanderan is a hikayat in Malay language written by Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir. The hikayat was an adaptation of Panchatantra which was translated from Tamil language in 1835 with the help of a friend of Abdullah named Tambi Mutu Birapattar...
and Hikayat Gul Bakawali. Malay romantic tales were also sourced from the Panji cycle of Hindu Java
Java
Java is an island of Indonesia. With a population of 135 million , it is the world's most populous island, and one of the most densely populated regions in the world. It is home to 60% of Indonesia's population. The Indonesian capital city, Jakarta, is in west Java...
. There were also several forms of Malay poetry, which still remain popular until today.
For the Orang Asli
Orang Asli
Orang Asli , is a generic Malaysian term used for people indigenous to Peninsular Malaysia...
, literature was and still is constituted by accounts of actual events. Different ethnic groups have different versions of the same story, although there are several recurring themes and elements in every tale.
The cultural practices of the indigenous people in Sarawak
Sarawak
Sarawak is one of two Malaysian states on the island of Borneo. Known as Bumi Kenyalang , Sarawak is situated on the north-west of the island. It is the largest state in Malaysia followed by Sabah, the second largest state located to the North- East.The administrative capital is Kuching, which...
are shaped in part by oral traditions. Themes like the relationship of the people to their past, particularly their ancestry, and the spirit world, including its influence on the production of food and health are the primary themes of the oral literature of various ethnic groups in Sarawak. The recitation of oral literature
Oral literature
Oral literature corresponds in the sphere of the spoken word to literature as literature operates in the domain of the written word. It thus forms a generally more fundamental component of culture, but operates in many ways as one might expect literature to do...
is often accompanied by rituals.
The oral traditions of Sabah
Sabah
Sabah is one of 13 member states of Malaysia. It is located on the northern portion of the island of Borneo. It is the second largest state in the country after Sarawak, which it borders on its southwest. It also shares a border with the province of East Kalimantan of Indonesia in the south...
encompass folk tales and legends, such as creation myths, that have been preserved by the ethnic groups in the state. This oral literature is recited during ceremonies conducted by priestesses, who serve as ritual specialists, faith healers and spirit mediums.
By the 19th century, oral literature on the Malay peninsula was superseded by written literature. This was attributed largely in part to the introduction of Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
to the Peninsula by the 15th century and the adoption of the Jawi script. This tradition was influenced both by earlier oral traditions and Islamic literature
Islamic literature
Islamic literature is literature written with an Islamic perspective, in any language.The most well known fiction from the Islamic world was The Book of One Thousand and One Nights , which was a compilation of many earlier folk tales told by the Persian Queen Scheherazade...
from the Middle East
Middle East
The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...
. Works during this time ranged from theological literature and legal digests, to romances, moral anecdotes, popular tales of Islamic prophets and even animal tales, which were written in a number of styles ranging from religious to the Hikayat form.
The literary traditions of the Malay sultanates were distinct in that scribes were hired to record the significant events of the time. One important work of this period was Sejarah Melayu
Sejarah Melayu
Sejarah Melayu or Malay Annals is a Malay literary work which covers a period of over 600 years that chronicles the, then and now, Genealogies of Rulers in the Malay Archipelago...
(The Malay Annals), which was written during the era of the Malacca Sultanate
Malacca Sultanate
Established by the Malay ruler Parameswara, the Sultanate of Malacca was first a Hindu kingdom in 1402 and later became Muslim following the marriage of the princess of Pasai in 1409. Centered in the modern town of Malacca, the sultanate bordered the Ayutthaya Kingdom of Siam in the north to...
, rewritten in 1536 and revised in 1612.
Poetry
Traditional Malay poetry was used for entertainment and the recording of history and laws. There are three forms of traditional Malay poetry: the manteraMantra
A mantra is a sound, syllable, word, or group of words that is considered capable of "creating transformation"...
, the pantun
Pantun
The pantun is a Malay poetic form. The pantun originated as a traditional oral form of expression. The first examples to be recorded appear in the 15th century in the Malay Annals and the Hikayat Hang Tuah. The most common theme is love....
and the syair
Syair
Syair is a form of traditional Malay poetry that made up of four-line stanzas or quatrains. The syair can be a narrative poem, a didactic poem, or a poem used to convey ideas on religion or philosophy, or even one to describe historical event....
. Modern Malay poetry consists of the sajak.
Works
- English languageEnglish languageEnglish is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
- And the Rain My DrinkAnd the Rain My DrinkAnd the Rain My Drink is a novel by Han Suyin. It is set against a backdrop of the Malayan Emergency of the late 1940s and 1950s. It describes the methods used by the British colonial authorities and the left-wing rebels, and how individual lives were affected.Republished in 2010 by Monsoon Books....
- The Gift of RainThe Gift of RainThe Gift of Rain is the first novel by Tan Twan Eng published in 2007 by Myrmidon Books in the UK and by Weinstein Books in the US. It was longlisted for the Man Booker Prize that year.-Plot introduction:...
- Chronicle of MalaysiaChronicle of MalaysiaThe Chronicle of Malaysia gives an account of Malaysia from January 1957 to 31 August 2007. Published in conjunction with the 50th anniversary of Malaysian Independence, this book provides an account of major news events over the last 50 years, it covers the events as they unfolded in a...
- A Children's History of MalaysiaTunku HalimTunku Halim is a Malaysian novelist, non-fiction writer, academic and lawyer. He is a member of Negeri Sembilan's royal family and is the grandson of Tuanku Abdul Rahman, the country's first king.-Fiction Writing:...
- The Encyclopedia of MalaysiaThe Encyclopedia of MalaysiaThe Encyclopedia of Malaysia is a multi-volume encyclopedia about Malaysia. To date, 13 volumes of the planned 16-volume series have been published. Each volume deals with a single subject area and is composed of thematic, double-page spreads. Over 400 authors, mainly Malaysians, have contributed...
- The Malay DilemmaThe Malay DilemmaThe Malay Dilemma is a controversial book written by Mahathir bin Mohamad in 1970, 11 years before he became Malaysia's 4th Prime Minister.At the time of publication, Mahathir had just lost his parliamentary seat, been expelled from the ruling party UMNO and Malaysia had recently been rocked by the...
- Malaysia And The Club Of DoomMalaysia And The Club Of DoomMalaysia and the Club of Doom is a book published in 2006 by Syed Akbar Ali who argues that countries with a Muslim majority population have collapsed economically, politically and socially.-Theses:...
- Malaysian Book of RecordsMalaysian Book of RecordsThe Malaysian Book of Records is a Malaysian project to publish records set or broken by Malaysians. The project complements former Prime Minister Tun Dr Mahathir Bin Mohamad's 'Malaysia Boleh!' campaign...
- Malaysian Politicians Say the Darndest ThingsMalaysian Politicians Say the Darndest ThingsMalaysian Politicians Say the Darndest Things is a series of Malaysian non-fiction books compiled by Amir Muhammad and published by Matahari Books...
- New Malaysian EssaysNew Malaysian EssaysNew Malaysian Essays is an annual Malaysian non-fiction book series by Matahari Books. It showcases previously unpublished essays on a variety of styles, from polemic to ode to memoir. Each book is mainly in English but will contain at least one essay in Malay....
- Of Bunga Telur and Bally Shoes
- The Pencil
- The Dead Crow
- Si Tenggang's Homecoming
- Monsoon History
- And the Rain My Drink
- Malay languageMalay languageMalay is a major language of the Austronesian family. It is the official language of Malaysia , Indonesia , Brunei and Singapore...
- Batu Bersurat Terengganu
- Hikayat Bayan BudimanHikayat Bayan BudimanHikayat Bayan Budiman is the Malay version of a tradition that begins with the Sanskrit Śukasaptati, The Parrot's Seventy Tales, an Indian work, in which a parrot tells 70 stories in order to prevent a woman from going on the wrong path. These chain stories, like the Arabian Nights, form the crux...
- Hikayat Raja Pasai
- Hikayat Muhammad HanafiahHikayat Muhammad HanafiahHikayat Muhammad Hanafiah is a Malay literary work that recounts the story of Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah, half-brother of the martyrs of Shiism, Hasan and Husayn...
- Undang-Undang Melaka
- Hikayat Seri RamaHikayat Seri RamaHikayat Seri Rama is the Malay literary adaptation of the Hindu Ramayana epic. The main story remains the same as the original Sanskrit version but some aspects of it were slightly modified to a local context such as the spelling and pronunciation of names...
- Hikayat Amir HamzahHikayat Amir HamzahHikayat Amir Hamzah is a Malay literary work that chronicles the hero by the name Amir Hamzah. This book is one of the two Hikayat mentioned in Sejarah Melayu as one of the Hikayat used to encourage Malay warriors in their fight against invading Portuguese in Malacca in 1511.The manuscripts were...
- Hikayat Inderaputera
- Hikayat Iskandar ZulkarnainHikayat Iskandar ZulkarnainHikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain is an ancient Malay script which describes a character from Al-Quran and his exploits and achievements. The text itself predates "Sejarah Melayu" , however, the oldest manuscript is dated 1713. It is too poor a state of repair to be usable...
- Qasidah al-Burdah
- `Aqâ´id al-Nasafî
- Syair Hamzah Fansuri
- Spraek en Woord-Boek
- Taj al-Salatin
- Hikayat Aceh
- Cerita Kutai
- Bustan al-Salatin
- Hujjat al-Siddîq
- Hikayat Tanah Hitu
- Hikayat Ibrahim ibn Adham
- Hikayat Pelanduk Jenaka
- Sejarah MelayuSejarah MelayuSejarah Melayu or Malay Annals is a Malay literary work which covers a period of over 600 years that chronicles the, then and now, Genealogies of Rulers in the Malay Archipelago...
- Hikayat Banjar dan Kota Waringin
- Tarjumân al-Mustafîd
- Bab Takzir
- Hikayat Ibrahim ibn Adham
- Asal Bangsa Jin & Dewa-Dewa
- Hikayat Hang TuahHikayat Hang TuahHikayat Hang Tuah is a Malay work of literature that tells the tale of the legendary Malay Muslim warrior Hang Tuah and his four warrior friends - Hang Jebat, Hang Kasturi, Hang Lekir and Hang Lekiu - who lived during the height of the Sultanate of Malacca in the 15th century.The most memorable...
- Hikayat PataniHikayat PataniThe Hikayat Patani, or Story of Patani, is a tale that chronicles the history and legends of the Sultanate of Patani, a small Malay-speaking kingdom located on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula...
- Surat al-Anbiya
- Syair Bidasari
- Risalah Shihabuddin
- Risalah fi 'l-Tawhid
- Misa Melayu
- Hikayat Nakhoda Muda
- Hikayat Perintah Negeri Benggala
- Syair Sultan Maulana
- Syair Sinyor Kosta
- Syair Raja Tedung dengan Raja Katak
- Syair Siti Zubaidah Perang Cina
- Hikayat Merong MahawangsaHikayat Merong MahawangsaHikayat Merong Mahawangsa or The Kedah Annals is an ancient Malay literature that chronicles the bloodline of Merong Mahawangsa and the foundation of the Kedah, a state in Malaysia. Though there are historical accuracies, there are many incredible assertions...
- Surat Keterangan Syeikh Jalaluddin
- Silsilah Perak
- Syair Kerajaan Bima
- Syair Dagang Berjual-Beli
- Syair Potong Gaji
- Syair Tengku Perbu
- Kisah Pelayaran Abdullah ke KelantanKisah Pelayaran Abdullah ke KelantanKisah Pelayaran Abdullah ke Kelantan was a Malay literary work of Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir...
- Hikayat Marakarma
- Ceretera-ceretera karangan Abdullah
- Hikayat Abdullah MunsyiHikayat AbdullahHikayat Abdullah was the major literary work of Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir, a Malacca-born Munshi of Singapore. It was completed in 1845 and first published in 1849, making it one of the first Malay literary texts being published commercially. Abdullah’s authorship was prominently displayed in this...
- Syair-syair karangan Abdullah
- Syair Engku Puteri
- Hikayat Maharaja Marakarma
- Syair Perang Johor
- Hikayat Iblis
- Syair Kunjungan Tengku Selangor
- Kisah Pelayaran Abdullah ke MekahKisah Pelayaran Abdullah ke MekahKisah Pelayaran Abdullah ke Mekah was the last work of Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir. The work recounts Abdullah’s voyage from Singapore to Jeddah on his Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca...
- Mukhtasar Tawarikh al-Wustha
- Hikayat Siak
- Syair Kumbang Mengindera
- Surat kepada Von de Wall
- Syair Bayan Budiman
- Syair Kumbang dan Melati
- Syair Bunga Air Mawar
- Syair Nuri dengan Simbangan
- Syair Nyamuk dan Lalat
- Syair Saudagar Bodoh
- Hikayat Raja Damsyik
- Syair Raja Damsyik
- Syair Kiamat
- Salasilah Melayu dan Bugis
- Tuhfat al-NafisTuhfat al-NafisTuhfat al-Nafis is a work of Malay literature written by Raja Ali Haji in Jawi in 1885. It records and chronicles events, especially those of the 19th century, that occurred in several Malay states. Some of the events recorded in the work are the founding of the state of Terengganu and the murder...
- Syair Awai
- Syair Bunga-Bungaan
- Syair Burung Pungguk
- Syair Unggas Soal Jawab
- Syair Sang Kupu-Kupu
- Kitab Suci
- Muhimmat al-Nafa´is
- Syair Perjalanan Sultan Lingga
- Syair Raksi
- Panas Salju
- Trajedi Empat Disember
- Meniti Kaca
- Bukit Kepong
- Konserto Terakhir
- Pahlawan Pasir Salak
- Bawang Putih Bawang MerahBawang Putih Bawang MerahBawang Putih Bawang Merah is one of the more famous of old Malay archipelago folktales, passed down orally through the generations. Like most Malay folktales, the story is laden with lessons regarding familial values, patience in the face of adversity, and that ultimately good will be rewarded and...
- Tuhfat al-NafisTuhfat al-NafisTuhfat al-Nafis is a work of Malay literature written by Raja Ali Haji in Jawi in 1885. It records and chronicles events, especially those of the 19th century, that occurred in several Malay states. Some of the events recorded in the work are the founding of the state of Terengganu and the murder...
- Jalan Sempit
- Sikap Memburu-buru Membawa Padah
- Lambaian Malar Hijau
- Kerana manisnya epal
- Aku, Kris dan Kristal
- Jalan-jalan Raya Kotaku
- Julia
- Virus Zel kepada abahnya
- Sabor
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- Terengganu Inscription StoneTerengganu Inscription StoneTerengganu Inscription Stone is the oldest artifact with Jawi writing on it. The inscriptions, which are in Malay, believed to be written on 22 February 1303...
External links
- Literature of Malaysia at The Encyclopedia of MalaysiaThe Encyclopedia of MalaysiaThe Encyclopedia of Malaysia is a multi-volume encyclopedia about Malaysia. To date, 13 volumes of the planned 16-volume series have been published. Each volume deals with a single subject area and is composed of thematic, double-page spreads. Over 400 authors, mainly Malaysians, have contributed...