Madeira Firecrest
Encyclopedia
The Madeira Firecrest or Madeira Kinglet, Regulus madeirensis, is a very small passerine
bird that is endemic
to the island of Madeira
. It is a member of the kinglet
family. Before it was recognised as a separate species in 2003, it was classified as a subspecies of the Common Firecrest. It differs in appearance and vocalisations from its relative, and genetic analysis has confirmed it as a different species. The Madeiran bird has green upperparts, whitish underparts and two white wingbars, and a distinctive head pattern with a black eye stripe, short white supercilium
, and a crest that is mainly orange in the male and yellow in the female.
The female Madeira Firecrest builds a spherical nest from cobwebs
, moss
and small twigs, and she incubates the eggs and broods the chicks on her own. Both parents feed the young. This species forages
for insects and other small invertebrates in tree heath, laurisilva
and other woodland. It is common within its restricted range, and is not considered to be threatened.
and a crest which is yellow in the female and mainly orange in the male. Juveniles have a grey tinge to the duller upperparts, and lack the crown and eye stripes and supercilium; by their first winter, only the flight
and tail feathers remain unmoulted, and the young birds are virtually indistinguishable from the adults in the field. This kinglet usually hops with its body held horizontally, and its flight is weak and whirring, with occasional jinking.
Compared to the Common Firecrest, the Madeiran Firecrest has a longer bill and legs, a shorter white supercilium, more black on the wings and a deeper golden-bronze shoulder patch; the male's crest is duller orange. Juveniles have plainer heads, lacking the dull supercilium shown by the young of the European species.
The vocalisations of Madeiran and Common Firecrests both consist of high-pitched notes, but the Madeiran bird has its song divided into three distinct parts, whereas that of the more widespread species just accelerates gradually and covers a much smaller frequency range. The calls of both species include high-pitched fine vocalisations zuu zu-zi-zi, although the Madeiran Firecrest also has a distinctive shrill wheez and a whistled peep.
s, but frequently given family status, especially as recent research showed that, despite superficial similarities, the crests are taxonomically remote from the warblers. The names of the family, Regulidae, and its only genus, Regulus, are derived from the Latin
regulus, a diminutive of rex, "a king", and refer to the characteristic orange or yellow crests of adult kinglets. The species name madeirensis is derived from the island on which this bird is found. The Madeira Firecrest was first described by English naturalist Edward Vernon Harcourt in 1851. Until recently, it was considered to be a subspecies, R. i. madeirensis, of the Common Firecrest R. ignicapillus. A phylogenetic
analysis based on the cytochrome b
gene
showed that the Madeiran form is distinct at the species level from the Firecrest nominate subspecies R. i. ignicapillus. Cytochrome b gene divergence between the Madeira Firecrest and the European bird is 8.5%, comparable with the divergence level between other recognised Regulus species, such as the 9% between the Goldcrest
and the Golden-crowned Kinglet
. The split was accepted by the Association of European Rarities Committees
(AERC) in 2003, but some authorities, such as Clements, have not yet recognised the new species.
The songs of the four subspecies of Common Firecrest (nominate R. i. ignicapillus, Mediterranean R. i. balearicus, southeastern R. i. caucasicus and North African R. i. laeneni) show a number of different song forms, but in general are very similar to each other, whereas the Madeiran Firecrest has only one song type, which is divided into three phrases, two of them consisting of modified display and anger calls. Its display calls use a larger frequency range and more harmonics than the continental subspecies. Male Common Firecrests do not show a territorial response to recordings of the songs or calls of the Madeiran taxon
, although Madeiran Firecrests do react strongly to playback of the calls of the mainland birds. The island form was recognized as a separate species on the basis of differences from the mainland form in morphology
, vocalisations, and genetics.
The Atlantic archipelagos of the Canaries
, Azores
, and Madeira have a volcanic origin and they have never been part of a continent. The formation of Madeira started in the Miocene
and the island was substantially complete 700,000 years ago. In the distant past the major islands of these archipelagos were all colonised by Regulus species, which evolved on their respective islands isolated from mainland populations. The Firecrest descendant evolved in Madeira and Goldcrest subspecies evolved on the other islands. Cytochrome b gene divergence between Common Firecrests from Europe and Madeira Firecrests suggests an evolutionary separation roughly 4 million years ago, considerably earlier than the 2.2 million years ago maximum estimate for the Goldcrest radiations in the Canaries and Azores.
, relict laurel forest
, oak-dominated deciduous forest and stands of the introduced Japanese cedar, Cryptomeria japonica
. It is absent from the alien eucalyptus
and acacia
plantations which have replaced much of the endemic Madeiran laurel forest.
. As is typical for the family, the nest
is a closed cup built in three layers with a small entrance hole near its top. The nest's outer layer is made from moss, small twigs, cobwebs and lichen, the spider webs also being used to attach the nest to the thin branches that support it. The middle layer is moss, and this is lined with feathers (up to 3,000) and hair. It is constructed by the female alone, although the male will accompany the female while she builds the nest over a period of a few days to three weeks.
The eggs are described as like those of a Phylloscopus warbler (white with some brown speckles), unlike the eggs of the Common Firecrest, which are pink with very indistinct reddish markings at the broad end. The clutch size is unknown, but believed to be smaller than the 7–12 of the nominate race of Common Firecrest. The female incubates the eggs for 14.5 to 16.5 days to hatching, and broods the chicks, which fledge
19 to 20 days after hatching. Both parents feed the chicks and fledged young.
s with soft cuticle
s, such as springtail
s, aphid
s and spiders. They also feed on the cocoons and eggs of spiders and insects, and occasionally take pollen. The Madeira Firecrest feeds in trees, exploiting mainly the upper surface of branches in coniferous habitat and of leaves in deciduous trees. This is in contrast to the Goldcrest, which frequently feeds on the undersides of branches and leaves. The Madeira Firecrest also forages in the moss and lichen which often covers the branches and trunks of laurel and oak trees.
and Common Kestrel
take mainly mammalian prey; however, the dark Macaronesian subspecies of the Eurasian Sparrowhawk, Accipiter nisus granti, is a specialist predator of woodland birds.
Other than bats, there are no native land mammals, although there are a number of introduced species, two of which will take birds or chicks. These are Brown Rats
and feral domestic cat
s. Even the high mountain nest sites of the endangered Zino's Petrel
are at risk from these predators.
Data on specific parasites of the Madeira Firecrest is lacking, but the widespread flea Dasypsyllus gallinulae
has been recorded in a related Regulus species, and significant infection by non-native pathogen
s such as avian pox
and avian malaria
has been detected in another Macaronesian bird, the Berthelot's Pipit
.
on the IUCN Red List
. It may be declining because of fragmentation and loss of native forest habitat, but its ability to occupy plantations of some of the non-native tree species has ameliorated this factor to some extent.
Passerine
A passerine is a bird of the order Passeriformes, which includes more than half of all bird species. Sometimes known as perching birds or, less accurately, as songbirds, the passerines form one of the most diverse terrestrial vertebrate orders: with over 5,000 identified species, it has roughly...
bird that is endemic
Endemic (ecology)
Endemism is the ecological state of being unique to a defined geographic location, such as an island, nation or other defined zone, or habitat type; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found elsewhere. For example, all species of lemur are endemic to the...
to the island of Madeira
Madeira
Madeira is a Portuguese archipelago that lies between and , just under 400 km north of Tenerife, Canary Islands, in the north Atlantic Ocean and an outermost region of the European Union...
. It is a member of the kinglet
Kinglet
The kinglets or crests are a small group of birds sometimes included in the Old World warblers, but are frequently given family status because they also resemble the titmice. The scientific name Regulidae is derived from the Latin word regulus for "petty king" or prince, and comes from the...
family. Before it was recognised as a separate species in 2003, it was classified as a subspecies of the Common Firecrest. It differs in appearance and vocalisations from its relative, and genetic analysis has confirmed it as a different species. The Madeiran bird has green upperparts, whitish underparts and two white wingbars, and a distinctive head pattern with a black eye stripe, short white supercilium
Supercilium
The supercilium is a plumage feature found on the heads of some bird species. It is a stripe which runs from the base of the bird's beak above its eye, finishing somewhere towards the rear of the bird's head. Also known as an "eyebrow", it is distinct from the eyestripe, which is a line which runs...
, and a crest that is mainly orange in the male and yellow in the female.
The female Madeira Firecrest builds a spherical nest from cobwebs
Spider web
A spider web, spiderweb, spider's web or cobweb is a device built by a spider out of proteinaceous spider silk extruded from its spinnerets....
, moss
Moss
Mosses are small, soft plants that are typically 1–10 cm tall, though some species are much larger. They commonly grow close together in clumps or mats in damp or shady locations. They do not have flowers or seeds, and their simple leaves cover the thin wiry stems...
and small twigs, and she incubates the eggs and broods the chicks on her own. Both parents feed the young. This species forages
Foraging
- Definitions and significance of foraging behavior :Foraging is the act of searching for and exploiting food resources. It affects an animal's fitness because it plays an important role in an animal's ability to survive and reproduce...
for insects and other small invertebrates in tree heath, laurisilva
Laurisilva
Laurisilva or laurissilva is a subtropical forest, found in areas with high humidity and relatively stable and mild temperatures. They are characterised by evergreen, glossy-leaved tree species that look alike with leaves of lauroide type...
and other woodland. It is common within its restricted range, and is not considered to be threatened.
Description
The Madeira Firecrest is a small plump bird, 9–10 cm (3.5–3.9 cm) length and weighing about 5 g (0.18 oz). It has bright olive-green upperparts with a bronze-coloured patch on each shoulder, and whitish underparts washed with brownish grey on the breast and flanks. It has two white wingbars, a tiny black bill and brownish-black legs. The head pattern is striking, with a black eye stripe, white superciliumSupercilium
The supercilium is a plumage feature found on the heads of some bird species. It is a stripe which runs from the base of the bird's beak above its eye, finishing somewhere towards the rear of the bird's head. Also known as an "eyebrow", it is distinct from the eyestripe, which is a line which runs...
and a crest which is yellow in the female and mainly orange in the male. Juveniles have a grey tinge to the duller upperparts, and lack the crown and eye stripes and supercilium; by their first winter, only the flight
Flight feather
Flight feathers are the long, stiff, asymmetrically shaped, but symmetrically paired feathers on the wings or tail of a bird; those on the wings are called remiges while those on the tail are called rectrices . Their primary function is to aid in the generation of both thrust and lift, thereby...
and tail feathers remain unmoulted, and the young birds are virtually indistinguishable from the adults in the field. This kinglet usually hops with its body held horizontally, and its flight is weak and whirring, with occasional jinking.
Compared to the Common Firecrest, the Madeiran Firecrest has a longer bill and legs, a shorter white supercilium, more black on the wings and a deeper golden-bronze shoulder patch; the male's crest is duller orange. Juveniles have plainer heads, lacking the dull supercilium shown by the young of the European species.
The vocalisations of Madeiran and Common Firecrests both consist of high-pitched notes, but the Madeiran bird has its song divided into three distinct parts, whereas that of the more widespread species just accelerates gradually and covers a much smaller frequency range. The calls of both species include high-pitched fine vocalisations zuu zu-zi-zi, although the Madeiran Firecrest also has a distinctive shrill wheez and a whistled peep.
Taxonomy
The kinglets are a small group of birds sometimes included in the Old World warblerOld World warbler
The "Old World Warblers" is the name used to describe a large group of birds formerly grouped together in the bird family Sylviidae. The family held over 400 species in over 70 genera, and were the source of much taxonomic confusion. Two families were split out initially, the cisticolas into...
s, but frequently given family status, especially as recent research showed that, despite superficial similarities, the crests are taxonomically remote from the warblers. The names of the family, Regulidae, and its only genus, Regulus, are derived from the Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
regulus, a diminutive of rex, "a king", and refer to the characteristic orange or yellow crests of adult kinglets. The species name madeirensis is derived from the island on which this bird is found. The Madeira Firecrest was first described by English naturalist Edward Vernon Harcourt in 1851. Until recently, it was considered to be a subspecies, R. i. madeirensis, of the Common Firecrest R. ignicapillus. A phylogenetic
Phylogenetics
In biology, phylogenetics is the study of evolutionary relatedness among groups of organisms , which is discovered through molecular sequencing data and morphological data matrices...
analysis based on the cytochrome b
Cytochrome b
Cytochrome b/b6 is the main subunit of transmembrane cytochrome bc1 and b6f complexes. In addition, it commonly refers to a region of mtDNA used for population genetics and phylogenetics.- Function :...
gene
Gene
A gene is a molecular unit of heredity of a living organism. It is a name given to some stretches of DNA and RNA that code for a type of protein or for an RNA chain that has a function in the organism. Living beings depend on genes, as they specify all proteins and functional RNA chains...
showed that the Madeiran form is distinct at the species level from the Firecrest nominate subspecies R. i. ignicapillus. Cytochrome b gene divergence between the Madeira Firecrest and the European bird is 8.5%, comparable with the divergence level between other recognised Regulus species, such as the 9% between the Goldcrest
Goldcrest
The Goldcrest, Regulus regulus, is a very small passerine bird in the kinglet family. Its colourful golden crest feathers gives rise to its English and scientific names, and possibly to it being called the "king of the birds" in European folklore. Several subspecies are recognised across the very...
and the Golden-crowned Kinglet
Golden-crowned Kinglet
The Golden-crowned Kinglet, Regulus satrapa, is a very small songbird.Adults are olive-gray on the upperparts with white underparts, with thin bills and short tails. They have white wing bars, a black stripe through the eyes and a yellow crown surrounded by black...
. The split was accepted by the Association of European Rarities Committees
Association of European Rarities Committees
The Association of European Rarities Committees is a co-ordinating and liaison body for the bird rarities committees of Europe and other nearby countries.It was created in 1993 at a meeting of European rarities committees on the German island of Heligoland....
(AERC) in 2003, but some authorities, such as Clements, have not yet recognised the new species.
The songs of the four subspecies of Common Firecrest (nominate R. i. ignicapillus, Mediterranean R. i. balearicus, southeastern R. i. caucasicus and North African R. i. laeneni) show a number of different song forms, but in general are very similar to each other, whereas the Madeiran Firecrest has only one song type, which is divided into three phrases, two of them consisting of modified display and anger calls. Its display calls use a larger frequency range and more harmonics than the continental subspecies. Male Common Firecrests do not show a territorial response to recordings of the songs or calls of the Madeiran taxon
Taxon
|thumb|270px|[[African elephants]] form a widely-accepted taxon, the [[genus]] LoxodontaA taxon is a group of organisms, which a taxonomist adjudges to be a unit. Usually a taxon is given a name and a rank, although neither is a requirement...
, although Madeiran Firecrests do react strongly to playback of the calls of the mainland birds. The island form was recognized as a separate species on the basis of differences from the mainland form in morphology
Morphology (biology)
In biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features....
, vocalisations, and genetics.
The Atlantic archipelagos of the Canaries
Canary Islands
The Canary Islands , also known as the Canaries , is a Spanish archipelago located just off the northwest coast of mainland Africa, 100 km west of the border between Morocco and the Western Sahara. The Canaries are a Spanish autonomous community and an outermost region of the European Union...
, Azores
Azores
The Archipelago of the Azores is composed of nine volcanic islands situated in the middle of the North Atlantic Ocean, and is located about west from Lisbon and about east from the east coast of North America. The islands, and their economic exclusion zone, form the Autonomous Region of the...
, and Madeira have a volcanic origin and they have never been part of a continent. The formation of Madeira started in the Miocene
Miocene
The Miocene is a geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about . The Miocene was named by Sir Charles Lyell. Its name comes from the Greek words and and means "less recent" because it has 18% fewer modern sea invertebrates than the Pliocene. The Miocene follows the Oligocene...
and the island was substantially complete 700,000 years ago. In the distant past the major islands of these archipelagos were all colonised by Regulus species, which evolved on their respective islands isolated from mainland populations. The Firecrest descendant evolved in Madeira and Goldcrest subspecies evolved on the other islands. Cytochrome b gene divergence between Common Firecrests from Europe and Madeira Firecrests suggests an evolutionary separation roughly 4 million years ago, considerably earlier than the 2.2 million years ago maximum estimate for the Goldcrest radiations in the Canaries and Azores.
Distribution and habitat
The Madeira Firecrest is endemic to the main island of Madeira. It occurs mainly at higher levels from 600–1,550 m (1,950–4,900 ft) in all types of forests and scrub, but with a preference for tree heaths. Although it is strongly adapted to endemic tree heaths, it also breeds in broomBroom (shrub)
Brooms are a group of evergreen, semi-evergreen, and deciduous shrubs in the subfamily Faboideae of the legume family Fabaceae, mainly in the three genera Chamaecytisus, Cytisus and Genista, but also in many other small genera . All genera in this group are from the tribe Genisteae...
, relict laurel forest
Laurisilva
Laurisilva or laurissilva is a subtropical forest, found in areas with high humidity and relatively stable and mild temperatures. They are characterised by evergreen, glossy-leaved tree species that look alike with leaves of lauroide type...
, oak-dominated deciduous forest and stands of the introduced Japanese cedar, Cryptomeria japonica
Cryptomeria
Cryptomeria is a monotypic genus of conifer in the cypress family Cupressaceae formerly belonging to the family Taxodiaceae; it includes only one species, Cryptomeria japonica . It is endemic to Japan, where it is known as Sugi...
. It is absent from the alien eucalyptus
Eucalyptus
Eucalyptus is a diverse genus of flowering trees in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae. Members of the genus dominate the tree flora of Australia...
and acacia
Acacia
Acacia is a genus of shrubs and trees belonging to the subfamily Mimosoideae of the family Fabaceae, first described in Africa by the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in 1773. Many non-Australian species tend to be thorny, whereas the majority of Australian acacias are not...
plantations which have replaced much of the endemic Madeiran laurel forest.
Breeding
The male Madeira Firecrest sings during the breeding season, often with its crest raised, and has a display which involves pointing its bill at another bird, showing the crest and strong face pattern. This differs from the display of the plainer-faced Goldcrest, which bows its head to emphasise the crest. The Madeira Firecrest is monogamousMonogamy
Monogamy /Gr. μονός+γάμος - one+marriage/ a form of marriage in which an individual has only one spouse at any one time. In current usage monogamy often refers to having one sexual partner irrespective of marriage or reproduction...
. As is typical for the family, the nest
Bird nest
A bird nest is the spot in which a bird lays and incubates its eggs and raises its young. Although the term popularly refers to a specific structure made by the bird itself—such as the grassy cup nest of the American Robin or Eurasian Blackbird, or the elaborately woven hanging nest of the...
is a closed cup built in three layers with a small entrance hole near its top. The nest's outer layer is made from moss, small twigs, cobwebs and lichen, the spider webs also being used to attach the nest to the thin branches that support it. The middle layer is moss, and this is lined with feathers (up to 3,000) and hair. It is constructed by the female alone, although the male will accompany the female while she builds the nest over a period of a few days to three weeks.
The eggs are described as like those of a Phylloscopus warbler (white with some brown speckles), unlike the eggs of the Common Firecrest, which are pink with very indistinct reddish markings at the broad end. The clutch size is unknown, but believed to be smaller than the 7–12 of the nominate race of Common Firecrest. The female incubates the eggs for 14.5 to 16.5 days to hatching, and broods the chicks, which fledge
Fledge
Fledge is the stage in a young bird's life when the feathers and wing muscles are sufficiently developed for flight. It also describes the act of a chick's parents raising it to a fully grown state...
19 to 20 days after hatching. Both parents feed the chicks and fledged young.
Feeding
All Regulus species are almost exclusively insectivorous, preying on small arthropodArthropod
An arthropod is an invertebrate animal having an exoskeleton , a segmented body, and jointed appendages. Arthropods are members of the phylum Arthropoda , and include the insects, arachnids, crustaceans, and others...
s with soft cuticle
Cuticle
A cuticle , or cuticula, is a term used for any of a variety of tough but flexible, non-mineral outer coverings of an organism, or parts of an organism, that provide protection. Various types of "cuticles" are non-homologous; differing in their origin, structure, function, and chemical composition...
s, such as springtail
Springtail
Springtails form the largest of the three lineages of modern hexapods that are no longer considered insects...
s, aphid
Aphid
Aphids, also known as plant lice and in Britain and the Commonwealth as greenflies, blackflies or whiteflies, are small sap sucking insects, and members of the superfamily Aphidoidea. Aphids are among the most destructive insect pests on cultivated plants in temperate regions...
s and spiders. They also feed on the cocoons and eggs of spiders and insects, and occasionally take pollen. The Madeira Firecrest feeds in trees, exploiting mainly the upper surface of branches in coniferous habitat and of leaves in deciduous trees. This is in contrast to the Goldcrest, which frequently feeds on the undersides of branches and leaves. The Madeira Firecrest also forages in the moss and lichen which often covers the branches and trunks of laurel and oak trees.
Predators and parasites
The limited species diversity of Madeira means that there are relatively few potential predators. Of the three birds of prey, the Common BuzzardCommon Buzzard
The Common Buzzard is a medium to large bird of prey, whose range covers most of Europe and extends into Asia. It is usually resident all year, except in the coldest parts of its range, and in the case of one subspecies.-Description:...
and Common Kestrel
Common Kestrel
The Common Kestrel is a bird of prey species belonging to the kestrel group of the falcon family Falconidae. It is also known as the European Kestrel, Eurasian Kestrel, or Old World Kestrel. In Britain, where no other brown falcon occurs, it is generally just called "the kestrel".This species...
take mainly mammalian prey; however, the dark Macaronesian subspecies of the Eurasian Sparrowhawk, Accipiter nisus granti, is a specialist predator of woodland birds.
Other than bats, there are no native land mammals, although there are a number of introduced species, two of which will take birds or chicks. These are Brown Rats
Brown Rat
The brown rat, common rat, sewer rat, Hanover rat, Norway rat, Brown Norway rat, Norwegian rat, or wharf rat is one of the best known and most common rats....
and feral domestic cat
Cat
The cat , also known as the domestic cat or housecat to distinguish it from other felids and felines, is a small, usually furry, domesticated, carnivorous mammal that is valued by humans for its companionship and for its ability to hunt vermin and household pests...
s. Even the high mountain nest sites of the endangered Zino's Petrel
Zino's Petrel
The Zino's Petrel or Freira, Pterodroma madeira, is a small seabird in the gadfly petrel genus which is endemic to the island of Madeira. This long-winged petrel has a grey back and wings, with a dark "W" marking across the wings, and a grey upper tail...
are at risk from these predators.
Data on specific parasites of the Madeira Firecrest is lacking, but the widespread flea Dasypsyllus gallinulae
Moorhen flea
The moorhen flea, Dasypsyllus gallinulae, originally from South America, is now a globally widespread flea species. It is a large flea, easily identified because the male has two heavy horn-like spines on one of the genital flaps, and the female has a deep "bite" on the seventh sternite.It is found...
has been recorded in a related Regulus species, and significant infection by non-native pathogen
Pathogen
A pathogen gignomai "I give birth to") or infectious agent — colloquially, a germ — is a microbe or microorganism such as a virus, bacterium, prion, or fungus that causes disease in its animal or plant host...
s such as avian pox
Avipoxvirus
Avipoxvirus is a member of the Poxviridae family. The Poxviridae family is the family of viruses which cause the victim organism to have poxes as a symptom. This pox virus is one that affects birds only. Poxviruses have generally large genomes, and other such examples include smallpox and monkeypox...
and avian malaria
Avian malaria
Avian malaria is a parasitic disease of birds.-Etiology:Avian malaria is most notably caused by Plasmodium relictum, a protist that infects birds in tropical regions...
has been detected in another Macaronesian bird, the Berthelot's Pipit
Berthelot's Pipit
The Berthelot’s Pipit is a small passerine bird which breeds in Madeira and the Canary Islands. It is a common resident in both archipelagos....
.
Status
The Madeira Firecrest's range consists of a single island, on which it appears to be fairly common to very common, although its population has not been evaluated. It is therefore classed as Least ConcernLeast Concern
Least Concern is an IUCN category assigned to extant taxon or lower taxa which have been evaluated but do not qualify for any other category. As such they do not qualify as threatened, Near Threatened, or Conservation Dependent...
on the IUCN Red List
IUCN Red List
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species , founded in 1963, is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of biological species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature is the world's main authority on the conservation status of species...
. It may be declining because of fragmentation and loss of native forest habitat, but its ability to occupy plantations of some of the non-native tree species has ameliorated this factor to some extent.