Lower Paleolithic
Encyclopedia
The Lower Paleolithic is the earliest subdivision of the Paleolithic
or Old Stone Age
. It spans the time from around 2.5 million years ago when the first evidence of craft and use of stone tool
s by hominid
s appears in the current archaeological record
, until around 300,000 years ago, spanning the Oldowan ("mode 1") and Acheulean
("mode 2") lithics industries.
The Lower Paleolithic is followed by the Middle Paleolithic
, which sees the appearance of the more advanced prepared-core
tool-making technologies such as the Mousterian
.
Whether the earliest control of fire by hominids dates to the Lower or to the Middle Paleolithic remains an open question.
(Lower Pleistocene), some 2.5 million years ago with the appearance of the Homo
genus (Homo habilis
), possibly developing out of australopithecine
forebears (such as Australopithecus garhi
).
These early members of the Homo genus had primitive tools, summarized under the Oldowan horizon, which remained dominant for the best part of a million years, from about 2.5 to 1.7 million years ago.
Homo habilis is assumed to have lived primarily on scavenging, using the tools to cleave meat off carrion or to break bones in order to extract the marrow
.
The move from the mostly frugivorous or omnivorous diet of Australopithecus to the carnivorous scavenging lifestyle of early Homo has been explained by the climate changes in East Africa
associated with the Quaternary glaciation
. Decreasing oceanic evaporation resulted in a drier climate and an expansion of the savannah
at the expense of forests. Reduced availability of fruits forced some Australopithecine to unlock new food sources found in the drier savannah climate.
Derek Bickerton
has placed to this period the move from simple animal communication systems as they are found in all great apes
to the earliest form of symbolic communication systems capable of displacement (referring to items not currently within sensory perception), motivated for the need for "recruitment" of group members for scavenging large carcasses.
Homo erectus
appears by about 1.8 million years ago, via the transitional variety Homo ergaster
.
, developing the hunting-gathering lifestyle that would remain dominant throughout the Paleolithic into the Mesolithic
.
The unlocking of the new niche
of hunting-gathering subsistence drove a number of further changes, behavioral and physiological, leading to the appearance of Homo heidelbergensis
by some 600,000 years ago.
Homo erectus migrated out of Africa and dispersed throughout Eurasia.
Stone tool
s in Malaysia have been dated to be 1.83 million years old. The Peking Man
fossil, discovered in 1929, is roughly 700,000 years old.
In Europe, the Olduwan tradition (known in Europe as Abbevillian
) split into two parallel traditions, the Clactonian
, a flake tradition, and the Acheulean
, a hand-axe tradition. The Levallois technique
for knapping flint
developed during this time.
The carrier species from Africa to Europe undoubtedly was Homo erectus
. This type of human is more clearly linked to the flake tradition, which spread across southern Europe through the Balkans
to appear relatively densely in southeast Asia
. Many Mousterian
finds in the Middle Paleolithic
have been knapped using a Levallois technique, suggesting that Neanderthals evolved from Homo erectus (but, perhaps, Homo heidelbergensis (see below)).
At the site of Monte Poggiolo
, near Forlì
, in Italy, thousands of stone handaxes have been found that date from 800,000 years ago.
about 600,000 years ago heralds a number of other new varieties, such as Homo rhodesiensis
and Homo cepranensis
about 400,000 years ago.
Homo heidelbergensis is a candidate for first developing an early form of symbolic language.
Whether control of fire and earliest burials date to this period or only appear during the Middle Paleolithic is an open question.
Also in Europe appeared a type of human intermediate between Homo erectus and Homo sapiens, sometimes summarized under "archaic Homo sapiens
, typified by such fossils as those found at Swanscombe, Steinheim
, Tautavel, and Vertesszollos (Homo palaeohungaricus). The hand-axe tradition originates in the same period.
The intermediate may have been Homo heidelbergensis, held responsible for the manufacture of improved Mode 2 Acheulean
tool types, in Africa, after 600,000 years BP.
Flakes and axes coexisted in Europe, sometimes at the same site. The axe tradition, however, spread to a different range in the east. It appears in Arabia and India, but more importantly, it does not appear in southeast Asia.
lithics, earliest instances of burial and hunting-gathering subsistence. Homo sapiens
first appears about 200,000 years ago.
Paleolithic
The Paleolithic Age, Era or Period, is a prehistoric period of human history distinguished by the development of the most primitive stone tools discovered , and covers roughly 99% of human technological prehistory...
or Old Stone Age
Stone Age
The Stone Age is a broad prehistoric period, lasting about 2.5 million years , during which humans and their predecessor species in the genus Homo, as well as the earlier partly contemporary genera Australopithecus and Paranthropus, widely used exclusively stone as their hard material in the...
. It spans the time from around 2.5 million years ago when the first evidence of craft and use of stone tool
Stone tool
A stone tool is, in the most general sense, any tool made either partially or entirely out of stone. Although stone tool-dependent societies and cultures still exist today, most stone tools are associated with prehistoric, particularly Stone Age cultures that have become extinct...
s by hominid
Hominidae
The Hominidae or include them .), as the term is used here, form a taxonomic family, including four extant genera: chimpanzees , gorillas , humans , and orangutans ....
s appears in the current archaeological record
Archaeological record
The archaeological record is the body of physical evidence about the past. It is one of the most basic concepts in archaeology, the academic discipline concerned with documenting and interpreting the archaeological record....
, until around 300,000 years ago, spanning the Oldowan ("mode 1") and Acheulean
Acheulean
Acheulean is the name given to an archaeological industry of stone tool manufacture associated with early humans during the Lower Palaeolithic era across Africa and much of West Asia, South Asia and Europe. Acheulean tools are typically found with Homo erectus remains...
("mode 2") lithics industries.
The Lower Paleolithic is followed by the Middle Paleolithic
Middle Paleolithic
The Middle Paleolithic is the second subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe, Africa and Asia. The term Middle Stone Age is used as an equivalent or a synonym for the Middle Paleolithic in African archeology. The Middle Paleolithic and the Middle Stone Age...
, which sees the appearance of the more advanced prepared-core
Prepared-core technique
The prepared-core technique is means of producing stone tools by first preparing common stone cores that can then be shaped into the desired implement.-First evidence:...
tool-making technologies such as the Mousterian
Mousterian
Mousterian is a name given by archaeologists to a style of predominantly flint tools associated primarily with Homo neanderthalensis and dating to the Middle Paleolithic, the middle part of the Old Stone Age.-Naming:...
.
Whether the earliest control of fire by hominids dates to the Lower or to the Middle Paleolithic remains an open question.
Gelasian
The Lower Paleolithic begins with the GelasianGelasian
The Gelasian is an age in the international geologic timescale or a stage in chronostratigraphy, being the earliest or lowest subdivision of the Quaternary period/system and Pleistocene epoch/series. It spans the time between 2.588 ± 0.005 Ma and 1.806 ± 0.005 Ma...
(Lower Pleistocene), some 2.5 million years ago with the appearance of the Homo
Homo
Homo may refer to:*the Greek prefix ὅμο-, meaning "the same"*the Latin for man, human being*Homo, the taxonomical genus including modern humans...
genus (Homo habilis
Homo habilis
Homo habilis is a species of the genus Homo, which lived from approximately at the beginning of the Pleistocene period. The discovery and description of this species is credited to both Mary and Louis Leakey, who found fossils in Tanzania, East Africa, between 1962 and 1964. Homo habilis Homo...
), possibly developing out of australopithecine
Australopithecine
The term australopithecine refers generally to any species in the related genera Australopithecus or Paranthropus. These species occurred in the Plio-Pleistocene era, and were bipedal and dentally similar to humans, but with a brain size not much larger than modern apes, lacking the...
forebears (such as Australopithecus garhi
Australopithecus garhi
Australopithecus garhi is a gracile australopithecine species whose fossils were discovered in 1996 by a research team led by Ethiopian paleontologist Berhane Asfaw and Tim White, an American paleontologist. The hominin remains are believed to be a human ancestor species and the final missing link...
).
These early members of the Homo genus had primitive tools, summarized under the Oldowan horizon, which remained dominant for the best part of a million years, from about 2.5 to 1.7 million years ago.
Homo habilis is assumed to have lived primarily on scavenging, using the tools to cleave meat off carrion or to break bones in order to extract the marrow
Bone marrow
Bone marrow is the flexible tissue found in the interior of bones. In humans, bone marrow in large bones produces new blood cells. On average, bone marrow constitutes 4% of the total body mass of humans; in adults weighing 65 kg , bone marrow accounts for approximately 2.6 kg...
.
The move from the mostly frugivorous or omnivorous diet of Australopithecus to the carnivorous scavenging lifestyle of early Homo has been explained by the climate changes in East Africa
East Africa
East Africa or Eastern Africa is the easterly region of the African continent, variably defined by geography or geopolitics. In the UN scheme of geographic regions, 19 territories constitute Eastern Africa:...
associated with the Quaternary glaciation
Quaternary glaciation
Quaternary glaciation, also known as the Pleistocene glaciation, the current ice age or simply the ice age, refers to the period of the last few million years in which permanent ice sheets were established in Antarctica and perhaps Greenland, and fluctuating ice sheets have occurred elsewhere...
. Decreasing oceanic evaporation resulted in a drier climate and an expansion of the savannah
Savannah
Savannah or savanna is a type of grassland.It can also mean:-People:* Savannah King, a Canadian freestyle swimmer* Savannah Outen, a singer who gained popularity on You Tube...
at the expense of forests. Reduced availability of fruits forced some Australopithecine to unlock new food sources found in the drier savannah climate.
Derek Bickerton
Derek Bickerton
Derek Bickerton is a linguist and Professor Emeritus at the University of Hawaii, Manoa. Based on his work in creole languages in Guyana and Hawaii, he has proposed that the features of creole languages provide powerful insights into the development of language both by individuals and as a...
has placed to this period the move from simple animal communication systems as they are found in all great apes
Great Apes
Great Apes may refer to*Great apes, species in the biological family Hominidae, including humans, chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans*Great Apes , a 1997 novel by Will Self...
to the earliest form of symbolic communication systems capable of displacement (referring to items not currently within sensory perception), motivated for the need for "recruitment" of group members for scavenging large carcasses.
Homo erectus
Homo erectus
Homo erectus is an extinct species of hominid that lived from the end of the Pliocene epoch to the later Pleistocene, about . The species originated in Africa and spread as far as India, China and Java. There is still disagreement on the subject of the classification, ancestry, and progeny of H...
appears by about 1.8 million years ago, via the transitional variety Homo ergaster
Homo ergaster
Homo ergaster is an extinct chronospecies of Homo that lived in eastern and southern Africa during the early Pleistocene, about 2.5–1.7 million years ago.There is still disagreement on the subject of the classification, ancestry, and progeny of H...
.
Calabrian
Homo erectus moved from scavenging to huntingHunting
Hunting is the practice of pursuing any living thing, usually wildlife, for food, recreation, or trade. In present-day use, the term refers to lawful hunting, as distinguished from poaching, which is the killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species contrary to applicable law...
, developing the hunting-gathering lifestyle that would remain dominant throughout the Paleolithic into the Mesolithic
Mesolithic
The Mesolithic is an archaeological concept used to refer to certain groups of archaeological cultures defined as falling between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic....
.
The unlocking of the new niche
Niche construction
Niche construction is the process in which an organism alters its own environment, often but not always in a manner that increases its chances of survival...
of hunting-gathering subsistence drove a number of further changes, behavioral and physiological, leading to the appearance of Homo heidelbergensis
Homo heidelbergensis
Homo heidelbergensis is an extinct species of the genus Homo which may be the direct ancestor of both Homo neanderthalensis in Europe and Homo sapiens. The best evidence found for these hominins date between 600,000 and 400,000 years ago. H...
by some 600,000 years ago.
Homo erectus migrated out of Africa and dispersed throughout Eurasia.
Stone tool
Stone tool
A stone tool is, in the most general sense, any tool made either partially or entirely out of stone. Although stone tool-dependent societies and cultures still exist today, most stone tools are associated with prehistoric, particularly Stone Age cultures that have become extinct...
s in Malaysia have been dated to be 1.83 million years old. The Peking Man
Peking Man
Peking Man , Homo erectus pekinensis, is an example of Homo erectus. A group of fossil specimens was discovered in 1923-27 during excavations at Zhoukoudian near Beijing , China...
fossil, discovered in 1929, is roughly 700,000 years old.
In Europe, the Olduwan tradition (known in Europe as Abbevillian
Abbevillian
Abbevillian is a currently obsolescent name for a tool tradition that is increasingly coming to be called Oldowan . The original artifacts were collected from road construction sites on the Somme river near Abbeville by a French customs officer, Boucher de Perthes...
) split into two parallel traditions, the Clactonian
Clactonian
The Clactonian is the name given by archaeologists to an industry of European flint tool manufacture that dates to the early part of the interglacial period known as the Hoxnian, the Mindel-Riss or the Holstein stages . Clactonian tools were made by Homo erectus rather than modern humans...
, a flake tradition, and the Acheulean
Acheulean
Acheulean is the name given to an archaeological industry of stone tool manufacture associated with early humans during the Lower Palaeolithic era across Africa and much of West Asia, South Asia and Europe. Acheulean tools are typically found with Homo erectus remains...
, a hand-axe tradition. The Levallois technique
Levallois technique
The Levallois technique is a name given by archaeologists to a distinctive type of stone knapping developed by precursors to modern humans during the Palaeolithic period....
for knapping flint
Flint
Flint is a hard, sedimentary cryptocrystalline form of the mineral quartz, categorized as a variety of chert. It occurs chiefly as nodules and masses in sedimentary rocks, such as chalks and limestones. Inside the nodule, flint is usually dark grey, black, green, white, or brown in colour, and...
developed during this time.
The carrier species from Africa to Europe undoubtedly was Homo erectus
Homo erectus
Homo erectus is an extinct species of hominid that lived from the end of the Pliocene epoch to the later Pleistocene, about . The species originated in Africa and spread as far as India, China and Java. There is still disagreement on the subject of the classification, ancestry, and progeny of H...
. This type of human is more clearly linked to the flake tradition, which spread across southern Europe through the Balkans
Balkans
The Balkans is a geopolitical and cultural region of southeastern Europe...
to appear relatively densely in southeast Asia
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, South-East Asia, South East Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia. The region lies on the intersection of geological plates, with heavy seismic...
. Many Mousterian
Mousterian
Mousterian is a name given by archaeologists to a style of predominantly flint tools associated primarily with Homo neanderthalensis and dating to the Middle Paleolithic, the middle part of the Old Stone Age.-Naming:...
finds in the Middle Paleolithic
Middle Paleolithic
The Middle Paleolithic is the second subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe, Africa and Asia. The term Middle Stone Age is used as an equivalent or a synonym for the Middle Paleolithic in African archeology. The Middle Paleolithic and the Middle Stone Age...
have been knapped using a Levallois technique, suggesting that Neanderthals evolved from Homo erectus (but, perhaps, Homo heidelbergensis (see below)).
At the site of Monte Poggiolo
Monte Poggiolo
Monte Poggiolo is a hill near Forlì, Italy in the Emilia-Romagna area. At Monte Poggiolo is an ancient castle named Ca’ Belvedere ....
, near Forlì
Forlì
Forlì is a comune and city in Emilia-Romagna, Italy, and is the capital of the province of Forlì-Cesena. The city is situated along the Via Emilia, to the right of the Montone river, and is an important agricultural centre...
, in Italy, thousands of stone handaxes have been found that date from 800,000 years ago.
Middle Pleistocene
The appearance of Homo heidelbergensisHomo heidelbergensis
Homo heidelbergensis is an extinct species of the genus Homo which may be the direct ancestor of both Homo neanderthalensis in Europe and Homo sapiens. The best evidence found for these hominins date between 600,000 and 400,000 years ago. H...
about 600,000 years ago heralds a number of other new varieties, such as Homo rhodesiensis
Homo rhodesiensis
Homo rhodesiensis is a hominin species described from the fossil Kabwe skull. Other morphologically-comparable remains have been found from the same, or earlier, time period in southern Africa , East Africa and North Africa...
and Homo cepranensis
Homo cepranensis
Homo cepranensis is a proposed name for a human species, known from only one skull cap discovered in 1994. The fossil was discovered by archeologist Italo Biddittu and was nicknamed "Ceprano Man" after a nearby town in the province of Frosinone, 89 kilometers Southeast of Rome, Italy.The age of...
about 400,000 years ago.
Homo heidelbergensis is a candidate for first developing an early form of symbolic language.
Whether control of fire and earliest burials date to this period or only appear during the Middle Paleolithic is an open question.
Also in Europe appeared a type of human intermediate between Homo erectus and Homo sapiens, sometimes summarized under "archaic Homo sapiens
Archaic Homo sapiens
Archaic Homo sapiens is a loosely defined term used to describe a number of varieties of Homo, as opposed to anatomically modern humans , in the period beginning 500,000 years ago....
, typified by such fossils as those found at Swanscombe, Steinheim
Steinheim Skull
The Steinheim skull is a fossilized skull of an archaic Homo sapiens or Homo heidelbergensis found in 1933 near Steinheim an der Murr ....
, Tautavel, and Vertesszollos (Homo palaeohungaricus). The hand-axe tradition originates in the same period.
The intermediate may have been Homo heidelbergensis, held responsible for the manufacture of improved Mode 2 Acheulean
Acheulean
Acheulean is the name given to an archaeological industry of stone tool manufacture associated with early humans during the Lower Palaeolithic era across Africa and much of West Asia, South Asia and Europe. Acheulean tools are typically found with Homo erectus remains...
tool types, in Africa, after 600,000 years BP.
Flakes and axes coexisted in Europe, sometimes at the same site. The axe tradition, however, spread to a different range in the east. It appears in Arabia and India, but more importantly, it does not appear in southeast Asia.
Transition to the Middle Paleolithic
From about 300,000 years ago, technology, social structures and behaviour appear to grow more complex, with prepared-core techniquePrepared-core technique
The prepared-core technique is means of producing stone tools by first preparing common stone cores that can then be shaped into the desired implement.-First evidence:...
lithics, earliest instances of burial and hunting-gathering subsistence. Homo sapiens
Anatomically modern humans
The term anatomically modern humans in paleoanthropology refers to early individuals of Homo sapiens with an appearance consistent with the range of phenotypes in modern humans....
first appears about 200,000 years ago.
External links
- The First People and Culture at Indiana University Bloomington
- - Lower Paleolithic Egypt c. 2 million - 100,000 BC