Marine Protected Area - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

Marine Protected Areas, like any protected area

Protected area

Protected areas are locations which receive protection because of their recognised natural, ecological and/or cultural values. There are several kinds of protected areas, which vary by level of protection depending on the enabling laws of each country or the regulations of the international...

, are regions in which human activity has been placed under some restrictions in the interest of conserving the natural environment, it's surrounding waters and the occupant ecosystems, and any cultural or historical resources that may require preservation or management. Marine Protected Areas' boundaries will include some area of ocean, even if it is only a small fraction of the total area of the territory.

Natural or historic marine resources are protected by local, state, territorial, native, regional, or national authorities and may differ substantially from nation to nation. This variation includes different limitations on development, fishing practices, fishing seasons and catch limits, moorings, bans on removing or disrupting marine life of any kind.

In some situations (such as with the Phoenix Islands Protected Area

Phoenix Islands Protected Area

The Phoenix Islands Protected Area is located in the Republic of Kiribati, an ocean nation in the central Pacific approximately midway between Australia and Hawaii. PIPA constitutes 11.34% of Kiribati’s Exclusive Economic Zone and with a size of it is the largest marine protected area in the...

), MPA's also provide revenue for countries, often of equal size as the income that they would have if they were to grant companies permissions to fish.

As of 2010, the world hosted more than 6,800 MPAs, encompassing 1.17% of the world's oceans.

Marine Protected Areas are included on the World Database on Protected Areas

World Database on Protected Areas

The World Database on Protected Areas is the largest assembly of data on the world's terrestrial and marine protected areas, containing more than 161,000 protected areas as of October 2010, with records covering 236 countries and territories throughout the world...

(WDPA), which, since 2010 is viewable via Protected Planet, an online interactive search engine hosted by the United Nations Evironment Programme's World Conservation Monitoring Center (UNEP-WCMC).

Terminology

"MPA" is an umbrella definition for protected areas that include some area of marine landscape and/or biodiversity, but each specific area still falls under the methods of categorisation applied to protected areas which is a way of allotting the management tasks for regions which require will conservation of different scope and detail.

The IUCN defines a Marine Protected Area as;

"Any area of the intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment."

Alternate Terminology and Importance Economically

An alternate definition from the IUCN of an MPA is," a clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated, and managed through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values." Marine Protected Environments are strong tools ensuring our environment and marine biodiversity. They are not the end. The increasing pressure and stress the oceans are now under, stemming from "the impact of extractive industries, localised pollution, and changes to its chemistry (ocean acidification) resulting from elevated carbon dioxide levels, due to our emissions," are further evidence as to why MPAs may be the ocean's single greatest hope in global protected area action.
Action must be taken on a global politically social scale for MPA's to work efficiently. MPA's if enacted rightfully, will bring insurance to fisheries and marine environments globally. Complications will arise, as always in matters of the environment. Conflicts of interest of fisherman, as seen in small Pacific Islands. MPA's in these areas will help economically. MPA's can play a major role economically in Pacific Islands whether its fishing,restoration, or tourism. If MPA's are implemented and managed properly by locals on the coral reefs in these Islands, their economy's will prosper. Most of these island fisherman use harmful ways to catch fish in the reefs. With MPA's protecting these areas through NTA(no take areas), limiting overfishing and false methods, fish and the reefs will flourish as they once did. MPA's are meant to not only protect the marine life but also protect social welfare. With MPA's implemented and managed properly, seen through new technological advances and word spread globally , we will see results like the results seen on Apo Island. They made 1/4 of their reef an MPA allowing fish to breed and thrive jump starting their economy again. This was shown in the film, Resources at Risk: Philippine Coral Reef.

The United States

United States

The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...

Executive Order 13158 in May 2000 established MPAs, defining them as;

"Any area of the marine environment that has been reserved by federal, state, tribal, territorial, or local laws or regulations to provide lasting protection for part or all of the natural and cultural resources therein."

Most definitions suggest that in order to be designated a Marine Protected Area, the site must be set aside principally for conservation. Several types of compliant MPAs can be distinguished:

A totally marine area with no significant terrestrial parts.
An area containing both marine and terrestrial components, which can vary between two extremes; those that are predominantly maritime with little land (for example, an atoll
Atoll
An atoll is a coral island that encircles a lagoon partially or completely.- Usage :The word atoll comes from the Dhivehi word atholhu OED...

would have a tiny island with a significant maritime population surrounding it), or a marine area that is mostly terrestrial. In the case of the latter, whether or not it is considered a 'Marine' Protected Area is largely debatable.
Marine ecosystems that contain land and intertidal (land that is frequently covered by water) components only. For example, a mangrove forest would contain no open sea or ocean marine environment, but its river-like marine ecosystem nevertheless constitutes the definition.

The Convention on Biological Diversity

Convention on Biological Diversity

The Convention on Biological Diversity , known informally as the Biodiversity Convention, is an international legally binding treaty...

attempted to solve the uncertainty in classifying Marine Protected Areas by defining the broader term of 'Marine and Coastal Protected Area' (MCPA);

"Any defined area within or adjacent to the marine environment, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by legislation or other effective means, including custom, with the effect that its marine and/or coastal biodiversity enjoys a higher level of protection than its surroundings."

Different definitions may be altered by minute differentiating factors, for example, some may need at least some part of the area lies below low tide, while others require only that it be at least near the shoreline. The categories they are then placed into are equally complex, and dictate the management and usage of Marine Protected Areas on a categoric scale differing between whether they can permit recreational and/or extractive uses, or are exclusively reserve for conservation or scientific research.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature(IUCN) attempts to encompass these variations by defining seven categories of protected area

IUCN Protected Area Management Categories

The enlisting of protected areas is the fundamental strategy being used towards the conservation of the world's natural environment and biodiversity...

, based on management objectives and four broad governance types.

Cat	IUCN Protected Area Management Categories:
Ia	Strict Nature Reserve A Marine Reserve usually connotes 'maximum protection', where all removals of resources are strictly prohibited. In some countries such as Kenya Kenya Kenya , officially known as the Republic of Kenya, is a country in East Africa that lies on the equator, with the Indian Ocean to its south-east... and Belize Belize Belize is a constitutional monarchy and the northernmost country in Central America. Belize has a diverse society, comprising many cultures and languages. Even though Kriol and Spanish are spoken among the population, Belize is the only country in Central America where English is the official... , Marine Reserves allow for low-risk forms of to sustain local communities. Though this suggests an area of lower protection, these reserves maintain their categorical status which iterates their biological importance.
Ib	Wilderness Area
II	National Park National park A national park is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a sovereign state declares or owns. Although individual nations designate their own national parks differently A national park is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a sovereign state declares or... Marine Parks lay a high emphasis on the protection of ecosystems but have been known to allow light human use. A Marine Park may prohibit fishing or extraction of resources of any kind, but could possibly allow recreation. However some Marine Parks, such as those in Tanzania Tanzania The United Republic of Tanzania is a country in East Africa bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north, Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, and Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique to the south. The country's eastern borders lie on the Indian Ocean.Tanzania is a state... , are zoned and activities such as fishing are only allowed in particularly low risk areas.
III	Natural Monuments or Features Established to protect historical sites such as shipwrecks and cultural sites such as aboriginal fishing grounds.
IV	Habitat/Species Management Area Established to protect a certain species, to benefit fisheries Fishery Generally, a fishery is an entity engaged in raising or harvesting fish which is determined by some authority to be a fishery. According to the FAO, a fishery is typically defined in terms of the "people involved, species or type of fish, area of water or seabed, method of fishing, class of boats,... , rare habitat Habitat (ecology) A habitat is an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular species of animal, plant or other type of organism... , as nursing grounds for fish Fish Fish are a paraphyletic group of organisms that consist of all gill-bearing aquatic vertebrate animals that lack limbs with digits. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous and bony fish, as well as various extinct related groups... , or to protect entire ecosystems.
V	Protected Seascape Limited active management assigned, as with Protected Landscapes.
VI	Sustainable use of Natural Resources

These categories may also encompass the following;

World Heritage Site
World Heritage Site
A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a place that is listed by the UNESCO as of special cultural or physical significance...

(WHS) – an area exhibiting extensive natural or cultural history. Maritime areas are poorly represented, however, with only 31 out of over 800 sites.
Man and the Biosphere – This UNESCO
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations...

program promotes "a balanced relationship between humans and the biosphere." Under article 4, biosphere reserves must “encompass a mosaic of ecological systems”, and thus combine terrestrial, coastal, or marine ecosystems. In structure they are similar to Multiple-use MPAs, with a core area ringed by different degrees of protection.
Ramsar Site
Ramsar Convention
The Ramsar Convention is an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable utilization of wetlands, i.e., to stem the progressive encroachment on and loss of wetlands now and in the future, recognizing the fundamental ecological functions of wetlands and their economic, cultural,...

– These sites must meet certain criteria for the definition of "Wetland"
Ramsar Classification System for Wetland Type
The Ramsar Classification System for Wetland Type is a wetland classification developed within the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands intended as a means for fast identification of the main types of wetlands for the purposes of the Convention....

to become part of a global system. These sites do not necessarily receive protection, but are indexed by importance for later recommendation to an agency that could designate it a protected area.

While 'area' refers to a single contiguous location, terms such as "network", "system", and "region" that group MPAs are not always consistently employed."System" is generally more often used to refer to an individual MPA, whereas "region" is defined by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre

World Conservation Monitoring Centre

The United Nations Environment Programme's World Conservation Monitoring Centre is an executive agency of the United Nations Environment Programme, based in Cambridge in the United Kingdom. UNEP-WCMC has been part of UNEP since 2000, and has responsibility for biodiversity assessment and support...

as:

"A collection of individual MPAs operating cooperatively, at various spatial scales and with a range of protection levels that are designed to meet objectives that a single reserve cannot achieve."

At the Convention on Biological Diversity

Convention on Biological Diversity

The Convention on Biological Diversity , known informally as the Biodiversity Convention, is an international legally binding treaty...

2004, the agency agreed to the use of "network" on a global level, and the use of system on the national and regional level. The global level is to be used as a mechanism to establish regional and local systems but carries no authority or mandate, and all of the work lies within the "system".

A No Take Zone (NTZ), are areas such as New Zealand

New Zealand

New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...

's marine reserves, where all forms of exploitation are prohibited and severely limits human activities. Generally, a No Take Zone can cover the whole MPA, or specific vulnerable portions that enjoy elevated protection. Related terms include; Specially Protected Area (SPA), Special Area of Conservation (SAC), the United Kingdom

United Kingdom

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...

's Marine Conservation Zones (MCZ), or Area of Special Conservation (ASC) etc. which each have specific restrictions associated with them.

Management and restrictions

Typical restrictions in MPAs include ones on fishing

Fishing

Fishing is the activity of trying to catch wild fish. Fish are normally caught in the wild. Techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping....

, oil and gas

Natural gas

Natural gas is a naturally occurring gas mixture consisting primarily of methane, typically with 0–20% higher hydrocarbons . It is found associated with other hydrocarbon fuel, in coal beds, as methane clathrates, and is an important fuel source and a major feedstock for fertilizers.Most natural...

mining and tourism. Other restrictions may limit the use of ultrasonic devices like SONAR

Sonar

Sonar is a technique that uses sound propagation to navigate, communicate with or detect other vessels...

(which may confuse the guidance system of cetaceans), development, construction and the like. Some fishing restrictions include what are called "no-take" zones, which means that no fishing is allowed. Less than 1% of MPAs are no-take in the United States. Ship transit can also be regulated or banned, either as a preventive measure or to avoid direct disturbance to certain species. The degree to which environmental regulations affect shipping varies according to whether MPAs are located in territorial waters

Territorial waters

Territorial waters, or a territorial sea, as defined by the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, is a belt of coastal waters extending at most from the baseline of a coastal state...

, exclusive economic zone

Exclusive Economic Zone

Under the law of the sea, an exclusive economic zone is a seazone over which a state has special rights over the exploration and use of marine resources, including production of energy from water and wind. It stretches from the seaward edge of the state's territorial sea out to 200 nautical...

s, or the high seas. The law of the sea

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea , also called the Law of the Sea Convention or the Law of the Sea treaty, is the international agreement that resulted from the third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea , which took place from 1973 through 1982...

regulates these limits.

For this reason, most MPAs have been located in territorial waters, where enforcement can be ensured. However, MPAs can also be established in a state's exclusive economic zone and in international waters

International waters

The terms international waters or trans-boundary waters apply where any of the following types of bodies of water transcend international boundaries: oceans, large marine ecosystems, enclosed or semi-enclosed regional seas and estuaries, rivers, lakes, groundwater systems , and wetlands.Oceans,...

. For example, Italy, France and Monaco in 1999 jointly established a cetacean sanctuary in the Ligurian Sea

Ligurian Sea

The Ligurian Sea is an arm of the Mediterranean Sea, between the Italian Riviera and the island of Corsica. The sea is probably named after the ancient Ligures people.-Geography:...

named the Pelagos Sanctuary for Mediterranean Marine Mammals. This sanctuary includes both national and international waters. Both the CBD

Convention on Biological Diversity

The Convention on Biological Diversity , known informally as the Biodiversity Convention, is an international legally binding treaty...

and IUCN recommend that a variety of possible management systems be considered when designing a protected area system. They advocate that MPAs be seen as one of many "nodes" in a network of protected areas. The following are the most commonly used individual types of management systems for MPAs;

Seasonal and Temporary Management

Activities, most critically fishing, are restricted seasonally or temporarily to let the area recover. Seasonal limits are put in place to protect fish populations during vital periods like spawning season.

Multiple-use

Increasingly, multiple use MPAs are the most common and arguably the most effective type of MPA. These areas employ two or more types, which enables flexibility for the most important sections get the highest protection. A common practice is to make the most critical area a No Take Zone, and surrounding it with areas of lesser protections.

Community involvement and related approaches

Community-managed MPAs empower local communities to manage marine resources partially or completely independent of the governmental jurisdictions they inhabit. They are not always officially recognized, depending on the political environment. Empowering communities to manage resources can lower conflict levels and help fisheries recover. This approach can provide direct influence for all involved, including subsistence and commercial fishers, scientists, tourism businesses, youths and others.

MPA Networks

“A group of MPAs that interact with one another ecologically and/or socially form a network.” These MPA Networks are intended to connect individuals and MPAs through the ecosystem and promote education and cooperation among various administrations and people with invested interest in the state of the MPA. “MPA networks are, from the perspective of resource users, intended to address both environmental and socio-economic needs, complementary ecological and social goals and designs need greater research and policy support.” . Some communities associated with MPAs in the Philippines connect with one another to share information about MPAs, creating an even larger network through the social communities’ support. Emerging or established MPA networks can be found in Southeast Australia, Belize, the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, and Mexico.

International efforts

The 17th International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) General Assembly in San Jose, California

San Jose, California

San Jose is the third-largest city in California, the tenth-largest in the U.S., and the county seat of Santa Clara County which is located at the southern end of San Francisco Bay...

, the 19th IUCN assembly and the fourth World Parks Congress all proposed to centralise the establishment of protected areas. The World Summit on Sustainable Development

Earth Summit 2002

The World Summit on Sustainable Development, WSSD or Earth Summit 2002 took place in Johannesburg, South Africa, from 26 August to 4 September 2002. It was convened to discuss sustainable development by the United Nations. WSSD gathered a number of leaders from business and non-governmental...

in 2002 called for The Evian agreement, signed by G8 Nations

The Group of Eight is a forum, created by France in 1975, for the governments of seven major economies: Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In 1997, the group added Russia, thus becoming the G8...

in 2003, agreed to these terms. The Durban Action Plan, developed in 2003, called for regional action and targets to establish a network of protected areas by 2010 within the jurisdiction of regional environmental protocols

Environmental science

Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physical and biological sciences, to the study of the environment, and the solution of environmental problems...

.It recommended establishing protected areas for 20 to 30% of the world's oceans by the goal date of 2012. The Convention on Biological Diversity

Convention on Biological Diversity

The Convention on Biological Diversity , known informally as the Biodiversity Convention, is an international legally binding treaty...

considered these recommendations and recommended requiring nations to set up marine parks that are controlled by a central organization before merging them. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is an international environmental treaty produced at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development , informally known as the Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro from June 3 to 14, 1992...

agreed to the terms laid out by the convention, and in 2004, its member nations committed to the following targets;

By 2006 complete area system gap analysis at national and regional levels.
By 2008 address the more underrepresented of marine ecosystems in existing national and regional systems of protected areas, taking into account marine ecosystems beyond areas of national jurisdiction in accordance with applicable international laws.
By 2009 designate the protected areas identified through the gap analysis.
By 2012 complete the establishment of a comprehensive and ecologically representative national and regional system of Marine Protected Areas.

"The establishment by 2010 of terrestrial and by 2012 for marine areas of comprehensive, effectively managed, and ecologically representative national and regional systems of protected areas that collectively, inter alia through a global network, contribute to achieving the three objectives of the Convention and the 2010 target to significantly reduce the current late of biodiversity loss at the global, regional, national, and sub-national levels and contribute to poverty reduction and the pursuit of sustainable development."

The UN later also endorsed another decision, Decision VII/15, in 2006:
Many countries have established national targets, accompanied by action plans and implementations. The UN Council identified the need for countries to collaborate with each other to establish effective regional conservation plans. A few of these national targets are listed in the table below

Country	Plan of Action
American Samoa American Samoa American Samoa is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the South Pacific Ocean, southeast of the sovereign state of Samoa...	20% of reefs to be protected by 2010
South Australia South Australia South Australia is a state of Australia in the southern central part of the country. It covers some of the most arid parts of the continent; with a total land area of , it is the fourth largest of Australia's six states and two territories.South Australia shares borders with all of the mainland...	19 Marine Protected Areas by 2010
Bahamas	20% of the marine ecosystem protected for fishery replenishment by 2010. 20% of coastal and marine habitats by 2015.
Belize Belize Belize is a constitutional monarchy and the northernmost country in Central America. Belize has a diverse society, comprising many cultures and languages. Even though Kriol and Spanish are spoken among the population, Belize is the only country in Central America where English is the official...	20% of bioregions. 30% of Coral reef Coral reef Coral reefs are underwater structures made from calcium carbonate secreted by corals. Coral reefs are colonies of tiny living animals found in marine waters that contain few nutrients. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, which in turn consist of polyps that cluster in groups. The polyps... s. 60% of turtle nesting sites Turtle Turtles are reptiles of the order Testudines , characterised by a special bony or cartilaginous shell developed from their ribs that acts as a shield... . 30% of Manatee distribution Manatee Manatees are large, fully aquatic, mostly herbivorous marine mammals sometimes known as sea cows... . 60% of American crocodile nesting American Crocodile The American crocodile is a species of crocodilian found in the Neotropics. It is the most widespread of the four extant species of crocodiles from the Americas. Populations occur from the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of southern Mexico to South America as far as Peru and Venezuela. It also lives... . 80% of Breeding areas Breed A breed is a group of domestic animals or plants with a homogeneous appearance, behavior, and other characteristics that distinguish it from other animals or plants of the same species. Despite the centrality of the idea of "breeds" to animal husbandry, there is no scientifically accepted... .
Chile Chile Chile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...	10% of marine areas by 2010. National network for organization by 2015.
Cuba Cuba The Republic of Cuba is an island nation in the Caribbean. The nation of Cuba consists of the main island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos. Havana is the largest city in Cuba and the country's capital. Santiago de Cuba is the second largest city...	22% of land habitat, including: 15% of the Insular shelf 25% of Coral reef Coral reef Coral reefs are underwater structures made from calcium carbonate secreted by corals. Coral reefs are colonies of tiny living animals found in marine waters that contain few nutrients. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, which in turn consist of polyps that cluster in groups. The polyps... s 25% of Wetland Wetland A wetland is an area of land whose soil is saturated with water either permanently or seasonally. Wetlands are categorised by their characteristic vegetation, which is adapted to these unique soil conditions.... s
Dominican Republic Dominican Republic The Dominican Republic is a nation on the island of La Hispaniola, part of the Greater Antilles archipelago in the Caribbean region. The western third of the island is occupied by the nation of Haiti, making Hispaniola one of two Caribbean islands that are shared by two countries...	20% of Marine and Coastal by 2020.
Micronesia Micronesia Micronesia is a subregion of Oceania, comprising thousands of small islands in the western Pacific Ocean. It is distinct from Melanesia to the south, and Polynesia to the east. The Philippines lie to the west, and Indonesia to the southwest....	30% of shoreline ecosystems by 2020.
Fiji Fiji Fiji , officially the Republic of Fiji , is an island nation in Melanesia in the South Pacific Ocean about northeast of New Zealand's North Island...	30% of reefs by 2015. 30% of water managed by Marine Protected Areas by 2020.
Germany Germany Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...	38% of water managed by the Marine Protected network. (no set date)
Grenada Grenada Grenada is an island country and Commonwealth Realm consisting of the island of Grenada and six smaller islands at the southern end of the Grenadines in the southeastern Caribbean Sea...	25% of nearby marine resources by 2020.
Guam Guam Guam is an organized, unincorporated territory of the United States located in the western Pacific Ocean. It is one of five U.S. territories with an established civilian government. Guam is listed as one of 16 Non-Self-Governing Territories by the Special Committee on Decolonization of the United...	30% of nearby marine ecosystem by 2020.
Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia , officially the Republic of Indonesia , is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 13,000 islands. It has 33 provinces with over 238 million people, and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an...	100,000 km² by 2010. 200,000 km² by 2020.
Jamaica Jamaica Jamaica is an island nation of the Greater Antilles, in length, up to in width and 10,990 square kilometres in area. It is situated in the Caribbean Sea, about south of Cuba, and west of Hispaniola, the island harbouring the nation-states Haiti and the Dominican Republic...	20% of marine habitats by 2020.
Madagascar Madagascar The Republic of Madagascar is an island country located in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa...	100,000 km² by 2012.
Marshal Islands	30% of nearby marine ecosystem by 2020.
New Zealand New Zealand New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...	20% of marine environment by 2010.
North Mariana Islands Northern Mariana Islands The Northern Mariana Islands, officially the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands , is a commonwealth in political union with the United States, occupying a strategic region of the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of 15 islands about three-quarters of the way from Hawaii to the Philippines...	30% of nearby marine ecosystem by 2020.
Palau Palau Palau , officially the Republic of Palau , is an island nation in the Pacific Ocean, east of the Philippines and south of Tokyo. In 1978, after three decades as being part of the United Nations trusteeship, Palau chose independence instead of becoming part of the Federated States of Micronesia, a...	30% of nearby marine ecosystem by 2020.
Peru Peru Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean....	Marine Protected Area system established by 2015.
Philippines Philippines The Philippines , officially known as the Republic of the Philippines , is a country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam...	10% Fully Protected by 2020.
Senegal Senegal Senegal , officially the Republic of Senegal , is a country in western Africa. It owes its name to the Sénégal River that borders it to the east and north...	Creation of MPA network. (no set date)
St. Vincent and the Grenadines	20% of marine areas by 2020.
Tanzania Tanzania The United Republic of Tanzania is a country in East Africa bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north, Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, and Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique to the south. The country's eastern borders lie on the Indian Ocean.Tanzania is a state...	10% of marine area by 2010; 20% by 2020.
United Kingdom United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...	Establish an ecologically coherent network of marine protected areas by 2012.
USA – California California California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...	29 MPAs covering 18% of state marine area with 243 square kilometres (93.8 sq mi) at maximum protection.

Global status

The Marine Protected Area network is still in its infancy. As of October 2010, the data gathered by the WDPA

World Database on Protected Areas

indicated there were approximately 6,800 MPAs around the world, which embodies 1.17% of global ocean area. The same data also assessed Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) – edge of territorial seas to 200 nautical miles out - and found 2.86% of these zones to be protected. Territorial seas – out to 12 nautical miles from a state’s coast – are more highly protected, with 6.3% of these protected.. Marine protected areas is often perceived as a relative term. Most pointedly the term protected, what the area is protected against is often times not specified. Many of the marine protected areas prohibit the use of harmful fishing techniques yet only 0.01% of the ocean's area is designated as a "No Take Zone" . This statistic is deemed as unacceptable with the projected goal lying at 20%-30% of the world's marine environment being designated as a no take area . Several institutions at the local, community, federal, and national levels have taken steps in the implementation of no take area policy in hopes that the 20-30% goal can be reached. The following data gives a regional representation of international status on Marine Protected Areas.

Greater Caribbean

The Greater Caribbean

Caribbean

The Caribbean is a crescent-shaped group of islands more than 2,000 miles long separating the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, to the west and south, from the Atlantic Ocean, to the east and north...

subdivision encompasses an area of about 5700000 square kilometres (2,200,782.3 sq mi) of ocean and 38 very diverse nations. The area includes island countries like the Bahamas and Cuba

Cuba

The Republic of Cuba is an island nation in the Caribbean. The nation of Cuba consists of the main island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos. Havana is the largest city in Cuba and the country's capital. Santiago de Cuba is the second largest city...

, and the majority of Central America

Central America

Central America is the central geographic region of the Americas. It is the southernmost, isthmian portion of the North American continent, which connects with South America on the southeast. When considered part of the unified continental model, it is considered a subcontinent...

.
The Convention for Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (better known as the Cartagena Convention) was established in 1983, and protocols involving protected areas

Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety

The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety is an international agreement on biosafety, as a supplement to the Convention on Biological Diversity. The Biosafety Protocol seeks to protect biological diversity from the potential risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology.The...

were ratified in 1990.

As of 2008, there are about 500 MPAs in the region. Coral reef

Coral reef

Coral reefs are underwater structures made from calcium carbonate secreted by corals. Coral reefs are colonies of tiny living animals found in marine waters that contain few nutrients. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, which in turn consist of polyps that cluster in groups. The polyps...

s are the best represented.

Two networks are under development, the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System

Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System

The Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System stretches over 1000 km from Isla Contoy at the tip of the Yucatán Peninsula down to the Bay Islands of Honduras...

(a long barrier reef

Barrier reef

Barrier reef may refer to:*a kind of coral reef*the Great Barrier Reef in Australia*the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System*the Belize Barrier Reef*the New Caledonia Barrier Reef*Barrier Reef , an Australian television series...

that borders the coast of much of Central America), and the "Islands in the Stream" program (covering the Gulf of Mexico

Gulf of Mexico

The Gulf of Mexico is a partially landlocked ocean basin largely surrounded by the North American continent and the island of Cuba. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States, on the southwest and south by Mexico, and on the southeast by Cuba. In...

Southeast Asia

Southeast Asia is a global epicenter for marine diversity but 12% of coral reefs are in MPAs whereas the rest or at risk of disappearing. The Philippines and Indonesia are two of the major places within Southeast Asia that have Marine Protected Areas. The Philippines have some the world’s best coral reefs and they need them for tourism which is why some of the country is a MPA. Most of the Philippines’ MPAs are established to secure protection for the coral reefs and the sea grass systems. Indonesia has MPAs that are used for tourism as well, since the country is highly reliant on tourism as a main source of income.

The Philippines

The Philippines boast one of the most biodiversity regions on the entire planet with 464 reef-building coral species but due to overfishing, destructive fishing techniques, and rapid coastal development in recent years, these reefs have suffered a heavy decline in health. As a response, many MPAs have been springing up over the last twenty years with current estimates at about 600 MPAs. However, the majority of these MPAs are poorly (people in the regions either ignore their restrictions or don’t even know of their existence) and as a result are highly ineffective. On the other hand, there are several MPAs in the Philippines that are well known for having an impact on the health of their reefs by enhancing fish biomass, decreasing coral bleaching, and increasing yields in adjacent fisheries. One notable example is the MPA surrounding Apo Island.

Latin America

Latin America is a region of the Americas where Romance languages – particularly Spanish and Portuguese, and variably French – are primarily spoken. Latin America has an area of approximately 21,069,500 km² , almost 3.9% of the Earth's surface or 14.1% of its land surface area...

in particular considers itself one large MPA system. As of 2008, 0.5% of the Latin American marine environment is protected, mostly through the use of small, multiple-use MPAs.

South Pacific

The South Pacific network ranges from Belize

Belize

Belize is a constitutional monarchy and the northernmost country in Central America. Belize has a diverse society, comprising many cultures and languages. Even though Kriol and Spanish are spoken among the population, Belize is the only country in Central America where English is the official...

to Chile

Chile

Chile ,officially the Republic of Chile , is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far...

. Governments in the region adopted the Lima Convention and Action Plan for protected areas for the South Pacific region in 1981; an MPA-specific protocol was ratified in 1989. The Permanent Commission on the Exploitation and Conservation on the Marine Resources of the South Pacific promotes the exchange of studies and information among participants.

The region is currently running one comprehensive cross-national program, the Tropical Eastern Pacific Marine Corridor Network, signed in April 2004. The network covers about 211000000 square kilometres (81,467,555.5 sq mi).

North Pacific

The North Pacific network covers the western coasts of Mexico

Mexico

The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...

, Canada

Canada

Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...

, and the U.S. The "Antigua Convention" and an action plan for the north Pacific region were adapted in 2002. There, is however, no protocol; participant nations manage their own national systems.
In 2010-2011, the State of California is completing a series of hearings and actions via the state Department of Fish and Game to establish new MPA's. Although highly controversial among fishing circles, the MPA's are going forward with decisions still pending as to where and how large.

United States

In April 2009, the United States established a National System of Marine Protected Areas, which strengthens the protection of U.S. ocean, coastal, and Great Lakes

Great Lakes

The Great Lakes are a collection of freshwater lakes located in northeastern North America, on the Canada – United States border. Consisting of Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, they form the largest group of freshwater lakes on Earth by total surface, coming in second by volume...

resources. These large-scale MPAs should balance "the interests of conservationists, fishers, and the public." As of 2009, 225 MPAs participated in the national system. Sites agree to work together toward common national and regional conservation goals and priorities. NOAA’s National Marine Protected Area’s Center maintains a comprehensive inventory of all 1,600+ MPAs within the Exclusive Economic Zone of the United States. Most MPAs in the U.S. allow some type of extractive use. Less than 1% of U.S. waters prohibit all extractive activities.

In 1981 the Olympic National Park in Western Washington became a marine protected area. The total protected site area is 3,697 km2 with 173.2 km2 of the area being a marine protected area. The Olympic National park has been chosen to join a national program of marine protected areas nominated by their managing programs. The national system is a mechanism to foster great collaboration among participating MPA sites and programs to enhance stewardship in the waters of the United States.
Sites that meet all pertinent criteria are eligible for the national system. There are four entry criteria for existing MPAs to join the national system:
"1. Meets the definition of an MPA as defined in the Framework.
2. Has a management plan (can be sitespecific or part of a broader programmatic management plan; must have goals and objectives and call for monitoring or evaluation of those goals and objectives).
3. Contributes to at least one priority conservation objective as listed in the Framework.
4. Cultural heritage MPAs must also conform to criteria for the National Register for Historic Places."
In 1999, California adopted the Marine Life Protection Act

Marine Life Protection Act

The Marine Life Protection Act was passed in 1999 and is part of the California Fish and Game Code. The MLPA requires California to reevaluate all existing marine protected areas and potentially design new MPAs that together function as a statewide network. The MLPA has clear guidance associated...

, establishing the United States' first state law requiring a comprehensive, science-based network of Marine Protected Areas. To implement the historic law, the state created the Marine Life Protection Act Initiative

Marine Life Protection Act

. A high-level team of policy advisors (the MLPA Blue Ribbon Task Force) as well as stakeholder and scientific advisory groups ensure that the process uses the best science and an unprecedented level of public participation.

The MLPA Initiative established a plan to create California's statewide MPA network by 2011 in several steps. The initial (Central Coast) step was successfully completed in September, 2007. The second (North Central Coast) step was completed in 2010. The third (South Coast) and fourth (North Coast) steps are expected to go into effect in 2012.

Europe

The Natura 2000

Natura 2000

Natura 2000 is an ecological network of protected areas in the territory of the European Union.-Origins:In May 1992, the governments of the European Communities adopted legislation designed to protect the most seriously threatened habitats and species across Europe. This legislation is called the...

ecological network

Ecological network

An ecological network is a representation of the biotic interactions in an ecosystem, in which species are connected by pairwise interactions . These interactions can be trophic or symbiotic...

of protected areas in the territory of the European Union

European Union

The European Union is an economic and political union of 27 independent member states which are located primarily in Europe. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community , formed by six countries in 1958...

including a wide range of MPA in the North Atlantic, the Mediterranean Sea

Mediterranean Sea

The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean surrounded by the Mediterranean region and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Anatolia and Europe, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Levant...

and the Baltic Sea

Baltic Sea

The Baltic Sea is a brackish mediterranean sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 20°E to 26°E longitude. It is bounded by the Scandinavian Peninsula, the mainland of Europe, and the Danish islands. It drains into the Kattegat by way of the Øresund, the Great Belt and...

. The member states have to define NATURA 2000 areas at sea in their Exclusive Economic Zone

Exclusive Economic Zone

.

Two assessments, conducted thirty years apart, of three Mediterranean MPAs demonstrate that proper protection allows commercially valuable and slow-growing red coral (Corallium rubrum) to produce large colonies in shallow water of less than 50 metres (164 ft). Shallow-water colonies outside these decades-old MPAs are typically very small. The MPAs are Banyuls, Carry-le-Rouet

Carry-le-Rouet

Carry-le-Rouet is a commune in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in southern France.Carry-le-Rouet is a seaside resort located 30 kilometres west of Marseille by highway A55, then route D5, set at the foot of pine-covered hills....

and Scandola, off the island of Corsica

Corsica

Corsica is an island in the Mediterranean Sea. It is located west of Italy, southeast of the French mainland, and north of the island of Sardinia....

Notable marine protected areas

The Bowie Seamount
Bowie Seamount
Bowie Seamount is a large submarine volcano in the northeastern Pacific Ocean, located west of Haida Gwaii, British Columbia, Canada.The seamount is named after William Bowie of the Coast & Geodetic Survey....

on the Coast of British Columbia
British Columbia Coast
The British Columbia Coast or BC Coast is Canada's western continental coastline on the Pacific Ocean. The usage is synonymous with the term West Coast of Canada....

, Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...

.
The Great Barrier Reef
Great Barrier Reef
The Great Barrier Reef is the world'slargest reef system composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands stretching for over 2,600 kilometres over an area of approximately...

in Queensland, Australia.
The Ligurian Sea Cetacean Sanctuary
Ligurian Sea Cetacean Sanctuary
Originally called the International Ligurian Sea Cetacean Sanctuary , what is now known as the Pelagos Sanctuary for Mediterranean Marine Mammals is a Marine Protected Area aimed at the protection of marine mammals...

in the seas of Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...

, Monaco
Monaco
Monaco , officially the Principality of Monaco , is a sovereign city state on the French Riviera. It is bordered on three sides by its neighbour, France, and its centre is about from Italy. Its area is with a population of 35,986 as of 2011 and is the most densely populated country in the...

and France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
The Dry Tortugas
Dry Tortugas
The Dry Tortugas are a small group of islands, located at the end of the Florida Keys, USA, about west of Key West, and west of the Marquesas Keys, the closest islands. Still further west is the Tortugas Bank, which is completely submerged. The first Europeans to discover the islands were the...

in the Florida Keys, USA.
The Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument in Hawaii
Hawaii
Hawaii is the newest of the 50 U.S. states , and is the only U.S. state made up entirely of islands. It is the northernmost island group in Polynesia, occupying most of an archipelago in the central Pacific Ocean, southwest of the continental United States, southeast of Japan, and northeast of...

.
The Phoenix Islands Protected Area
Phoenix Islands Protected Area
The Phoenix Islands Protected Area is located in the Republic of Kiribati, an ocean nation in the central Pacific approximately midway between Australia and Hawaii. PIPA constitutes 11.34% of Kiribati’s Exclusive Economic Zone and with a size of it is the largest marine protected area in the...

, Kiribati
Kiribati
Kiribati , officially the Republic of Kiribati, is an island nation located in the central tropical Pacific Ocean. The permanent population exceeds just over 100,000 , and is composed of 32 atolls and one raised coral island, dispersed over 3.5 million square kilometres, straddling the...
The Channel Islands
Channel Islands
The Channel Islands are an archipelago of British Crown Dependencies in the English Channel, off the French coast of Normandy. They include two separate bailiwicks: the Bailiwick of Guernsey and the Bailiwick of Jersey...

Marine Protected Areas in California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...

, USA

Effectiveness

Managers and scientists use geographic information system

Geographic Information System

A geographic information system, geographical information science, or geospatial information studies is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all types of geographically referenced data...

s and remote sensing

Remote sensing

Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon, without making physical contact with the object. In modern usage, the term generally refers to the use of aerial sensor technologies to detect and classify objects on Earth by means of propagated signals Remote sensing...

to map and analyze MPAs. NOAA Coastal Services Center compiled an "Inventory of GIS-Based Decision-Support Tools for MPAs." The report focuses on GIS tools with the highest utility for MPA processes. Remote sensing uses advances in aerial photography

Aerial photography

Aerial photography is the taking of photographs of the ground from an elevated position. The term usually refers to images in which the camera is not supported by a ground-based structure. Cameras may be hand held or mounted, and photographs may be taken by a photographer, triggered remotely or...

image capture

Image Capture

Image Capture is an application program from Apple that enables users to upload pictures from digital cameras or scanners which are either connected directly to the computer or the network...

, satellite imagery

Satellite imagery

Satellite imagery consists of photographs of Earth or other planets made by means of artificial satellites.- History :The first images from space were taken on sub-orbital flights. The U.S-launched V-2 flight on October 24, 1946 took one image every 1.5 seconds...

, acoustic data, and radar imagery.

MPAs have also been recognized as an effective tool to maintain localized fish populations. The general concept is to create an area where the local populations of sea creatures can thrive and create a localized over population. When this over population occurs, the extra creatures will expand into the surrounding areas, known as spillover. This, in turn, helps support the local fisheries and the areas surrounding the MPA, while maintaining a healthy population. Such uses of the MPA have been seen in many areas around the world, but most commonly in very densely population areas like coral reefs.

Marine Protected Areas are an especially important management tool for coral reef systems worldwide. Over the past two centuries, coral reef systems have been in great decline due to overfishing and pollution. Currently, 30% of the world’s reefs are already severely damaged, and approximately 60% of the reefs will be lost by 2030 if actions are not taken to recover and protect them. Coral Reef Systems are also facing extinction due to changes in the chemistry of the ocean and the rising ocean temperatures, both caused by global climate change. Marine Protected Areas are currently the best tool for managing the impacts to coral reefs, with “No Take Zones” acting as the most effective form of management. Though Marine Protected Areas and No-Take Zones cannot stop the effects of global climate change, these management tools can protect the coral reefs from human damage and exploitation, allowing the reefs and the species they house to build resilience to recover to the changes brought by global climate change more effectively and rapidly.

Spillover Effect and other unexpected results

The "Spillover Effect" occurs when the fish stocks with in an MPA are replenished and spill over into the non-protected areas. One clear example of this is at Goad Island Bay in New Zealand. As one of the oldest no-take reserves in the world (it was established in 1977), research gathered at Goat Bay has overwhelmingly shown evidence of the spill over effect. In fact, "Spill over and larval export--the drifting of millions of eggs and larvae beyond the Reserve--have become central concepts of marine conservation" (National Geographic, 2007). This positively impacts commercial fishermen in surrounding areas.

Another unexpected result of MPAs is their impact on predatory marine species. In general, studies show that bio-diversity increases in MPAs. However, sometimes conditions within a reserve favor an increase in predator populations. When this occurs, prey populations decrease. One study showed that in 21 out of 39 cases "tropic cascades," caused a decrease in herbivores, which led to an increase in the quantity of plant life. (This occurred in the Malindi Kisite and Watamu Marian National Parks in Kenya; the Leigh Marine Reserve in New Zealand; and Brackett's Landing Conservation Area in the U.S.).

Criteria

Both CBD

Convention on Biological Diversity

The Convention on Biological Diversity , known informally as the Biodiversity Convention, is an international legally binding treaty...

and IUCN have criteria for setting up and maintaining MPA networks, which emphasize 4 factors::

Adequacy—ensuring that the sites have the size, shape, and distribution to ensure the success of selected species.
Representability—protection for all of the local environment's biological processes
Resilience—the resistance of the system to natural disaster, such as a tsunami or flood.
Connectivity—maintaining population links across nearby MPAs.

Misconceptions

There are some misconceptions on what an MPA really does and who controls them. One misconception is that all MPAs are no-take or no-fishing areas. The reality is that less than 1 percent of US waters are no-take areas. MPAs can be used for a lot of different uses such as consumption fishing, diving, and other activities. Another misconception is that most MPAs are federally managed. The reality is that MPAs are managed unter a very complex system consisting of hundreds of laws and jurisdictions. They can be managed in state, commonwealth, territory, and tribal waters. A third misconception is that there is a federal mandate to dedicate a set percentage of ocean to MPAs. In reality there is no set percentage goal written in law. The mandate simply calls for an evaluation of current MPAs and create a public resource on current MPAs in existence.

Criticism

Some existing and proposed MPAs have been criticized by local indigenous populations, and their supporters, as impinging on land usage rights. One example of this is the proposed Chagos Protected Area in the Chagos Islands, contested by Chagossians deported from their homeland in 1965 by the British

United Kingdom

in the creation of the British Indian Ocean Territory

British Indian Ocean Territory

The British Indian Ocean Territory or Chagos Islands is an overseas territory of the United Kingdom situated in the Indian Ocean, halfway between Africa and Indonesia...

(BIOT). According to Wikileaks CableGate documents, the UK proposed that the BIOT become a "marine reserve" with the aim of preventing the former inhabitants from returning to their lands and to protect the joint United Kingdom and United States

United States

The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...

military base on Diego Garcia

Diego Garcia

Diego Garcia is a tropical, footprint-shaped coral atoll located south of the equator in the central Indian Ocean at 7 degrees, 26 minutes south latitude. It is part of the British Indian Ocean Territory [BIOT] and is positioned at 72°23' east longitude....

Island.

One alternative to imposing MPAs on an indigenous population is through the use of Indigenous Protected Areas

Indigenous Protected Areas

An Indigenous Protected Area is a class of protected area formed by agreement with Indigenous Australians, declared by Indigenous Australians, and formally recognised by the Government of Australia as being part of its National Reserve System....

, such as those in Australia

Australia

Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...

Recent research

In 2010, a group of scientists reported that fish larvae can drift on ocean currents and reseed fish stock

Fish stock

Fish stocks are subpopulations of a particular species of fish, for which intrinsic parameters are the only significant factors in determining population dynamics, while extrinsic factors are considered to be insignificant.-The stock concept:All species have geographic limits to their...

s at a distant location. This finding demonstrates, for the first time, what scientists have long suspected but have never proven, that fish populations can be connected to distant populations through the process of larval drift.

The fish they chose to investigate was the yellow tang

Yellow tang

The yellow tang is a saltwater fish species of the family Acanthuridae. It is one of the most popular aquarium fish.-Appearance:...

, because when a larva of this fish find a suitable reef it stays in the general area for the rest of its life. Thus, it is only as drifting larvae that the fish can migrate significant distances from where they are born. The tropical yellow tang is much sought after by the aquarium

Aquarium

An aquarium is a vivarium consisting of at least one transparent side in which water-dwelling plants or animals are kept. Fishkeepers use aquaria to keep fish, invertebrates, amphibians, marine mammals, turtles, and aquatic plants...

trade. By the late 1990s, their stocks were collapsing, so in an attempt to save them nine MPAs were established off the coast of Hawaii. Now, through the process of larval drift, fish from the MPAs are establishing themselves in different locations, and the fishery is recovering. "We've clearly shown that fish larvae that were spawned inside marine reserves can drift with currents and replenish fished areas long distances away," said one of the authors, the marine biologist Mark Hixon. "This is a direct observation, not just a model, that successful marine reserves can sustain fisheries beyond their borders."

External links

World Database on Marine Protected Areas – by UNEP-WCMC
Protect Planet Ocean – Marine Protected Areas site
A-Z of Areas of Biodiversity Importance: Marine Protected Areas
MPA News: monthly news and analysis on marine protected areas worldwide
Microdocs – 'The Short Attention Span Science Theater on Ecological Sustainability'
CetaceanHabitat.org – Cetacean habitat directory for MPAs, national and international sanctuaries
WhyFiles.org – Huge Pacific reserve formed in Hawaii
WWF: An Overview of Marine Protected Areas in the UK
Misconceptions concerning MPAs (NOAA)
http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110812/full/news.2011.479.html – New Research shows massive increase in biomass and diversity in what has been called the best MPA in the world.
Cellular Automata Model of an MPA Fishery Wolfram Demonstrations Project — requires CDF player (free)

The source of this article is wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. The text of this article is licensed under the GFDL.

Terminology

Alternate Terminology and Importance Economically

Management and restrictions

International efforts

Global status

Greater Caribbean

Southeast Asia

The Philippines

Latin America

South Pacific

North Pacific

United States

Europe

Notable marine protected areas

Effectiveness

Spillover Effect and other unexpected results

Criteria

Misconceptions

Criticism

Recent research

See also

Further reading

External links