Goldcrest
Encyclopedia
The Goldcrest, Regulus regulus, is a very small passerine
bird in the kinglet
family. Its colourful golden crest feathers gives rise to its English and scientific names, and possibly to it being called the "king of the birds" in European folklore. Several subspecies are recognised across the very large distribution range that includes much of Eurasia
and the islands of Macaronesia
. Birds from the north and east of its breeding range migrate
to winter further south.
This kinglet has greenish upper-parts, whitish under-parts, and has two white wingbars. It has a plain face contrasting black irises and a bright head crest, orange and yellow in the male and yellow in the female, which is displayed
during breeding. It superficially resembles the Firecrest, which largely shares its European range, but the latter's bronze shoulders and strong face pattern are distinctive. The song is a repetition of high thin notes, slightly higher-pitched than those of its relative. Birds on the Canary Islands
are now separated into two subspecies of the Goldcrest, but were formerly considered to be a subspecies
of the Common Firecrest or a separate species, Regulus teneriffae.
The Goldcrest breeds in coniferous
woodland and gardens, building its compact, three-layered nest on a tree branch. Ten to twelve eggs are incubated by the female alone, and the chicks are fed by both parents; second broods
are common. This kinglet is constantly on the move as it searches for insects to eat, and in winter it is often found with flocks of tits. It may be killed by birds of prey
or carry parasites
, but its large range and population mean that it is not considered to present any significant conservation concerns.
. The crown of the head has black sides and a narrow black front, and a bright crest, yellow with an orange centre in the male, and entirely yellow in the female; the crest is erected in display, making the distinctive orange stripe of the male much more conspicuous. The small, thin bill is black, and the legs are dark flesh-brown. Apart from the crest colour, the sexes are alike, although in fresh plumage, the female may have very slightly paler upperparts and greyer underparts than the adult male. The juvenile is similar to the adult, but has duller upperparts and lacks the coloured crown. Although the tail and flight feather
s may be retained into the first winter, by then the young birds are almost indistinguishable from adults in the field. The flight is distinctive; it consists of whirring wing-beats with occasional sudden changes of direction. Shorter flights while feeding are a mix of dashing and fluttering with frequent hovering. It moves restlessly among foliage, regularly creeping on branches and up and down trunks.
. The adult Common Firecrest has a distinguishing face pattern showing a bright white supercilium
(eyebrow) and black eye-stripe, and the juvenile usually shows enough of this face pattern to be readily distinguished from the plain-faced Goldcrest. The Yellow-browed Warbler has a yellowish supercilium and pale crown stripe, so also shows a different head pattern. The Ruby-crowned Kinglet, an American Regulus species and a potential vagrant in Europe, could be more difficult to distinguish. It has a plain face like its Old World cousin, but the male has a red crest without any yellow or a black border. Female and juvenile Ruby-crowned Kinglets lack the ruby-red crown patch, but compared with the similarly crestless juvenile Goldcrest, the American bird is larger in size, has an obvious whitish eyering, and yellowish wing bars.
The songs of mainland Goldcrests vary only slightly across their range and consist of a single song type, but much more divergence has occurred in the isolated Macaronesia
n populations. Not only are there variations between islands and within an island, but individual males on the Azores can have up to three song types. The dialects on the Azores fall into two main groups, neither of which elicited a response from male European Goldcrests in playback experiments. There are also two main dialect groups on the Canary islands, a widespread group similar to the European version, and another which is restricted to the mountains of Tenerife. The song variations have been used to investigate the colonisation pattern of the Macaronesian islands by Goldcrests, and identified a previously unknown subspecies.
s, but frequently given family status, especially as recent research shows that despite superficial similarities, they are phylogenetically
remote from the warblers. The names of the family, Regulidae, and its only genus, Regulus, are derived from the Latin
, a diminutive of , a king. The Goldcrest was first described by Linnaeus in his in 1758 as Motacilla regulus (characterised as ). It was moved to the warbler genus Sylvia
by English naturalist
John Latham
in 1790, and to its current genus by French zoologist
Georges Cuvier
in 1800.
The relationships of the Flamecrest
or Taiwan Firecrest (Regulus goodfellowi) of Taiwan have also been a source of much debate. It is sometimes viewed as a race of Firecrest, but its territorial song resembles those of the Himalayan
races of Goldcrest, and genetic data show that it is the closest relative of that species, and, despite its alternative name, only distantly related to the Firecrest. The Flamecrest diverged from the Goldcrest 3.0–3.1 mya (million years ago).
, there are nine generally accepted and very similar subspecies, differing only in details such as plumage shade. At the genetic level, the two Central Asian forms, R. r. sikkimensis and R. r. himalayensis, are very close to each other, and have differentiated only in the recent past, but they diverged from the western subspecies around 2.8 mya.
. Birds on the Canary Islands
are ancient colonists, whereas those on The Azores are of more recent origin. There are no Goldcrests on Madeira
, where the Madeira Firecrest
is the only Regulus species.
The Canary Islands were colonised in two waves. The first step was the occupation of Tenerife
and La Gomera
1.9–2.3 million years ago, followed by a separate invasion of El Hierro
and La Palma
1.3–1.8 mya.
Birds from the Canary Islands are particularly distinctive having a black forehead, pink-buff underparts and a darker closed wing, and have been sometimes treated either as a subspecies of the Common Firecrest or as a different Regulus species altogether. They were sometimes called the Tenerife Goldcrest
, no matter which of the islands they lived on; however, a 2006 study of the vocalisations of these birds indicate that they actually comprise two subspecies of the Goldcrest that are separable on voice; R. r. teneriffae occurring on Tenerife and the newly described subspecies, R. r. ellenthalerae, occurring on the smaller islands of La Palma and El Hierro.
Differences in songs, genetics and morphology
suggests that the Azores were colonised in a single invasion in the late Pleistocene
, about 100,000 years ago. It is likely that the initial colonisation was of the easternmost islands, with a subsequent spread to the central and western island groups from the western caldera
of São Miguel
, where both eastern and western song types are found.
) records from Europe of extant Regulus species, mostly Goldcrests or unidentifiable to species. The only fossil of an extinct Regulus is a left ulna
from 2.6–1.95 mya in Bulgaria, which was identified as belonging to an extinct species, Regulus bulgaricus
. The Goldcrest lineage diverged from this apparent ancestor of the Common Firecrest in the Middle Pleistocene.
woodlands, mainly up to 3,000 m (9,800 ft), and occasionally to 4,800 m (15,800 ft). It uses spruce
, Larch
, Scots Pine
, Silver Fir and Mountain Pine
, and in man-made landscapes also introduced conifers such as Douglas Fir
. Breeding densities of up to 591 pairs per square km (1,530 pairs per square mile) have been recorded in Norway Spruce in Ireland, and Goldcrests constituted over 60% of all birds found in Welsh Douglas Fir and Norway Spruce plantations. Broad-leaved woods
are used, only when some spruce or firs are also present. Sites such as parks and cemeteries are used only when they offer suitable conifers which are not otherwise locally available. The height and nature of any undergrowth is irrelevant. Unlike more specialised birds such as the Eurasian Nuthatch
and the Eurasian Treecreeper, both of which forage on tree trunks, the kinglets do not need large woodlands, and their population density is independent of forest size. Once breeding is over, this species will readily move into deciduous trees and shrubs, heathland
and similar more open habitats.
The Tenerife subspecies occurs in the mountain region previously occupied by laurisilva
, but now dominated by tree heaths. It is common only in that habitat, becoming rare in pine forest, where it occurs only where tree-heath is also available.
The Goldcrest has a huge range in Eurasia, breeding from Macaronesia to Japan. It is common in middle and northern temperate and boreal
latitudes of Europe, between the 13–24 °C (55.4–75.2 F) July isotherms
, and thus predominantly in cooler climates than the Firecrest. Further east it occurs discontinuously through southern Siberia
to Sakhalin
and Japan, in the Tian Shan
mountains, northern Iran, and from the Himalayas east to central China. This species occurs annually in Iceland, and breeds intermittently in the Faroes
. It has occurred as a vagrant
in Jordan and Morocco.
This species is partly migratory
, northernmost populations deserting their breeding areas in winter. Birds winter in Europe and Asia south of the breeding range. Birds in northern Fennoscandia
and Russia vacate their territories between late August and early November, with most leaving in late September to mid-October as the first cold weather arrives. Adverse conditions may lead to disorientation, large numbers gathering on ships on overcast or wet nights. Large influxes include 15,000 birds on the Isle of May
in October 1982, and nearly 21,000 birds through a single site in Latvia during September and October 1983. Spring migration is complete by late March on the Mediterranean islands, but continues to late April or early May in northern Europe. The spring passage is much lighter than in autumn, suggesting high mortality on migration.
A study in the Baltic region showed that northern Goldcrests were more likely to migrate, and increased their body mass beforehand; non-migratory southern birds did not increase their fat reserves. The travel speed of migrating Goldcrests increased for those leaving later in the autumn, and was greater for the northernmost populations. Migration was faster on routes that crossed the Baltic Sea than on coastal routes, and the birds with the largest fat reserves travelled at the highest speeds. The ability to lay down fat is adversely affected in this tiny bird by poor health. In Hungary, Goldcrests stopping temporarily on migration were mostly found in scrub
, including blackthorn
, hawthorn and pear
, which provided some protection from Sparrowhawks. Females migrated slightly earlier than males, but overall there were more males, with an average sex ratio of 1.6:1. Goldcrests can fly 250–800 km (150–500 mi) in one day, although they keep at a lower level in heavy headwinds. This is a tame and inquisitive bird, and tired migrants will land near or on humans, sometimes searching for food on their clothing.
The North Atlantic oscillation
is an atmospheric phenomenon which affects the weather in Western Europe. When the atmospheric pressure variations in the North Atlantic are large, the springs in Europe are warmer. This brings forward the northward migration of those bird species (including the Goldcrest) which winter mainly within western or southern Europe. A general climatic change resulting in more frequent positive North Atlantic oscillation events has led to earlier spring migration of these short-distance migrants since the 1980s. The warmer spring weather brings on plant growth, thus preparing the habitat for returning migrants. The effect is greatest in western and central Europe.
. The male sings during the breeding season, usually while foraging rather than from a perch. It has a display
which involves bowing its head towards another bird and raising the coloured crest. Firecrests will sometimes defend their territories against Goldcrests, but the amount of actual competition between the species may not be very great. A Spanish study suggested that territorial conflicts between species, and other phenomena like males singing mixed or alternating songs, were most frequent when one species locally far outnumbered the other; in other circumstances, the two species learned to ignore each other's songs. However, in very small areas of conifers it is rare for the Goldcrest and the Firecrest to share territories; either one or the other is present, but not both. A male Goldcrest will defend his territory against either species, sometimes including some Firecrest phrases in his song.
The Goldcrest's nest
is a well-insulated cup-shaped structure built in three layers. The nest's outer layer is made from moss, small twigs, cobwebs and lichen, the cobwebs also being used to attach the nest to the thin branches that support it. The middle layer is moss, which is lined by an inner layer of feathers and hair. The nest is larger, shallower and less compact than that of the Firecrest, with an internal diameter of about 9.0 cm (3.5 in), and is constructed by both sexes, although the female does most of the work. It is often suspended from a hanging branch, usually at no great height, although Eric Simms
reported nests at heights from 1.0–22 m (3–72 ft). One pair built their nest just 1.0 m (3 ft) above that of a Sparrowhawk.
Laying starts at the end of April into early May. The eggs are whitish with very indistinct buff, grey or brown markings at the broad end. The eggs are 14 × 10 mm (0.55 × 0.34 in) and weigh 0.8 g (0.028 oz), of which 5% is shell. The clutch size in Europe is typically 9–11 eggs, but ranges from 6–13. The eggs are piled up in the nest and the female keeps the eggs warm with her brood patch
and also by putting her warm legs into the middle of the pile between the eggs. Within a clutch the size of eggs increases gradually and the last laid egg may be 20% larger than the first egg. Second clutches
, which are common, are laid usually while the first nest still has young. The male builds the second nest, then feeds the young in the first nest while the female is incubating in the second; when the first brood has fledged, he joins the female in feeding the second brood. The female Goldcrest is not normally fed by her mate while incubating. She is a tight sitter, reluctant to leave the nest when disturbed, and has been recorded as continuing to attend the nest when it has been moved, or even when it is being held. The eggs are maintained at 36.5 °C (97.7 °F), the female regulating the temperature of the eggs by varying the time spent sitting. She leaves the nest more with increasing air temperature, and incubates more tightly when the light intensity is lower early and late in the day. The female incubates the eggs for 16 to 19 days to hatching, and broods the chicks, which fledge
in a further 17 to 22 days later. Both parents feed the chicks and fledged young, and in very hot weather, the female has been noted as taking drops of water to her chicks in her bill. This species becomes sexually mature after one year, and has a life expectancy of about two years, although there is a record of an individual surviving to 4 years 10 months. However, there is a report of a bird ringed in Winchester in 1989 and found dead in Morocco 7 years 7 months later.
Although their ranges overlap substantially, hybridisation between Goldcrests and Firecrests seems to be prevented by differences in courtship rituals and different facial patterns. Even in aviary studies in which a female Goldcrest was given an artificial eyestripe to facilitate mating with a male Firecrest, the chicks were never raised by the mixed pair, and appeared to be poorly adapted compared to the parent species.
All Regulus species are almost exclusively insectivorous
, preying on small arthropod
s with soft cuticle
s, such as springtail
s, aphid
s and spiders. They also feed on the cocoons and eggs of spiders and insects, and occasionally take pollen. All species will catch flying insects while hovering. Although the similarly sized Goldcrest and Firecrest are often found together, there are a number of factors that minimise direct competition for food. Goldcrests prefer smaller prey than Common Firecrests. Although both will take trapped insects from spider webs on autumn migration, Firecrests will also eat the large orb-web spiders
(on rare occasions kinglets have been found stuck in a spider web, either unable to move or dead).
The Goldcrest takes a wide variety of prey, especially spiders, caterpillar
s, bugs
, springtails and flies
. Larger prey such as oak bush crickets
and tortrix moths
may sometimes be taken. Flying insects are taken in hovering flight but not nomally pursued; there is a record of a Goldcrest attacking a large dragonfly in flight, only to be dragged along by the insect before releasing it unharmed. Goldcrests will occasionally feed on the ground amongst leaf-litter with tits. Non-animal food is rare, although Goldcrests have been seen drinking sap
from broken birch
twigs together with tits and nuthatches.
The Goldcrest feeds in trees, frequently foraging on the undersides of branches and leaves. This is in contrast to the Common Firecrest which mainly exploits the upper surface of branches in coniferous habitat and of leaves in deciduous trees. In winter, flocks of Goldcrests cover a given distance at only one-third of the speed of Common Firecrests, taking the smallest prey items ignored by their relative. The differences in behaviour are facilitated by subtle morphological differences; Firecrests have broader bills with longer rictal bristle
s (which protect a bird's eye from food items it is trying to capture), and these features reflect the larger prey taken by the species. The Firecrest's less forked tail may reflect its longer episodes of hovering while hunting. Firecrests forage more often while on foot, and have a foot better adapted for perching, whereas the Goldcrest's longer hind toe reflects its habit of moving vertically along branches while feeding. It also has deep furrows in the soles of its feet capable of gripping individual needles, while Firecrests have a smoother surface. The Goldcrest has much the same range and habitat preference as the Common Chiffchaff
, and there is some evidence that high breeding densities of the kinglet depress the population of the warbler, although the converse is not true. There is no evidence that the species compete for territories, and in any case the Chiffchaff is 50% heavier than the Goldcrest. Nevertheless, there are 1.5 million breeding pairs of Goldcrests in Finland, compared with 0.4 million breeding pairs of Chiffchaffs, and only the kinglet has increased in numbers as the area of spruce woodland in the country has expanded. The Goldcrest may be out-competing the warbler for food, especially as the larger bird faces more competition from other insectivores, including other Phylloscopus warblers. Both birds occur in similar forests, but the Chiffchaff is found within 100 m (330 ft) of the forest edge, with the Goldcrest breeding deeper in the woodland. Nevertheless, there is no conclusive evidence that the decline of the Chiffchaff subspecies Phylloscopus collybita abietinus in parts of Finland is due to competition with the Willow Warbler
and Goldcrest.
Outside the breeding season, small groups of Goldcrests maintain exclusive winter feeding territories, which they defend against neighbouring groups. As they roam around their territory, they frequently join loose flocks of other wanderers such as tits and warblers. This kinglet, like other species that prefer mixed-species foraging flocks in winter, hunts over a greater range of heights and vegetation types than when feeding alone. For species that tend to feed in flocks, foraging success while in a flock was about twice that for solitary birds. A consequence of feeding in a flock is that foraging sites may be restricted to avoid competition with other species. In a Swedish study, Coal Tit
s and Goldcrests foraged in the outer foliage, whilst the larger Willow
and Crested Tit
s used the inner canopy. In sites where the numbers of Willow and Crested Tits was artificially reduced, Goldcrests and Coal Tits extended their foraging to include the inner canopy, but did not do so where the larger tits were retained. In some areas, wintering birds have developed the habit of coming to feeding stations and bird tables to take fat, sometimes with warblers such as the Common Chiffchaff
and Blackcap
.
and hypothermia
, of a maximum of 10 C-change below normal body temperature, in order to reduce energy consumption overnight. However, in freezing conditions, it may be that for very small birds, including the tiny Goldcrest, the energy economies of induced hypothermia may be insufficient to counterbalance the negative effects of hypothermia including the energy required to raise body temperature back to normal at dawn. Observations of five well-fed birds suggest that they maintain normal body temperatures during cold nights by metabolising fat laid down during the day, and that they actually use behavioural thermoregulation
strategies, such as collective roosting in dense foliage or snow holes to survive winter nights. Two birds roosting together reduce their heat loss by a quarter, and three birds by a third. During an 18 hour winter night, with temperatures as low as -25 C in the north of its range, Goldcrests huddled together can each burn off fat equivalent to 20% of body weight to keep warm.
Migrating birds rely largely on stored fat and they also metabolise protein as a supplementary source of energy. Those with a relatively large amount of fat, may make stops during migration of only 1–2 days; although they have lost weight since commencing their journey, they have enough energy reserves to reach the wintering areas. The proportion of migrating males increases as they travel south through Europe. There is competition within the species even during migration, and the larger and more aggressive males may get more food. Their death rate is therefore lower than that of the females both on the southward migration, and in resident populations.
, Tawny
and Long-eared Owl
s also hunt Goldcrests. The erratic movements and flights of small woodland birds, which are vulnerable to attack while away from cover, may help to confuse their predators. The Goldcrest has only very rarely been recorded as a host of the Common Cuckoo
, a widespread European brood parasite
.
The Goldcrest is a host of the widespread moorhen flea
, Dasypsyllus gallinulae, and of the louse
Philopterus reguli. The amblycerous
mite Ricinus frenatus has been found on the eastern Goldcrest subspecies, R. r. japonensis in Japan, and at the other end of the range in birds of the nominate subspecies on the Faroes and in Spain. These lice move over the host's body, and have strong mouthparts that pierce the host's skin so that they can feed on blood, and sometimes feather material. A number of feather mite
s have been recorded in the genus Regulus; these mites live on fungi growing on the feathers. The fungi found on the plumage may feed on the keratin
of the outer feathers or on feather oil.
on the IUCN Red List
. There was some northward range expansion in Scotland, Belgium, Norway, and Finland during the 20th century, assisted by the spread of conifer plantations. The population is currently stable, although there may be temporary marked declines in harsh winters.
Although dense conifer growth can provide shelter for roosting at night, losses in hard winters can be heavy. In a Finnish study, only one-tenth of the wintering Goldcrest population, which mainly fed on spiders, survived to spring. Each group roamed within a defined winter territory, and their winter survival depended on the density of the food supply. For these northern birds there is a trade off between staying put and risking starvation, or facing the perils of migration. Even in somewhat milder regions, where over-wintering is normal, exceptionally cold winters can cause such heavy losses that breeding populations take several years to recover. In 1930, the English ornithologist Thomas Coward
wrote:
Conversely, populations can expand rapidly after a series of mild winters. In lowland Britain, there was an increase of 48% following the 1970/71 winter, with many pairs spreading into deciduous woodlands where they would not normally breed.
(384 BC – 322 BC) and Pliny
(23 AD – 79) both wrote about the legend of a contest amongst the birds to see who should be their king, the title to be awarded to the one that could fly highest. Initially, it looked as though the eagle would win easily, but as he began to tire, a small bird which had hidden under the eagle's tail feathers, emerged to fly even higher and claimed the title. Following from this legend, in much European folklore the Wren
has been described as the "king of the birds" or as a flame bearer. However, these terms were also applied to the Regulus species, the fiery crowns of the Goldcrest and Firecrest making them more likely to be the original bearers of these titles, and, because of the legend's reference to the "smallest of birds" becoming king, the title was probably transferred to the equally tiny Wren. The confusion was probably compounded by the similarity and consequent interchangeability of the Greek words for the Wren and the crests . In English, the association between the Goldcrest and Eurasian Wren may have been reinforced by the kinglet's old name of "Gold-crested Wren".
This tiny woodland bird has had little other impact on literature, although it is the subject of Charles Tennyson Turner's
short poem, "The Gold-crested Wren", first published in 1868. An old English name for the Goldcrest is the "woodcock pilot", since migrating birds preceded the arrival of Eurasian Woodcock
s by a couple of days. There are unfounded legends that the Goldcrest would hitch a ride in the feathers of the larger bird, and similar stories claimed that owl
s provided the transport. Suffolk fishermen called this bird "herring spink" or "tot o'er seas" because migrating Goldcrests often landed on the rigging of herring boats out in the North Sea
.
Passerine
A passerine is a bird of the order Passeriformes, which includes more than half of all bird species. Sometimes known as perching birds or, less accurately, as songbirds, the passerines form one of the most diverse terrestrial vertebrate orders: with over 5,000 identified species, it has roughly...
bird in the kinglet
Kinglet
The kinglets or crests are a small group of birds sometimes included in the Old World warblers, but are frequently given family status because they also resemble the titmice. The scientific name Regulidae is derived from the Latin word regulus for "petty king" or prince, and comes from the...
family. Its colourful golden crest feathers gives rise to its English and scientific names, and possibly to it being called the "king of the birds" in European folklore. Several subspecies are recognised across the very large distribution range that includes much of Eurasia
Eurasia
Eurasia is a continent or supercontinent comprising the traditional continents of Europe and Asia ; covering about 52,990,000 km2 or about 10.6% of the Earth's surface located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres...
and the islands of Macaronesia
Macaronesia
Macaronesia is a modern collective name for several groups of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean near Europe and North Africa belonging to three countries: Portugal, Spain, and Cape Verde...
. Birds from the north and east of its breeding range migrate
Bird migration
Bird migration is the regular seasonal journey undertaken by many species of birds. Bird movements include those made in response to changes in food availability, habitat or weather. Sometimes, journeys are not termed "true migration" because they are irregular or in only one direction...
to winter further south.
This kinglet has greenish upper-parts, whitish under-parts, and has two white wingbars. It has a plain face contrasting black irises and a bright head crest, orange and yellow in the male and yellow in the female, which is displayed
Display (zoology)
Display is a form of animal behaviour, linked to survival of the species in various ways. One example of display used by some species can be found in the form of courtship, with the male usually having a striking feature that is distinguished by colour, shape or size, used to attract a female...
during breeding. It superficially resembles the Firecrest, which largely shares its European range, but the latter's bronze shoulders and strong face pattern are distinctive. The song is a repetition of high thin notes, slightly higher-pitched than those of its relative. Birds on the Canary Islands
Canary Islands
The Canary Islands , also known as the Canaries , is a Spanish archipelago located just off the northwest coast of mainland Africa, 100 km west of the border between Morocco and the Western Sahara. The Canaries are a Spanish autonomous community and an outermost region of the European Union...
are now separated into two subspecies of the Goldcrest, but were formerly considered to be a subspecies
Subspecies
Subspecies in biological classification, is either a taxonomic rank subordinate to species, ora taxonomic unit in that rank . A subspecies cannot be recognized in isolation: a species will either be recognized as having no subspecies at all or two or more, never just one...
of the Common Firecrest or a separate species, Regulus teneriffae.
The Goldcrest breeds in coniferous
Pinophyta
The conifers, division Pinophyta, also known as division Coniferophyta or Coniferae, are one of 13 or 14 division level taxa within the Kingdom Plantae. Pinophytes are gymnosperms. They are cone-bearing seed plants with vascular tissue; all extant conifers are woody plants, the great majority being...
woodland and gardens, building its compact, three-layered nest on a tree branch. Ten to twelve eggs are incubated by the female alone, and the chicks are fed by both parents; second broods
Avian incubation
Incubation refers to the process by which certain oviparous animals hatch their eggs, and to the development of the embryo within the egg. The most vital factor of incubation is the constant temperature required for its development over a specific period. Especially in domestic fowl, the act of...
are common. This kinglet is constantly on the move as it searches for insects to eat, and in winter it is often found with flocks of tits. It may be killed by birds of prey
Bird of prey
Birds of prey are birds that hunt for food primarily on the wing, using their keen senses, especially vision. They are defined as birds that primarily hunt vertebrates, including other birds. Their talons and beaks tend to be relatively large, powerful and adapted for tearing and/or piercing flesh....
or carry parasites
Parasitism
Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between organisms of different species where one organism, the parasite, benefits at the expense of the other, the host. Traditionally parasite referred to organisms with lifestages that needed more than one host . These are now called macroparasites...
, but its large range and population mean that it is not considered to present any significant conservation concerns.
Description
The Goldcrest is the smallest European bird, 8.5–9.5 cm (3.3–3.7 in) in length, with a 13.5–15.5 cm (5.3–6.1 in) wingspan and a weight of 4.5–7.0 g (0.16–0.25 oz). It is similar in appearance to a warbler, with olive-green upperparts, buff-white underparts, two white wing bars, and a plain face with conspicuous black irisesIris (anatomy)
The iris is a thin, circular structure in the eye, responsible for controlling the diameter and size of the pupils and thus the amount of light reaching the retina. "Eye color" is the color of the iris, which can be green, blue, or brown. In some cases it can be hazel , grey, violet, or even pink...
. The crown of the head has black sides and a narrow black front, and a bright crest, yellow with an orange centre in the male, and entirely yellow in the female; the crest is erected in display, making the distinctive orange stripe of the male much more conspicuous. The small, thin bill is black, and the legs are dark flesh-brown. Apart from the crest colour, the sexes are alike, although in fresh plumage, the female may have very slightly paler upperparts and greyer underparts than the adult male. The juvenile is similar to the adult, but has duller upperparts and lacks the coloured crown. Although the tail and flight feather
Flight feather
Flight feathers are the long, stiff, asymmetrically shaped, but symmetrically paired feathers on the wings or tail of a bird; those on the wings are called remiges while those on the tail are called rectrices . Their primary function is to aid in the generation of both thrust and lift, thereby...
s may be retained into the first winter, by then the young birds are almost indistinguishable from adults in the field. The flight is distinctive; it consists of whirring wing-beats with occasional sudden changes of direction. Shorter flights while feeding are a mix of dashing and fluttering with frequent hovering. It moves restlessly among foliage, regularly creeping on branches and up and down trunks.
Identification
The Goldcrest is usually easily distinguished from other small birds in its range, but poor views could possibly lead to confusion with the Common Firecrest or Yellow-browed WarblerYellow-browed Warbler
The Yellow-browed Warbler is a leaf warbler which breeds in temperate Asia. This warbler is strongly migratory and winters mainly in tropical southeast Asia, but also in small numbers in western Europe...
. The adult Common Firecrest has a distinguishing face pattern showing a bright white supercilium
Supercilium
The supercilium is a plumage feature found on the heads of some bird species. It is a stripe which runs from the base of the bird's beak above its eye, finishing somewhere towards the rear of the bird's head. Also known as an "eyebrow", it is distinct from the eyestripe, which is a line which runs...
(eyebrow) and black eye-stripe, and the juvenile usually shows enough of this face pattern to be readily distinguished from the plain-faced Goldcrest. The Yellow-browed Warbler has a yellowish supercilium and pale crown stripe, so also shows a different head pattern. The Ruby-crowned Kinglet, an American Regulus species and a potential vagrant in Europe, could be more difficult to distinguish. It has a plain face like its Old World cousin, but the male has a red crest without any yellow or a black border. Female and juvenile Ruby-crowned Kinglets lack the ruby-red crown patch, but compared with the similarly crestless juvenile Goldcrest, the American bird is larger in size, has an obvious whitish eyering, and yellowish wing bars.
Voice
The typical contact call of the Goldcrest is a thin, high-pitched zee given at intervals of 1–4 seconds, with all the notes at the same pitch. It sometimes has a more clipped ending, or is delivered more rapidly. The call is higher and less rough than that of the Firecrest. The song of the male Goldcrest is a very high, thin double note cedar, repeated 5–7 times and ending in a flourish, cedarcedar-cedar-cedar-cedar-stichi-see-pee. The entire song lasts 3–4 seconds and is repeated 5–7 times a minute. This song, often uttered while the male is foraging, can be heard in most months of the year. There is also a subdued rambling subsong. Male Goldcrests sometimes show a territorial response to recordings of the songs or calls of the Common Firecrest, but the reverse is apparently not true, since the songs of the Common Firecrest are simpler in construction than those of its relatives.The songs of mainland Goldcrests vary only slightly across their range and consist of a single song type, but much more divergence has occurred in the isolated Macaronesia
Macaronesia
Macaronesia is a modern collective name for several groups of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean near Europe and North Africa belonging to three countries: Portugal, Spain, and Cape Verde...
n populations. Not only are there variations between islands and within an island, but individual males on the Azores can have up to three song types. The dialects on the Azores fall into two main groups, neither of which elicited a response from male European Goldcrests in playback experiments. There are also two main dialect groups on the Canary islands, a widespread group similar to the European version, and another which is restricted to the mountains of Tenerife. The song variations have been used to investigate the colonisation pattern of the Macaronesian islands by Goldcrests, and identified a previously unknown subspecies.
Taxonomy
The kinglets are a small group of birds sometimes included in the Old World warblerOld World warbler
The "Old World Warblers" is the name used to describe a large group of birds formerly grouped together in the bird family Sylviidae. The family held over 400 species in over 70 genera, and were the source of much taxonomic confusion. Two families were split out initially, the cisticolas into...
s, but frequently given family status, especially as recent research shows that despite superficial similarities, they are phylogenetically
Phylogenetics
In biology, phylogenetics is the study of evolutionary relatedness among groups of organisms , which is discovered through molecular sequencing data and morphological data matrices...
remote from the warblers. The names of the family, Regulidae, and its only genus, Regulus, are derived from the Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
, a diminutive of , a king. The Goldcrest was first described by Linnaeus in his in 1758 as Motacilla regulus (characterised as ). It was moved to the warbler genus Sylvia
Typical warbler
The typical warblers are small birds belonging to the genus Sylvia in the "Old World warbler" family Sylviidae. There are 28 species currently included in the genus, including five species formerly treated in the genus Parisoma, a treatment which left Sylvia paraphyletic...
by English naturalist
Natural history
Natural history is the scientific research of plants or animals, leaning more towards observational rather than experimental methods of study, and encompasses more research published in magazines than in academic journals. Grouped among the natural sciences, natural history is the systematic study...
John Latham
John Latham (ornithologist)
John Latham was an English physician, naturalist and author. He was born at Eltham in Kent, and was the eldest son of John Latham, a surgeon there, and his mother was a descendant of the Sothebys, in Yorkshire....
in 1790, and to its current genus by French zoologist
Zoology
Zoology |zoölogy]]), is the branch of biology that relates to the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct...
Georges Cuvier
Georges Cuvier
Georges Chrétien Léopold Dagobert Cuvier or Jean Léopold Nicolas Frédéric Cuvier , known as Georges Cuvier, was a French naturalist and zoologist...
in 1800.
The relationships of the Flamecrest
Taiwan Firecrest
The Taiwan Firecrest , also known as the Flamecrest, is a species of bird in the kinglet family, Regulidae, that is endemic to the mountains of the island of Taiwan.-Description:...
or Taiwan Firecrest (Regulus goodfellowi) of Taiwan have also been a source of much debate. It is sometimes viewed as a race of Firecrest, but its territorial song resembles those of the Himalayan
Himalayas
The Himalaya Range or Himalaya Mountains Sanskrit: Devanagari: हिमालय, literally "abode of snow"), usually called the Himalayas or Himalaya for short, is a mountain range in Asia, separating the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau...
races of Goldcrest, and genetic data show that it is the closest relative of that species, and, despite its alternative name, only distantly related to the Firecrest. The Flamecrest diverged from the Goldcrest 3.0–3.1 mya (million years ago).
Continental Eurasia
Several subspecies of the Goldcrest have been described. In continental EurasiaEurasia
Eurasia is a continent or supercontinent comprising the traditional continents of Europe and Asia ; covering about 52,990,000 km2 or about 10.6% of the Earth's surface located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres...
, there are nine generally accepted and very similar subspecies, differing only in details such as plumage shade. At the genetic level, the two Central Asian forms, R. r. sikkimensis and R. r. himalayensis, are very close to each other, and have differentiated only in the recent past, but they diverged from the western subspecies around 2.8 mya.
- R. r. regulus (Linnaeus, 1758). Breeds in most of Europe; this is the nominate subspecies.
- R. r. himalayensis BonaparteCharles Lucien BonaparteCharles Lucien Jules Laurent Bonaparte, 2nd Prince of Canino and Musignano was a French naturalist and ornithologist.-Biography:...
, 1856. Breeds in the HimalayasHimalayasThe Himalaya Range or Himalaya Mountains Sanskrit: Devanagari: हिमालय, literally "abode of snow"), usually called the Himalayas or Himalaya for short, is a mountain range in Asia, separating the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau...
; it is similar to the nominate subspecies, but slightly paler above and with whiter underparts. - R. r. japonensis (BlakistonThomas BlakistonThomas Wright Blakiston was an English explorer and naturalist.Born in Lymington, Hampshire, England, Blakiston was the son of Major John Blakiston, second son of Sir Matthew Blakiston, 2nd Baronet...
, 1862). Breeds in Eastern Asia, including Japan, Korea, China and SiberiaSiberiaSiberia is an extensive region constituting almost all of Northern Asia. Comprising the central and eastern portion of the Russian Federation, it was part of the Soviet Union from its beginning, as its predecessor states, the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire, conquered it during the 16th...
; it is greener and has darker upperparts than the nominate form, and has broad white wingbars. - R. r. tristis (Pleske, 1892). Breeds in China and Central AsiaCentral AsiaCentral Asia is a core region of the Asian continent from the Caspian Sea in the west, China in the east, Afghanistan in the south, and Russia in the north...
, wintering in northeastern Afghanistan. Records of this race from Ladakh claimed by MeinertzhagenRichard MeinertzhagenColonel Richard Henry Meinertzhagen CBE DSO was a British soldier, intelligence officer and ornithologist.- Background and youth :Meinertzhagen was born into a socially connected, wealthy British family...
are considered to be fraudulent. It is distinctive, with the black edges to the crest largely absent. The crown of the male is yellower than in other forms, and the underparts are much duller and greyer. - R. r. coatsi (Sushkin, 1904). Breeds in Russia and Central Asia, and is paler above than the nominate subspecies.
- R. r. yunnanensis (Rippon, 1906). Breeds in the Eastern Himalayas, Burma and China; it is like R. r. sikkimensis, but darker overall with dark green upperparts and darker buff underparts.
- R. r. hyrcanus (ZarudnyNikolai ZarudnyNikolai Alekseyvich Zarudny was a Ukrainian-Russian explorer and zoologist of Ukrainian origin, who studied the fauna, especially the birds of Central Asia. He was born in Gryakovo, Ukraine . He wrote his first ornithology book in 1896 and made five expeditions in the Caspian region from 1884 and...
, 1910). Breeds only in Iran; it is like R. r. buturlini, but slightly darker. - R. r. buturlini (Loudon, 1911). Breeds in Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia. It is paler above than the nominate subspecies, and greyish-green rather than olive.
- R. r. sikkimensis (Meinertzhagen R. & Meinertzhagen A.Annie MeinertzhagenAnnie Meinertzhagen was a British amateur ornithologist whose main contributions to knowledge about birds concerned waders, ducks and bird migration...
, 1926). Breeds in India and China. It is darker than R. r. himalayensis, and greener than the nominate subspecies.
The Atlantic islands
Two groups of Goldcrest taxa are found on the Atlantic islands of MacaronesiaMacaronesia
Macaronesia is a modern collective name for several groups of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean near Europe and North Africa belonging to three countries: Portugal, Spain, and Cape Verde...
. Birds on the Canary Islands
Canary Islands
The Canary Islands , also known as the Canaries , is a Spanish archipelago located just off the northwest coast of mainland Africa, 100 km west of the border between Morocco and the Western Sahara. The Canaries are a Spanish autonomous community and an outermost region of the European Union...
are ancient colonists, whereas those on The Azores are of more recent origin. There are no Goldcrests on Madeira
Madeira
Madeira is a Portuguese archipelago that lies between and , just under 400 km north of Tenerife, Canary Islands, in the north Atlantic Ocean and an outermost region of the European Union...
, where the Madeira Firecrest
Madeira Firecrest
The Madeira Firecrest or Madeira Kinglet, Regulus madeirensis, is a very small passerine bird that is endemic to the island of Madeira. It is a member of the kinglet family. Before it was recognised as a separate species in 2003, it was classified as a subspecies of the Common Firecrest...
is the only Regulus species.
The Canary Islands were colonised in two waves. The first step was the occupation of Tenerife
Tenerife
Tenerife is the largest and most populous island of the seven Canary Islands, it is also the most populated island of Spain, with a land area of 2,034.38 km² and 906,854 inhabitants, 43% of the total population of the Canary Islands. About five million tourists visit Tenerife each year, the...
and La Gomera
La Gomera
La Gomera is one of Spain's Canary Islands, located in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Africa. In area, it is the second-smallest of the seven main islands of this group.- Political organization :...
1.9–2.3 million years ago, followed by a separate invasion of El Hierro
El Hierro
El Hierro, nicknamed Isla del Meridiano , is the smallest and farthest south and west of the Canary Islands , in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Africa, with a population of 10,162 .- Name :The name El Hierro, although phonetically identical to the Spanish word for 'iron', is generally thought...
and La Palma
La Palma
La Palma is the most north-westerly of the Canary Islands. La Palma has an area of 706 km2 making it the fifth largest of the seven main Canary Islands...
1.3–1.8 mya.
Birds from the Canary Islands are particularly distinctive having a black forehead, pink-buff underparts and a darker closed wing, and have been sometimes treated either as a subspecies of the Common Firecrest or as a different Regulus species altogether. They were sometimes called the Tenerife Goldcrest
Tenerife Goldcrest
The Tenerife Goldcrest, Regulus regulus teneriffae, is a very small passerine bird in the kinglet family, closely resembling the Goldcrest but with a broader black band across the forehead, slightly darker underparts and a longer bill...
, no matter which of the islands they lived on; however, a 2006 study of the vocalisations of these birds indicate that they actually comprise two subspecies of the Goldcrest that are separable on voice; R. r. teneriffae occurring on Tenerife and the newly described subspecies, R. r. ellenthalerae, occurring on the smaller islands of La Palma and El Hierro.
- R. r. teneriffae (Seebohm, 1883). Found only on Tenerife, Canary Islands; it is a distinctive, small subspecies with a black forehead and pink-buff underparts.
- R. r. ellenthalerae (Päckert et al, 2006). Resident on La Palma and El Hierro, Canary Islands.
Differences in songs, genetics and morphology
Morphology (biology)
In biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features....
suggests that the Azores were colonised in a single invasion in the late Pleistocene
Pleistocene
The Pleistocene is the epoch from 2,588,000 to 11,700 years BP that spans the world's recent period of repeated glaciations. The name pleistocene is derived from the Greek and ....
, about 100,000 years ago. It is likely that the initial colonisation was of the easternmost islands, with a subsequent spread to the central and western island groups from the western caldera
Caldera
A caldera is a cauldron-like volcanic feature usually formed by the collapse of land following a volcanic eruption, such as the one at Yellowstone National Park in the US. They are sometimes confused with volcanic craters...
of São Miguel
São Miguel Island
São Miguel Island , nicknamed "The Green Island", is the largest and most populous island in the Portuguese Azores archipelago. The island covers and has around 140,000 inhabitants, 45,000 of these people located in the largest city in the archipelago: Ponta Delgada.-History:In 1427, São Miguel...
, where both eastern and western song types are found.
- Sao Miguel GoldcrestSao Miguel GoldcrestThe Sao Miguel Goldcrest , Estrelinha-de-poupa in Portuguese, is a very small passerine bird in the kinglet family. It is endemic to São Miguel in the Azores archipelago in the North Atlantic Ocean where it is a non-migratory resident....
R. r. azoricus (SeebohmHenry SeebohmHenry Seebohm was an English steel manufacturer, and amateur ornithologist, oologist and traveller.Seebohm was born in Bradford. His interest in natural history led him to travel widely, in Greece, Scandinavia, Turkey, and South Africa...
, 1883). Found only on São MiguelSão Miguel IslandSão Miguel Island , nicknamed "The Green Island", is the largest and most populous island in the Portuguese Azores archipelago. The island covers and has around 140,000 inhabitants, 45,000 of these people located in the largest city in the archipelago: Ponta Delgada.-History:In 1427, São Miguel...
, Azores; it is like R. r. inermis, except the underparts are more olive-buff. - Western Azores GoldcrestWestern Azores GoldcrestThe Western Azores Goldcrest , Estrelinha-de-poupa in Portuguese, is a very small passerine bird in the kinglet family. It is endemic to the Azores archipelago, in the North Atlantic Ocean, where it is a non-migratory resident of the islands of Flores, Faial, Terceira, São Jorge and Pico....
R. r. inermis (Murphy & Chapin, 1929). Resident on Flores, FaialFaial IslandFaial Island , also known in English as Fayal, is a Portuguese island of the Central Group of the Azores....
, TerceiraTerceira IslandReferred to as the “Ilha Lilás” , Terceira is an island in the Azores archipelago, in the middle of the North Atlantic Ocean. It is one of the larger islands of the archipelago, with a population of 56,000 inhabitants in an area of approximately 396.75 km²...
, São Jorge and PicoPico IslandPico Island , is an island in the Central Group of the Portuguese Azores noted for its eponymous volcano, Ponta do Pico, which is the highest mountain in Portugal, the Azores, and the highest elevation of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge...
, Azores; its upperparts are a darker olive-green than those of the nominate form, and the underparts are also darker. - Santa Maria GoldcrestSanta Maria GoldcrestThe Santa Maria Goldcrest, Regulus regulus sanctaemariae, Estrelinha-de-poupa in Portuguese, is a very small passerine bird in the kinglet family. It is endemic to Santa Maria Island in the Azores archipelago in the North Atlantic Ocean where it is a non-migratory resident....
R. r. sanctaemariae (Vaurie, 1954). Found only on Santa MariaSanta Maria IslandSanta Maria , Portuguese for Saint Mary, is an island located in the eastern group of the Azores archipelago and the southernmost island in the Azores...
, Azores; it is paler than other Azores subspecies and whitish below.
Fossils
There are a few Pleistocene (2.6 million to 12,000 years BPBefore Present
Before Present years is a time scale used in archaeology, geology, and other scientific disciplines to specify when events in the past occurred. Because the "present" time changes, standard practice is to use AD 1950 as the origin of the age scale, reflecting the fact that radiocarbon...
) records from Europe of extant Regulus species, mostly Goldcrests or unidentifiable to species. The only fossil of an extinct Regulus is a left ulna
Ulna
The ulna is one of the two long bones in the forearm, the other being the radius. It is prismatic in form and runs parallel to the radius, which is shorter and smaller. In anatomical position The ulna is one of the two long bones in the forearm, the other being the radius. It is prismatic in form...
from 2.6–1.95 mya in Bulgaria, which was identified as belonging to an extinct species, Regulus bulgaricus
Regulus bulgaricus
Regulus bulgaricus is a fossil passerine from the Middle Villafranchian of Bulgaria. This bird is a member of the kinglet family and genus, and is the only fossil kinglet found so far. It is known from a single ulna, which is 13.3 mm long...
. The Goldcrest lineage diverged from this apparent ancestor of the Common Firecrest in the Middle Pleistocene.
Distribution and habitat
The Goldcrest breeds in mature lowland and mountain coniferousPinophyta
The conifers, division Pinophyta, also known as division Coniferophyta or Coniferae, are one of 13 or 14 division level taxa within the Kingdom Plantae. Pinophytes are gymnosperms. They are cone-bearing seed plants with vascular tissue; all extant conifers are woody plants, the great majority being...
woodlands, mainly up to 3,000 m (9,800 ft), and occasionally to 4,800 m (15,800 ft). It uses spruce
Spruce
A spruce is a tree of the genus Picea , a genus of about 35 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the Family Pinaceae, found in the northern temperate and boreal regions of the earth. Spruces are large trees, from tall when mature, and can be distinguished by their whorled branches and conical...
, Larch
Larch
Larches are conifers in the genus Larix, in the family Pinaceae. Growing from 15 to 50m tall, they are native to much of the cooler temperate northern hemisphere, on lowlands in the north and high on mountains further south...
, Scots Pine
Scots Pine
Pinus sylvestris, commonly known as the Scots Pine, is a species of pine native to Europe and Asia, ranging from Scotland, Ireland and Portugal in the west, east to eastern Siberia, south to the Caucasus Mountains, and as far north as well inside the Arctic Circle in Scandinavia...
, Silver Fir and Mountain Pine
Mountain Pine
Pinus mugo, the Mountain Pine or Mugo Pine, is a high-altitude European pine, found in the Pyrenees, Alps, Erzgebirge, Carpathians, northern Apennines and Balkan Peninsula mountains from 1,000 m to 2,200 m, occasionally as low as 200 m in the north of the range in Germany and Poland, and as high...
, and in man-made landscapes also introduced conifers such as Douglas Fir
Douglas-fir
Douglas-fir is one of the English common names for evergreen coniferous trees of the genus Pseudotsuga in the family Pinaceae. Other common names include Douglas tree, and Oregon pine. There are five species, two in western North America, one in Mexico, and two in eastern Asia...
. Breeding densities of up to 591 pairs per square km (1,530 pairs per square mile) have been recorded in Norway Spruce in Ireland, and Goldcrests constituted over 60% of all birds found in Welsh Douglas Fir and Norway Spruce plantations. Broad-leaved woods
Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests
Mixed forests are a temperate and humid biome. The typical structure of these forests includes four layers. The uppermost layer is the canopy composed of tall mature trees ranging from 33 to 66 m high. Below the canopy is the three-layered, shade-tolerant understory that is roughly 9 to...
are used, only when some spruce or firs are also present. Sites such as parks and cemeteries are used only when they offer suitable conifers which are not otherwise locally available. The height and nature of any undergrowth is irrelevant. Unlike more specialised birds such as the Eurasian Nuthatch
Eurasian Nuthatch
The Eurasian Nuthatch, Sitta europaea, is a small passerine found throughout temperate Europe and Asia, although not in Ireland. It belongs to the nuthatch family Sittidae....
and the Eurasian Treecreeper, both of which forage on tree trunks, the kinglets do not need large woodlands, and their population density is independent of forest size. Once breeding is over, this species will readily move into deciduous trees and shrubs, heathland
Heath (habitat)
A heath or heathland is a dwarf-shrub habitat found on mainly low quality acidic soils, characterised by open, low growing woody vegetation, often dominated by plants of the Ericaceae. There are some clear differences between heath and moorland...
and similar more open habitats.
The Tenerife subspecies occurs in the mountain region previously occupied by laurisilva
Laurisilva
Laurisilva or laurissilva is a subtropical forest, found in areas with high humidity and relatively stable and mild temperatures. They are characterised by evergreen, glossy-leaved tree species that look alike with leaves of lauroide type...
, but now dominated by tree heaths. It is common only in that habitat, becoming rare in pine forest, where it occurs only where tree-heath is also available.
The Goldcrest has a huge range in Eurasia, breeding from Macaronesia to Japan. It is common in middle and northern temperate and boreal
Boreal ecosystem
The term boreal is usually applied to ecosystems localized in subarctic and subantarctic zones, although Austral is also used for the latter....
latitudes of Europe, between the 13–24 °C (55.4–75.2 F) July isotherms
Contour line
A contour line of a function of two variables is a curve along which the function has a constant value. In cartography, a contour line joins points of equal elevation above a given level, such as mean sea level...
, and thus predominantly in cooler climates than the Firecrest. Further east it occurs discontinuously through southern Siberia
Siberia
Siberia is an extensive region constituting almost all of Northern Asia. Comprising the central and eastern portion of the Russian Federation, it was part of the Soviet Union from its beginning, as its predecessor states, the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire, conquered it during the 16th...
to Sakhalin
Sakhalin
Sakhalin or Saghalien, is a large island in the North Pacific, lying between 45°50' and 54°24' N.It is part of Russia, and is Russia's largest island, and is administered as part of Sakhalin Oblast...
and Japan, in the Tian Shan
Tian Shan
The Tian Shan , also spelled Tien Shan, is a large mountain system located in Central Asia. The highest peak in the Tian Shan is Victory Peak , ....
mountains, northern Iran, and from the Himalayas east to central China. This species occurs annually in Iceland, and breeds intermittently in the Faroes
Faroe Islands
The Faroe Islands are an island group situated between the Norwegian Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, approximately halfway between Scotland and Iceland. The Faroe Islands are a self-governing territory within the Kingdom of Denmark, along with Denmark proper and Greenland...
. It has occurred as a vagrant
Vagrancy (biology)
Vagrancy is a phenomenon in biology whereby individual animals appear well outside their normal range; individual animals which exhibit vagrancy are known as vagrants. The term accidental is sometimes also used...
in Jordan and Morocco.
This species is partly migratory
Bird migration
Bird migration is the regular seasonal journey undertaken by many species of birds. Bird movements include those made in response to changes in food availability, habitat or weather. Sometimes, journeys are not termed "true migration" because they are irregular or in only one direction...
, northernmost populations deserting their breeding areas in winter. Birds winter in Europe and Asia south of the breeding range. Birds in northern Fennoscandia
Fennoscandia
Fennoscandia and Fenno-Scandinavia are geographic and geological terms used to describe the Scandinavian Peninsula, the Kola Peninsula, Karelia and Finland...
and Russia vacate their territories between late August and early November, with most leaving in late September to mid-October as the first cold weather arrives. Adverse conditions may lead to disorientation, large numbers gathering on ships on overcast or wet nights. Large influxes include 15,000 birds on the Isle of May
Isle of May
The Isle of May is located in the north of the outer Firth of Forth, approximately off the coast of mainland Scotland. It is 1.8 km long and less than half a kilometre wide...
in October 1982, and nearly 21,000 birds through a single site in Latvia during September and October 1983. Spring migration is complete by late March on the Mediterranean islands, but continues to late April or early May in northern Europe. The spring passage is much lighter than in autumn, suggesting high mortality on migration.
A study in the Baltic region showed that northern Goldcrests were more likely to migrate, and increased their body mass beforehand; non-migratory southern birds did not increase their fat reserves. The travel speed of migrating Goldcrests increased for those leaving later in the autumn, and was greater for the northernmost populations. Migration was faster on routes that crossed the Baltic Sea than on coastal routes, and the birds with the largest fat reserves travelled at the highest speeds. The ability to lay down fat is adversely affected in this tiny bird by poor health. In Hungary, Goldcrests stopping temporarily on migration were mostly found in scrub
Shrubland
Shrubland, scrubland, scrub or brush is a plant community characterized by vegetation dominated by shrubs, often also including grasses, herbs, and geophytes. Shrubland may either occur naturally or be the result of human activity...
, including blackthorn
Prunus spinosa
Prunus spinosa is a species of Prunus native to Europe, western Asia, and locally in northwest Africa. It is also locally naturalised in New Zealand and eastern North America....
, hawthorn and pear
European Pear
The European Pear, Pyrus communis, is a species of pear native to central and eastern Europe and southwest Asia. The European Pear is one of the most important fruits of temperate regions, being the species from which most orchard pear cultivars grown in Europe, North America and Australia have...
, which provided some protection from Sparrowhawks. Females migrated slightly earlier than males, but overall there were more males, with an average sex ratio of 1.6:1. Goldcrests can fly 250–800 km (150–500 mi) in one day, although they keep at a lower level in heavy headwinds. This is a tame and inquisitive bird, and tired migrants will land near or on humans, sometimes searching for food on their clothing.
The North Atlantic oscillation
North Atlantic oscillation
The North Atlantic oscillation is a climatic phenomenon in the North Atlantic Ocean of fluctuations in the difference of atmospheric pressure at sea level between the Icelandic low and the Azores high. Through east-west oscillation motions of the Icelandic low and the Azores high, it controls the...
is an atmospheric phenomenon which affects the weather in Western Europe. When the atmospheric pressure variations in the North Atlantic are large, the springs in Europe are warmer. This brings forward the northward migration of those bird species (including the Goldcrest) which winter mainly within western or southern Europe. A general climatic change resulting in more frequent positive North Atlantic oscillation events has led to earlier spring migration of these short-distance migrants since the 1980s. The warmer spring weather brings on plant growth, thus preparing the habitat for returning migrants. The effect is greatest in western and central Europe.
Breeding
The Goldcrest is monogamousMonogamy
Monogamy /Gr. μονός+γάμος - one+marriage/ a form of marriage in which an individual has only one spouse at any one time. In current usage monogamy often refers to having one sexual partner irrespective of marriage or reproduction...
. The male sings during the breeding season, usually while foraging rather than from a perch. It has a display
Display (zoology)
Display is a form of animal behaviour, linked to survival of the species in various ways. One example of display used by some species can be found in the form of courtship, with the male usually having a striking feature that is distinguished by colour, shape or size, used to attract a female...
which involves bowing its head towards another bird and raising the coloured crest. Firecrests will sometimes defend their territories against Goldcrests, but the amount of actual competition between the species may not be very great. A Spanish study suggested that territorial conflicts between species, and other phenomena like males singing mixed or alternating songs, were most frequent when one species locally far outnumbered the other; in other circumstances, the two species learned to ignore each other's songs. However, in very small areas of conifers it is rare for the Goldcrest and the Firecrest to share territories; either one or the other is present, but not both. A male Goldcrest will defend his territory against either species, sometimes including some Firecrest phrases in his song.
The Goldcrest's nest
Bird nest
A bird nest is the spot in which a bird lays and incubates its eggs and raises its young. Although the term popularly refers to a specific structure made by the bird itself—such as the grassy cup nest of the American Robin or Eurasian Blackbird, or the elaborately woven hanging nest of the...
is a well-insulated cup-shaped structure built in three layers. The nest's outer layer is made from moss, small twigs, cobwebs and lichen, the cobwebs also being used to attach the nest to the thin branches that support it. The middle layer is moss, which is lined by an inner layer of feathers and hair. The nest is larger, shallower and less compact than that of the Firecrest, with an internal diameter of about 9.0 cm (3.5 in), and is constructed by both sexes, although the female does most of the work. It is often suspended from a hanging branch, usually at no great height, although Eric Simms
Eric Simms (ornithologist)
Eric Arthur Simms, DFC was an English ornithologist, naturalist, writer, sound recordist broadcaster and conservationist, as well as a decorated wartime Bomber Command bomb-aimer....
reported nests at heights from 1.0–22 m (3–72 ft). One pair built their nest just 1.0 m (3 ft) above that of a Sparrowhawk.
Laying starts at the end of April into early May. The eggs are whitish with very indistinct buff, grey or brown markings at the broad end. The eggs are 14 × 10 mm (0.55 × 0.34 in) and weigh 0.8 g (0.028 oz), of which 5% is shell. The clutch size in Europe is typically 9–11 eggs, but ranges from 6–13. The eggs are piled up in the nest and the female keeps the eggs warm with her brood patch
Brood patch
thumb|250px|Brood patch of [[Sand Martin]]A brood patch is a patch of featherless skin that is visible on the underside of birds during the nesting season. This patch of skin is well supplied with blood vessels at the surface making it possible for the birds to transfer heat to their eggs when...
and also by putting her warm legs into the middle of the pile between the eggs. Within a clutch the size of eggs increases gradually and the last laid egg may be 20% larger than the first egg. Second clutches
Clutch (eggs)
A clutch of eggs refers to all the eggs produced by birds or reptiles, often at a single time, particularly those laid in a nest.In birds, destruction of a clutch by predators, , results in double-clutching...
, which are common, are laid usually while the first nest still has young. The male builds the second nest, then feeds the young in the first nest while the female is incubating in the second; when the first brood has fledged, he joins the female in feeding the second brood. The female Goldcrest is not normally fed by her mate while incubating. She is a tight sitter, reluctant to leave the nest when disturbed, and has been recorded as continuing to attend the nest when it has been moved, or even when it is being held. The eggs are maintained at 36.5 °C (97.7 °F), the female regulating the temperature of the eggs by varying the time spent sitting. She leaves the nest more with increasing air temperature, and incubates more tightly when the light intensity is lower early and late in the day. The female incubates the eggs for 16 to 19 days to hatching, and broods the chicks, which fledge
Fledge
Fledge is the stage in a young bird's life when the feathers and wing muscles are sufficiently developed for flight. It also describes the act of a chick's parents raising it to a fully grown state...
in a further 17 to 22 days later. Both parents feed the chicks and fledged young, and in very hot weather, the female has been noted as taking drops of water to her chicks in her bill. This species becomes sexually mature after one year, and has a life expectancy of about two years, although there is a record of an individual surviving to 4 years 10 months. However, there is a report of a bird ringed in Winchester in 1989 and found dead in Morocco 7 years 7 months later.
Although their ranges overlap substantially, hybridisation between Goldcrests and Firecrests seems to be prevented by differences in courtship rituals and different facial patterns. Even in aviary studies in which a female Goldcrest was given an artificial eyestripe to facilitate mating with a male Firecrest, the chicks were never raised by the mixed pair, and appeared to be poorly adapted compared to the parent species.
Feeding
Insectivore
An insectivore is a type of carnivore with a diet that consists chiefly of insects and similar small creatures. An alternate term is entomophage, which also refers to the human practice of eating insects....
, preying on small arthropod
Arthropod
An arthropod is an invertebrate animal having an exoskeleton , a segmented body, and jointed appendages. Arthropods are members of the phylum Arthropoda , and include the insects, arachnids, crustaceans, and others...
s with soft cuticle
Cuticle
A cuticle , or cuticula, is a term used for any of a variety of tough but flexible, non-mineral outer coverings of an organism, or parts of an organism, that provide protection. Various types of "cuticles" are non-homologous; differing in their origin, structure, function, and chemical composition...
s, such as springtail
Springtail
Springtails form the largest of the three lineages of modern hexapods that are no longer considered insects...
s, aphid
Aphid
Aphids, also known as plant lice and in Britain and the Commonwealth as greenflies, blackflies or whiteflies, are small sap sucking insects, and members of the superfamily Aphidoidea. Aphids are among the most destructive insect pests on cultivated plants in temperate regions...
s and spiders. They also feed on the cocoons and eggs of spiders and insects, and occasionally take pollen. All species will catch flying insects while hovering. Although the similarly sized Goldcrest and Firecrest are often found together, there are a number of factors that minimise direct competition for food. Goldcrests prefer smaller prey than Common Firecrests. Although both will take trapped insects from spider webs on autumn migration, Firecrests will also eat the large orb-web spiders
Orb-weaver spider
The "typical" orb-weaver spiders are the most common group of builders of spiral wheel-shaped webs often found in gardens, fields and forests...
(on rare occasions kinglets have been found stuck in a spider web, either unable to move or dead).
The Goldcrest takes a wide variety of prey, especially spiders, caterpillar
Caterpillar
Caterpillars are the larval form of members of the order Lepidoptera . They are mostly herbivorous in food habit, although some species are insectivorous. Caterpillars are voracious feeders and many of them are considered to be pests in agriculture...
s, bugs
Hemiptera
Hemiptera is an order of insects most often known as the true bugs , comprising around 50,000–80,000 species of cicadas, aphids, planthoppers, leafhoppers, shield bugs, and others...
, springtails and flies
Fly
True flies are insects of the order Diptera . They possess a pair of wings on the mesothorax and a pair of halteres, derived from the hind wings, on the metathorax...
. Larger prey such as oak bush crickets
Meconema thalassinum
Meconema thalassinum is an insect in the family Tettigoniidae, known in North America as the drumming katydid and in Europe as the oak bush-cricket...
and tortrix moths
Tortricidae
Tortricidae is a family of moths, commonly known as tortrix moths, in the order Lepidoptera. Tortricidae is a large family with over 9,400 species described, and is the sole member of the superfamily Tortricoidea. Many of these are economically important pests. Olethreutidae is a junior synonym...
may sometimes be taken. Flying insects are taken in hovering flight but not nomally pursued; there is a record of a Goldcrest attacking a large dragonfly in flight, only to be dragged along by the insect before releasing it unharmed. Goldcrests will occasionally feed on the ground amongst leaf-litter with tits. Non-animal food is rare, although Goldcrests have been seen drinking sap
Sap
Sap may refer to:* Plant sap, the fluid transported in xylem cells or phloem sieve tube elements of a plant* Sap , a village in the Dunajská Streda District of Slovakia...
from broken birch
Birch
Birch is a tree or shrub of the genus Betula , in the family Betulaceae, closely related to the beech/oak family, Fagaceae. The Betula genus contains 30–60 known taxa...
twigs together with tits and nuthatches.
The Goldcrest feeds in trees, frequently foraging on the undersides of branches and leaves. This is in contrast to the Common Firecrest which mainly exploits the upper surface of branches in coniferous habitat and of leaves in deciduous trees. In winter, flocks of Goldcrests cover a given distance at only one-third of the speed of Common Firecrests, taking the smallest prey items ignored by their relative. The differences in behaviour are facilitated by subtle morphological differences; Firecrests have broader bills with longer rictal bristle
Feather
Feathers are one of the epidermal growths that form the distinctive outer covering, or plumage, on birds and some non-avian theropod dinosaurs. They are considered the most complex integumentary structures found in vertebrates, and indeed a premier example of a complex evolutionary novelty. They...
s (which protect a bird's eye from food items it is trying to capture), and these features reflect the larger prey taken by the species. The Firecrest's less forked tail may reflect its longer episodes of hovering while hunting. Firecrests forage more often while on foot, and have a foot better adapted for perching, whereas the Goldcrest's longer hind toe reflects its habit of moving vertically along branches while feeding. It also has deep furrows in the soles of its feet capable of gripping individual needles, while Firecrests have a smoother surface. The Goldcrest has much the same range and habitat preference as the Common Chiffchaff
Chiffchaff
The Common Chiffchaff, or simply the Chiffchaff, is a common and widespread leaf-warbler which breeds in open woodlands throughout northern and temperate Europe and Asia....
, and there is some evidence that high breeding densities of the kinglet depress the population of the warbler, although the converse is not true. There is no evidence that the species compete for territories, and in any case the Chiffchaff is 50% heavier than the Goldcrest. Nevertheless, there are 1.5 million breeding pairs of Goldcrests in Finland, compared with 0.4 million breeding pairs of Chiffchaffs, and only the kinglet has increased in numbers as the area of spruce woodland in the country has expanded. The Goldcrest may be out-competing the warbler for food, especially as the larger bird faces more competition from other insectivores, including other Phylloscopus warblers. Both birds occur in similar forests, but the Chiffchaff is found within 100 m (330 ft) of the forest edge, with the Goldcrest breeding deeper in the woodland. Nevertheless, there is no conclusive evidence that the decline of the Chiffchaff subspecies Phylloscopus collybita abietinus in parts of Finland is due to competition with the Willow Warbler
Willow Warbler
The Willow Warbler is a very common and widespread leaf warbler which breeds throughout northern and temperate Europe and Asia, from Ireland east to the Anadyr River basin in eastern Siberia...
and Goldcrest.
Outside the breeding season, small groups of Goldcrests maintain exclusive winter feeding territories, which they defend against neighbouring groups. As they roam around their territory, they frequently join loose flocks of other wanderers such as tits and warblers. This kinglet, like other species that prefer mixed-species foraging flocks in winter, hunts over a greater range of heights and vegetation types than when feeding alone. For species that tend to feed in flocks, foraging success while in a flock was about twice that for solitary birds. A consequence of feeding in a flock is that foraging sites may be restricted to avoid competition with other species. In a Swedish study, Coal Tit
Coal Tit
The Coal Tit, Periparus ater, is a passerine bird in the tit family Paridae. It is a widespread and common resident breeder throughout temperate to subtropical Eurasia and northern Africa. The Spot-winged Tit The Coal Tit, Periparus ater, is a passerine bird in the tit family Paridae. It is a...
s and Goldcrests foraged in the outer foliage, whilst the larger Willow
Willow Tit
The Willow Tit is a passerine bird in the tit family Paridae. It is a widespread and common resident breeder throughout temperate and subarctic Europe and northern Asia. It is more of a conifer specialist than the closely related Marsh Tit, which explains it breeding much further north...
and Crested Tit
Crested Tit
The Crested Tit, Lophophanes cristatus , is a passerine bird in the tit family Paridae. It is a widespread and common resident breeder in coniferous forests throughout central and northern Europe and in deciduous woodland in France and the Iberian peninsula...
s used the inner canopy. In sites where the numbers of Willow and Crested Tits was artificially reduced, Goldcrests and Coal Tits extended their foraging to include the inner canopy, but did not do so where the larger tits were retained. In some areas, wintering birds have developed the habit of coming to feeding stations and bird tables to take fat, sometimes with warblers such as the Common Chiffchaff
Chiffchaff
The Common Chiffchaff, or simply the Chiffchaff, is a common and widespread leaf-warbler which breeds in open woodlands throughout northern and temperate Europe and Asia....
and Blackcap
Blackcap
The Blackcap is a common and widespread sylviid warbler which breeds throughout temperate Europe, western Asia and northwestern Africa, and winters from northwestern Europe south to tropical Africa...
.
Winter survival
Several small passerine species survive freezing winter nights by inducing a lower metabolic rateBasal metabolic rate
Basal Metabolic Rate , and the closely related resting metabolic rate , is the amount of daily energy expended by humans and other animals at rest. Rest is defined as existing in a neutrally temperate environment while in the post-absorptive state...
and hypothermia
Hypothermia
Hypothermia is a condition in which core temperature drops below the required temperature for normal metabolism and body functions which is defined as . Body temperature is usually maintained near a constant level of through biologic homeostasis or thermoregulation...
, of a maximum of 10 C-change below normal body temperature, in order to reduce energy consumption overnight. However, in freezing conditions, it may be that for very small birds, including the tiny Goldcrest, the energy economies of induced hypothermia may be insufficient to counterbalance the negative effects of hypothermia including the energy required to raise body temperature back to normal at dawn. Observations of five well-fed birds suggest that they maintain normal body temperatures during cold nights by metabolising fat laid down during the day, and that they actually use behavioural thermoregulation
Thermoregulation
Thermoregulation is the ability of an organism to keep its body temperature within certain boundaries, even when the surrounding temperature is very different...
strategies, such as collective roosting in dense foliage or snow holes to survive winter nights. Two birds roosting together reduce their heat loss by a quarter, and three birds by a third. During an 18 hour winter night, with temperatures as low as -25 C in the north of its range, Goldcrests huddled together can each burn off fat equivalent to 20% of body weight to keep warm.
Migrating birds rely largely on stored fat and they also metabolise protein as a supplementary source of energy. Those with a relatively large amount of fat, may make stops during migration of only 1–2 days; although they have lost weight since commencing their journey, they have enough energy reserves to reach the wintering areas. The proportion of migrating males increases as they travel south through Europe. There is competition within the species even during migration, and the larger and more aggressive males may get more food. Their death rate is therefore lower than that of the females both on the southward migration, and in resident populations.
Predators and parasites
Throughout the Goldcrest's range, the main predator of small woodland birds is the Eurasian Sparrowhawk, which has a diet consisting of up to 98% of birds. MerlinsMerlin (bird)
The Merlin is a small species of falcon from the Northern Hemisphere. A bird of prey once known colloquially as a pigeon hawk in North America, the Merlin breeds in the northern Holarctic; some migrate to subtropical and northern tropical regions in winter.-European and North American...
, Tawny
Tawny Owl
The Tawny Owl or Brown Owl is a stocky, medium-sized owl commonly found in woodlands across much of Eurasia. Its underparts are pale with dark streaks, and the upperparts are either brown or grey. Several of the eleven recognised subspecies have both variants...
and Long-eared Owl
Long-eared Owl
The Long-eared Owl - Asio otus is a species of owl which breeds in Europe, Asia, and North America. This species is a part of the larger grouping of owls known as typical owls, family Strigidae, which contains most species of owl...
s also hunt Goldcrests. The erratic movements and flights of small woodland birds, which are vulnerable to attack while away from cover, may help to confuse their predators. The Goldcrest has only very rarely been recorded as a host of the Common Cuckoo
Common Cuckoo
The Common Cuckoo is a member of the cuckoo order of birds, Cuculiformes, which includes the roadrunners, the anis and the coucals....
, a widespread European brood parasite
Brood parasite
Brood parasites are organisms that use the strategy of brood parasitism, a kind of kleptoparasitism found among birds, fish or insects, involving the manipulation and use of host individuals either of the same or different species to raise the young of the brood-parasite...
.
The Goldcrest is a host of the widespread moorhen flea
Moorhen flea
The moorhen flea, Dasypsyllus gallinulae, originally from South America, is now a globally widespread flea species. It is a large flea, easily identified because the male has two heavy horn-like spines on one of the genital flaps, and the female has a deep "bite" on the seventh sternite.It is found...
, Dasypsyllus gallinulae, and of the louse
Louse
Lice is the common name for over 3,000 species of wingless insects of the order Phthiraptera; three of which are classified as human disease agents...
Philopterus reguli. The amblycerous
Amblycera
The Amblycera are a large suborder of chewing lice, parasitic on both birds and mammals. The Amblycera are considered the most primitive suborder of lice.-Description:...
mite Ricinus frenatus has been found on the eastern Goldcrest subspecies, R. r. japonensis in Japan, and at the other end of the range in birds of the nominate subspecies on the Faroes and in Spain. These lice move over the host's body, and have strong mouthparts that pierce the host's skin so that they can feed on blood, and sometimes feather material. A number of feather mite
Feather mite
Feather mites are the members of diverse mite superfamilies:* superorder Acariformes** Psoroptidia*** Analgoidea*** Freyanoidea*** Pterolichoidea* superorder Parasitiformes** DermanyssoideaThey are ectoparasites on birds, hence the common name....
s have been recorded in the genus Regulus; these mites live on fungi growing on the feathers. The fungi found on the plumage may feed on the keratin
Keratin
Keratin refers to a family of fibrous structural proteins. Keratin is the key of structural material making up the outer layer of human skin. It is also the key structural component of hair and nails...
of the outer feathers or on feather oil.
Status
The Goldcrest has a large range, estimated at 13.2 million km2 (5.1 million mi2) and a total population estimated at 80–200 million individuals, and it is therefore classed as Least ConcernLeast Concern
Least Concern is an IUCN category assigned to extant taxon or lower taxa which have been evaluated but do not qualify for any other category. As such they do not qualify as threatened, Near Threatened, or Conservation Dependent...
on the IUCN Red List
IUCN Red List
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species , founded in 1963, is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of biological species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature is the world's main authority on the conservation status of species...
. There was some northward range expansion in Scotland, Belgium, Norway, and Finland during the 20th century, assisted by the spread of conifer plantations. The population is currently stable, although there may be temporary marked declines in harsh winters.
Although dense conifer growth can provide shelter for roosting at night, losses in hard winters can be heavy. In a Finnish study, only one-tenth of the wintering Goldcrest population, which mainly fed on spiders, survived to spring. Each group roamed within a defined winter territory, and their winter survival depended on the density of the food supply. For these northern birds there is a trade off between staying put and risking starvation, or facing the perils of migration. Even in somewhat milder regions, where over-wintering is normal, exceptionally cold winters can cause such heavy losses that breeding populations take several years to recover. In 1930, the English ornithologist Thomas Coward
Thomas Coward
Thomas Alfred Coward, MSc, FZS, FRES, MBOU , was an English ornithologist and an amateur astronomer. He wrote extensively on natural history, local history and Cheshire.-Life:...
wrote:
Until the severe winter of 1916–17 the Goldcrest was abundant and widespread, nesting in all the wooded portions of our islands; in 1920 it could have little more than an obituary notice, for the nesting stock was practically "wiped out. " ...and for some years, even as a winter visitor, the Goldcrest remained rare, absent from most of its nesting haunts. It is, however, now fully re-established.
Conversely, populations can expand rapidly after a series of mild winters. In lowland Britain, there was an increase of 48% following the 1970/71 winter, with many pairs spreading into deciduous woodlands where they would not normally breed.
In culture
AristotleAristotle
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology...
(384 BC – 322 BC) and Pliny
Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus , better known as Pliny the Elder, was a Roman author, naturalist, and natural philosopher, as well as naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and personal friend of the emperor Vespasian...
(23 AD – 79) both wrote about the legend of a contest amongst the birds to see who should be their king, the title to be awarded to the one that could fly highest. Initially, it looked as though the eagle would win easily, but as he began to tire, a small bird which had hidden under the eagle's tail feathers, emerged to fly even higher and claimed the title. Following from this legend, in much European folklore the Wren
Eurasian Wren
The Eurasian Wren , is a very small bird, and the only member of the wren family Troglodytidae found in Eurasia. In Anglophone Europe it is commonly known simply as the Wren...
has been described as the "king of the birds" or as a flame bearer. However, these terms were also applied to the Regulus species, the fiery crowns of the Goldcrest and Firecrest making them more likely to be the original bearers of these titles, and, because of the legend's reference to the "smallest of birds" becoming king, the title was probably transferred to the equally tiny Wren. The confusion was probably compounded by the similarity and consequent interchangeability of the Greek words for the Wren and the crests . In English, the association between the Goldcrest and Eurasian Wren may have been reinforced by the kinglet's old name of "Gold-crested Wren".
This tiny woodland bird has had little other impact on literature, although it is the subject of Charles Tennyson Turner's
Charles Tennyson Turner
Charles Tennyson Turner was an English poet.Born in Somersby, Lincolnshire, he was an elder brother of Alfred Tennyson; his friendship and "heart union" with his greater brother is revealed in Poems by Two Brothers. He married Louisa Sellwood, the younger sister of Alfred's future wife; another...
short poem, "The Gold-crested Wren", first published in 1868. An old English name for the Goldcrest is the "woodcock pilot", since migrating birds preceded the arrival of Eurasian Woodcock
Eurasian Woodcock
The Eurasian Woodcock, Scolopax rusticola, is a medium-small wading bird found in temperate and subarctic Eurasia. It has cryptic camouflage to suit its woodland habitat, with reddish-brown upperparts and buff-coloured underparts...
s by a couple of days. There are unfounded legends that the Goldcrest would hitch a ride in the feathers of the larger bird, and similar stories claimed that owl
Owl
Owls are a group of birds that belong to the order Strigiformes, constituting 200 bird of prey species. Most are solitary and nocturnal, with some exceptions . Owls hunt mostly small mammals, insects, and other birds, although a few species specialize in hunting fish...
s provided the transport. Suffolk fishermen called this bird "herring spink" or "tot o'er seas" because migrating Goldcrests often landed on the rigging of herring boats out in the North Sea
North Sea
In the southwest, beyond the Straits of Dover, the North Sea becomes the English Channel connecting to the Atlantic Ocean. In the east, it connects to the Baltic Sea via the Skagerrak and Kattegat, narrow straits that separate Denmark from Norway and Sweden respectively...
.