Misogyny in hip hop culture
Encyclopedia
Misogyny in hip hop culture refers to lyrics, videos or other aspects of hip hop culture that support, glorify, justify, or normalize
the objectification, exploitation, or victimization of women. Misogyny in rap music instills and perpetuates negative stereotype
s about women. It can range from innuendo
es to stereotypical
characterizations and defamations. Overt misogyny in rap music emerged in the late 1980s, and has since then defined the music of numerous hip hop artists.
Hip hop has had a tremendous influence on modern popular culture, saturating mass media through music video
s, radio broadcasts, and a variety of other mediums. Rap music is by far the most popular music genre for 8- to-18-year-olds. Gangsta rap
, the most commercially successful subgenre of hip hop, has been particularly criticized and associated with misogyny.
in hip hop culture, with rappers using misogynistic lyrics and depictions of violence against women to prove that they are authentic gangstas. Many rap artists see demeaning women as a way to assert their masculinity
. Rappers are often considered "soft" and "fake" if they distance themselves from hypermasculine
self-portrayals and hostile representations of women. Hip hop artists may also use such lyrics to gain commercial success. In the 1990s audiences began to demand more violent and offensive lyrics and record executives were urging artists to write them.
Adams and Fuller (2006) suggest that one of the reasons why rap artists use misogynistic lyrics in their music is that they have internalized
negative stereotypes about women that are prevalent in American society. Various authors have argued that misogyny in hip hop culture is only an outgrowth of the cultural acceptance of misogyny at-large. Michael Eric Dyson states that misogyny is a tried-and-true American tradition from which hip hop derives its understanding of how men and women should behave. Similarly, Charlise Cheney argues that hip-hop's misogyny and promotion of traditional gender role
s reflect mainstream
American values. Feminist
bell hooks
suggests that misogyny in hip-hop culture is not a "male black thing" but has its roots in a larger pattern of hostility toward women in American culture. She criticizes those who take gangsta rap
to task for its misogyny while accepting and perpetuating less raw and vulgar expressions of misogyny that permeate American society. She writes: "It is much easier to attack gangsta rap than to confront the culture that produces [the] need [for gangsta rap]." Authors also link the treatment of women in hip hop to troubled gender relations in inner-city black and Hispanic communities. In an ethnographic study of inner-city Philadelphia neighborhoods, Elijah Anderson
found that young men in such neighborhoods try to raise their social status and self-esteem by demeaning and exploiting women. Anderson writes that "[in] many cases the more the young man seems to exploit the young woman, the higher is his regard within the peer group."
of women, (c) legitimation of violence against women
, (d) distrust of women, and (e) celebration of prostitution
and pimping
. In misogynistic songs, it is typically women in general who are called derogatory names such as bitches, hos, or chickenheads
. Men are praised if they abuse and exploit women. These insults seek to degrade women and keep them "in their place". Sexual objectification is the most common misogynistic theme in rap music according to the analysis by Weitzer and Kubrin. Women are portrayed as good only for sex. Dr. Dre
raps:
In misogynistic rap songs, violence is depicted as the most appropriate punishment for women who challenge male domination or who simply disrespect men. Juvenile
(March Nigga Step), for example, asks, "If she thinks you're jokin', is she going' get a quick chokin'?" Physical violence and rape
are considered fitting responses if women refuse sex or if they commit other "offenses". Eminem
and Tyler, The Creator
, who have both been criticized for their depictions of violence against women, rap:
A related subtheme is boasting about sex acts that harm or are painful for women. Many rap songs also have distrust of women as a significant theme. Women are depicted as femme fatale
s, "gold diggers", and as lying about such things as their age or to get pregnant. Tupac Shakur
(Hell 4 A Hustler) asks, "Why plant seeds in a dirty bitch, waitin’ to trick me? Not the life for me". Finally, pimps are glorified and their ability to control and exploit women is praised.
of gangsta rap
found that approximately 22% of the examined rap lyrics featured violence against women
, including depictions of assault
, murder
and rape
. By comparison, Eminem
scored 78% for violent misogyny. Of the 14 songs on the The Marshall Mathers LP
eleven contain violent and misogynistic lyrics and nine songs depict killing women. In 2003, McFarland conducted an analysis of Chicano rap
and found that Chicano rappers depict women most frequently as sex objects, morally and intellectually inferior, and objects of violence. 37% of Chicano rap songs depicted women as sex objects and 4% mentioned violence against women. Except for the "good mother" figure, all other women that were mentioned in the sample were portrayed negatively. Moreover, Chicano rappers who discussed sex and sexuality almost always depicted women as objects of domination for men. According to a 2009 content analysis by Weitzer and Kubrin, 22% of rap songs contain misogynistic lyrics. The researchers pointed out that misogyny seems to be less common in rap music than expected and that other music genres, such as rock music
, contain more negative images of women according to some studies.
Conrad, Dixon and Zhang (2009) investigated rap music video
s and noted that there has been a shift from violent portrayals to more misogynistic ones. Women in rap videos are placed in positions of objectification and sexual submission
to their male counterparts. The researchers argue that their research "suggests that there are important gender differences occurring that prefer men over women".
has tried to measure the effects of exposure to rap music. Webster et al. found that men who listened to sexually violent gangsta rap lyrics were significantly more likely than controls to express "adversarial sexual beliefs" like the belief that men should dominate women. However, gangsta rap did not influence men's other attitudes toward women. Other studies showed that rap videos which contain images of women in sexually subordinate roles increase female subjects' acceptance of violence against women, and that listening to misogynistic hip hop increases sexually aggressive behavior in men. A 2007 study by Michael Cobb and William Boettcher found that exposure to rap music increases sexist
attitudes toward women. Men who listened to rap music held more sexist beliefs than the control group. Women were also more likely to support sexism when rap music was not overtly misogynistic. However, they were less likely to hold sexist beliefs when the lyrics were very misogynistic. Rudman and Lee found that exposure to violent and misogynistic rap music strengthens the association between black men and negative attributes. People who are exposed to violent and misogynistic rap music are more likely to perceive black men as hostile and sexist.
A longitudinal study
indicated that young people who regularly listen to sexually degrading lyrics are more likely to have sex at an earlier age while exposure to non-degrading sexual content had no effect. Sexually degrading lyrics were found to be most common in rap music. The survey also suggests that repeated exposure to sexually degrading lyrics may lead girls to expect that they will be treated with disrespect by their partners and that they have to take a submissive role.
protested against Nelly
's music video "Tip Drill
" and misogyny in rap music in general. The students criticized the negative portrayal and sexual objectification of African American women in the video which showed women in bikinis dancing and simulating various sexual acts, men throwing money at women's private parts, and a man swiping a credit card through a woman's buttocks. Building on the momentum generated by the Spelman College protests, Essence
magazine launched a twelvemonth campaign entitled "Take Back the Music" to combat misogyny in hip hop culture. However, the protests and subsequent campaign received little media coverage. A congressional hearing was held on September 25, 2007 to examine misogyny and racism in hip hop culture. The title of the hearing, "From Imus to Industry: The business of stereotypes and degrading images", referred to radio host Don Imus
who called the Rutgers University
women's basketball team "nappy-headed hos" and later blamed his choice of words on hip hop. Rappers "demean and defame black women", Imus claimed, and call them "worse names than I ever did." As with previous attempts to address misogyny in rap music, the hearing seemed to have no impact and was largely ignored by the press.
Music critics have overlooked or rationalized misogyny in hip hop and its potential societal effects. For example, music critics have largely disregarded portrayals of violence against women by rappers like Eminem and members of Odd Future.
was one of the first all-female rap acts to provide pro-woman messages and critique double standards and degrading images of women in hip hop. In her Grammy Award
-winning song U.N.I.T.Y.
, Queen Latifah
challenges male rappers who use the terms "bitch" and "ho" to refer to women. The question "Who you callin' a bitch?" ends each verse of the song. Yo-Yo
has dedicated much of her career to condemning hip hop misogyny. Many other women rap and rap soul artists such as Lauryn Hill
, Erykah Badu
, Missy Elliott
, Eve and Mary J. Blige
have adopted an independent woman persona which opposes misogynistic representations of women in hip hop. However, some women rap artists offer no resistance to negative portrayals of women and in some cases appear to defend male rappers' misogyny. Lil Kim, Mia X
, and Trina
, for instance, often refer to themselves and other women as bitches and gold diggers. Some female rappers assume the role of the "'ride-or-die' chick" who is frequently praised by male rappers as the ideal woman. The "'ride-or-die' chick”, as hip hop scholar Pough terms this character, is a woman who will do anything for men, even commit crimes and go to prison, to be valued. Tricia Rose argues that women rappers, most of whom are black, may find it difficult to condemn male rappers' misogyny because they need to collectively oppose racism and do not want to contribute to the stereotype that black masculinity is "pathological". Moreover, Cheryl Keyes suggests that women rappers rarely get the opportunity to express empowering messages because, in order to enter rap as performers and to compete with male rappers, they must follow what Keyes calls "male rules". Female rap artists must, according to Keyes, embody the male esthetic and emulate male behavior if they want record producers, disproportionately male, to listen to them.
Normalization (sociology)
Normalization refers to social processes through which ideas and actions come to be seen as "normal" and become taken-for-granted or 'natural' in everyday life. In sociological theory normalization appears in two forms....
the objectification, exploitation, or victimization of women. Misogyny in rap music instills and perpetuates negative stereotype
Stereotype
A stereotype is a popular belief about specific social groups or types of individuals. The concepts of "stereotype" and "prejudice" are often confused with many other different meanings...
s about women. It can range from innuendo
Innuendo
An innuendo is a baseless invention of thoughts or ideas. It can also be a remark or question, typically disparaging , that works obliquely by allusion...
es to stereotypical
Stereotype
A stereotype is a popular belief about specific social groups or types of individuals. The concepts of "stereotype" and "prejudice" are often confused with many other different meanings...
characterizations and defamations. Overt misogyny in rap music emerged in the late 1980s, and has since then defined the music of numerous hip hop artists.
Hip hop has had a tremendous influence on modern popular culture, saturating mass media through music video
Music video
A music video or song video is a short film integrating a song and imagery, produced for promotional or artistic purposes. Modern music videos are primarily made and used as a marketing device intended to promote the sale of music recordings...
s, radio broadcasts, and a variety of other mediums. Rap music is by far the most popular music genre for 8- to-18-year-olds. Gangsta rap
Gangsta rap
Gangsta Rap is a subgenre of hip hop music that evolved from hardcore hip hop and purports to reflect urban crime and the violent lifestyles of inner-city youths. Lyrics in gangsta rap have varied from accurate reflections to fictionalized accounts. Gangsta is a non-rhotic pronunciation of the word...
, the most commercially successful subgenre of hip hop, has been particularly criticized and associated with misogyny.
Rationale
Misogyny has become a sign of authenticityAuthenticity in art
Authenticity in art has a variety of meanings related to different ways in which a work of art or an artistic performance may be considered authentic.Denis Dutton distinguishes between nominal authenticity and expressive authenticity....
in hip hop culture, with rappers using misogynistic lyrics and depictions of violence against women to prove that they are authentic gangstas. Many rap artists see demeaning women as a way to assert their masculinity
Masculinity
Masculinity is possessing qualities or characteristics considered typical of or appropriate to a man. The term can be used to describe any human, animal or object that has the quality of being masculine...
. Rappers are often considered "soft" and "fake" if they distance themselves from hypermasculine
Hypermasculinity
Hypermasculinity is a psychological term for the exaggeration of male stereotypical behavior, such as an emphasis on physical strength, aggression, body hair, body odor, and virility. This term can be pejorative, though it is also used when examining the behavior dispassionately.One of the first...
self-portrayals and hostile representations of women. Hip hop artists may also use such lyrics to gain commercial success. In the 1990s audiences began to demand more violent and offensive lyrics and record executives were urging artists to write them.
Adams and Fuller (2006) suggest that one of the reasons why rap artists use misogynistic lyrics in their music is that they have internalized
Internalisation (sociology)
Internalisation in sociology and other social sciences is the process of acceptance of a set of norms and values established by people or groups which are influential to the individual through the process of socialisation....
negative stereotypes about women that are prevalent in American society. Various authors have argued that misogyny in hip hop culture is only an outgrowth of the cultural acceptance of misogyny at-large. Michael Eric Dyson states that misogyny is a tried-and-true American tradition from which hip hop derives its understanding of how men and women should behave. Similarly, Charlise Cheney argues that hip-hop's misogyny and promotion of traditional gender role
Gender role
Gender roles refer to the set of social and behavioral norms that are considered to be socially appropriate for individuals of a specific sex in the context of a specific culture, which differ widely between cultures and over time...
s reflect mainstream
Mainstream
Mainstream is, generally, the common current thought of the majority. However, the mainstream is far from cohesive; rather the concept is often considered a cultural construct....
American values. Feminist
Feminism
Feminism is a collection of movements aimed at defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and social rights and equal opportunities for women. Its concepts overlap with those of women's rights...
bell hooks
Bell hooks
Gloria Jean Watkins , better known by her pen name bell hooks, is an American author, feminist, and social activist....
suggests that misogyny in hip-hop culture is not a "male black thing" but has its roots in a larger pattern of hostility toward women in American culture. She criticizes those who take gangsta rap
Gangsta rap
Gangsta Rap is a subgenre of hip hop music that evolved from hardcore hip hop and purports to reflect urban crime and the violent lifestyles of inner-city youths. Lyrics in gangsta rap have varied from accurate reflections to fictionalized accounts. Gangsta is a non-rhotic pronunciation of the word...
to task for its misogyny while accepting and perpetuating less raw and vulgar expressions of misogyny that permeate American society. She writes: "It is much easier to attack gangsta rap than to confront the culture that produces [the] need [for gangsta rap]." Authors also link the treatment of women in hip hop to troubled gender relations in inner-city black and Hispanic communities. In an ethnographic study of inner-city Philadelphia neighborhoods, Elijah Anderson
Elijah Anderson
Elijah Anderson is an American sociologist. He holds the William K. Lanman, Jr. Professorship in Sociology at Yale University, where he teaches and directs the Urban Ethnography Project. Anderson is one of the nation’s leading urban ethnographers and cultural theorists. He received his B.A. from...
found that young men in such neighborhoods try to raise their social status and self-esteem by demeaning and exploiting women. Anderson writes that "[in] many cases the more the young man seems to exploit the young woman, the higher is his regard within the peer group."
Misogynistic themes
Weitzer and Kubrin (2009) have identified five common misogynistic themes in rap lyrics: (a) derogatory naming and shaming of women, (b) sexual objectificationSexual objectification
Sexual objectification refers to the practice of regarding or treating another person merely as an instrument towards one's sexual pleasure, and a sex object is a person who is regarded simply as an object of sexual gratification or who is sexually attractive...
of women, (c) legitimation of violence against women
Violence against women
Violence against women is a technical term used to collectively refer to violent acts that are primarily or exclusively committed against women...
, (d) distrust of women, and (e) celebration of prostitution
Prostitution
Prostitution is the act or practice of providing sexual services to another person in return for payment. The person who receives payment for sexual services is called a prostitute and the person who receives such services is known by a multitude of terms, including a "john". Prostitution is one of...
and pimping
Pimp
A pimp is an agent for prostitutes who collects part of their earnings. The pimp may receive this money in return for advertising services, physical protection, or for providing a location where she may engage clients...
. In misogynistic songs, it is typically women in general who are called derogatory names such as bitches, hos, or chickenheads
Chickenhead (sexuality)
Chickenhead is a slang term that can refer to a "dumb female" or to someone who performs fellatio. The term originated in African-American sexual slang and gained popularity through use in hip-hop, notably the 2001 single "Chickenhead" by Project Pat....
. Men are praised if they abuse and exploit women. These insults seek to degrade women and keep them "in their place". Sexual objectification is the most common misogynistic theme in rap music according to the analysis by Weitzer and Kubrin. Women are portrayed as good only for sex. Dr. Dre
Dr. Dre
Andre Romelle Young , primarily known by his stage name Dr. Dre, is an American record producer, rapper, record executive, entrepreneur, and occasional actor. He is the founder and current CEO of Aftermath Entertainment and a former co-owner and artist of Death Row Records...
raps:
In misogynistic rap songs, violence is depicted as the most appropriate punishment for women who challenge male domination or who simply disrespect men. Juvenile
Juvenile (rapper)
Terius Gray, better known by his stage name Juvenile, is an American rapper, He is also a former member of hip-hop group the Hot Boys . At the age of 19, he began recording raps, releasing his debut album Being Myself in 1995...
(March Nigga Step), for example, asks, "If she thinks you're jokin', is she going' get a quick chokin'?" Physical violence and rape
Rape
Rape is a type of sexual assault usually involving sexual intercourse, which is initiated by one or more persons against another person without that person's consent. The act may be carried out by physical force, coercion, abuse of authority or with a person who is incapable of valid consent. The...
are considered fitting responses if women refuse sex or if they commit other "offenses". Eminem
Eminem
Marshall Bruce Mathers III , better known by his stage name Eminem or his alter ego Slim Shady, is an American rapper, record producer, songwriter and actor. Eminem's popularity brought his group project, D12, to mainstream recognition...
and Tyler, The Creator
Tyler, the Creator
Tyler Okonma , better known by his stage name Tyler, The Creator, is an American rapper, record producer, music video director, actor, graphic artist and fashion designer from Los Angeles, currently signed to English independent record label XL Recordings and his own record label, Odd Future...
, who have both been criticized for their depictions of violence against women, rap:
A related subtheme is boasting about sex acts that harm or are painful for women. Many rap songs also have distrust of women as a significant theme. Women are depicted as femme fatale
Femme fatale
A femme fatale is a mysterious and seductive woman whose charms ensnare her lovers in bonds of irresistible desire, often leading them into compromising, dangerous, and deadly situations. She is an archetype of literature and art...
s, "gold diggers", and as lying about such things as their age or to get pregnant. Tupac Shakur
Tupac Shakur
Tupac Amaru Shakur , known by his stage names 2Pac and Makaveli, was an American rapper and actor. Shakur has sold over 75 million albums worldwide as of 2007, making him one of the best-selling music artists in the world...
(Hell 4 A Hustler) asks, "Why plant seeds in a dirty bitch, waitin’ to trick me? Not the life for me". Finally, pimps are glorified and their ability to control and exploit women is praised.
Prevalence
Misogyny is prevalent in hip hop culture. A survey of adolescents showed that 66% of black girls and 57% of black boys agree that rap music videos portray black women in "bad and offensive ways". A 2001 content analysisContent analysis
Content analysis or textual analysis is a methodology in the social sciences for studying the content of communication. Earl Babbie defines it as "the study of recorded human communications, such as books, websites, paintings and laws."According to Dr...
of gangsta rap
Gangsta rap
Gangsta Rap is a subgenre of hip hop music that evolved from hardcore hip hop and purports to reflect urban crime and the violent lifestyles of inner-city youths. Lyrics in gangsta rap have varied from accurate reflections to fictionalized accounts. Gangsta is a non-rhotic pronunciation of the word...
found that approximately 22% of the examined rap lyrics featured violence against women
Violence against women
Violence against women is a technical term used to collectively refer to violent acts that are primarily or exclusively committed against women...
, including depictions of assault
Assault
In law, assault is a crime causing a victim to fear violence. The term is often confused with battery, which involves physical contact. The specific meaning of assault varies between countries, but can refer to an act that causes another to apprehend immediate and personal violence, or in the more...
, murder
Murder
Murder is the unlawful killing, with malice aforethought, of another human being, and generally this state of mind distinguishes murder from other forms of unlawful homicide...
and rape
Rape
Rape is a type of sexual assault usually involving sexual intercourse, which is initiated by one or more persons against another person without that person's consent. The act may be carried out by physical force, coercion, abuse of authority or with a person who is incapable of valid consent. The...
. By comparison, Eminem
Eminem
Marshall Bruce Mathers III , better known by his stage name Eminem or his alter ego Slim Shady, is an American rapper, record producer, songwriter and actor. Eminem's popularity brought his group project, D12, to mainstream recognition...
scored 78% for violent misogyny. Of the 14 songs on the The Marshall Mathers LP
The Marshall Mathers LP
The Marshall Mathers LP is the third studio album by American rapper Eminem. Released May 23, 2000, the album sold more than 1.76 million copies in its first week just in the US. In 2001, the album won the Grammy Award for Best Rap Album and was nominated for Album of the Year...
eleven contain violent and misogynistic lyrics and nine songs depict killing women. In 2003, McFarland conducted an analysis of Chicano rap
Chicano rap
Chicano Rap is a subgenre of hip hop music, Latin rap and gangsta rap that embodies aspects of West Coast and Southwest Mexican American culture and is typically performed by American rappers and musicians of Mexican descent.-Early Years:...
and found that Chicano rappers depict women most frequently as sex objects, morally and intellectually inferior, and objects of violence. 37% of Chicano rap songs depicted women as sex objects and 4% mentioned violence against women. Except for the "good mother" figure, all other women that were mentioned in the sample were portrayed negatively. Moreover, Chicano rappers who discussed sex and sexuality almost always depicted women as objects of domination for men. According to a 2009 content analysis by Weitzer and Kubrin, 22% of rap songs contain misogynistic lyrics. The researchers pointed out that misogyny seems to be less common in rap music than expected and that other music genres, such as rock music
Rock music
Rock music is a genre of popular music that developed during and after the 1960s, particularly in the United Kingdom and the United States. It has its roots in 1940s and 1950s rock and roll, itself heavily influenced by rhythm and blues and country music...
, contain more negative images of women according to some studies.
Conrad, Dixon and Zhang (2009) investigated rap music video
Music video
A music video or song video is a short film integrating a song and imagery, produced for promotional or artistic purposes. Modern music videos are primarily made and used as a marketing device intended to promote the sale of music recordings...
s and noted that there has been a shift from violent portrayals to more misogynistic ones. Women in rap videos are placed in positions of objectification and sexual submission
Submission
Submission is the acknowledgement of the legitimacy of the power of one's superior or superiors.Submission may also refer to:* Submission/Submitter , an Islamic organisation...
to their male counterparts. The researchers argue that their research "suggests that there are important gender differences occurring that prefer men over women".
Impact
Experimental researchExperiment
An experiment is a methodical procedure carried out with the goal of verifying, falsifying, or establishing the validity of a hypothesis. Experiments vary greatly in their goal and scale, but always rely on repeatable procedure and logical analysis of the results...
has tried to measure the effects of exposure to rap music. Webster et al. found that men who listened to sexually violent gangsta rap lyrics were significantly more likely than controls to express "adversarial sexual beliefs" like the belief that men should dominate women. However, gangsta rap did not influence men's other attitudes toward women. Other studies showed that rap videos which contain images of women in sexually subordinate roles increase female subjects' acceptance of violence against women, and that listening to misogynistic hip hop increases sexually aggressive behavior in men. A 2007 study by Michael Cobb and William Boettcher found that exposure to rap music increases sexist
Sexism
Sexism, also known as gender discrimination or sex discrimination, is the application of the belief or attitude that there are characteristics implicit to one's gender that indirectly affect one's abilities in unrelated areas...
attitudes toward women. Men who listened to rap music held more sexist beliefs than the control group. Women were also more likely to support sexism when rap music was not overtly misogynistic. However, they were less likely to hold sexist beliefs when the lyrics were very misogynistic. Rudman and Lee found that exposure to violent and misogynistic rap music strengthens the association between black men and negative attributes. People who are exposed to violent and misogynistic rap music are more likely to perceive black men as hostile and sexist.
A longitudinal study
Longitudinal study
A longitudinal study is a correlational research study that involves repeated observations of the same variables over long periods of time — often many decades. It is a type of observational study. Longitudinal studies are often used in psychology to study developmental trends across the...
indicated that young people who regularly listen to sexually degrading lyrics are more likely to have sex at an earlier age while exposure to non-degrading sexual content had no effect. Sexually degrading lyrics were found to be most common in rap music. The survey also suggests that repeated exposure to sexually degrading lyrics may lead girls to expect that they will be treated with disrespect by their partners and that they have to take a submissive role.
Response
In 2004 students at Spelman CollegeSpelman College
Spelman College is a four-year liberal arts women's college located in Atlanta, Georgia, United States. The college is part of the Atlanta University Center academic consortium in Atlanta. Founded in 1881 as the Atlanta Baptist Female Seminary, Spelman was the first historically black female...
protested against Nelly
Nelly
Cornell Iral Haynes, Jr. , better known by his stage name Nelly, is an Grammy Award winning American rapper and actor. He has performed with the rap group St. Lunatics since 1993 and signed to Universal Records in 1999. Under Universal, Nelly began his solo career in 2000 with his debut album...
's music video "Tip Drill
Tip Drill (song)
"Tip Drill" is the name of a 2003 song by Nelly. It was used as a remix of the song "E.I." featuring the St. Lunatics and produced by David Banner. The music video became controversial for its overt depiction of women as sexual objects...
" and misogyny in rap music in general. The students criticized the negative portrayal and sexual objectification of African American women in the video which showed women in bikinis dancing and simulating various sexual acts, men throwing money at women's private parts, and a man swiping a credit card through a woman's buttocks. Building on the momentum generated by the Spelman College protests, Essence
Essence (magazine)
Essence is a monthly magazine for African-American women between the ages of 18 and 49. The magazine covers fashion, lifestyle and beauty with an intimate girlfriend-to-girlfriend tone.-History:...
magazine launched a twelvemonth campaign entitled "Take Back the Music" to combat misogyny in hip hop culture. However, the protests and subsequent campaign received little media coverage. A congressional hearing was held on September 25, 2007 to examine misogyny and racism in hip hop culture. The title of the hearing, "From Imus to Industry: The business of stereotypes and degrading images", referred to radio host Don Imus
Don Imus
John Donald "Don" Imus, Jr. is an American radio host, humorist, philanthropist and writer. His nationally-syndicated talk show, Imus in the Morning, is broadcast throughout the United States by Citadel Media and relayed on television by the Fox Business Network.-Personal life:Imus was born in...
who called the Rutgers University
Rutgers University
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey , is the largest institution for higher education in New Jersey, United States. It was originally chartered as Queen's College in 1766. It is the eighth-oldest college in the United States and one of the nine Colonial colleges founded before the American...
women's basketball team "nappy-headed hos" and later blamed his choice of words on hip hop. Rappers "demean and defame black women", Imus claimed, and call them "worse names than I ever did." As with previous attempts to address misogyny in rap music, the hearing seemed to have no impact and was largely ignored by the press.
Music critics have overlooked or rationalized misogyny in hip hop and its potential societal effects. For example, music critics have largely disregarded portrayals of violence against women by rappers like Eminem and members of Odd Future.
Women rap artists
Hip hop is a male dominated genre in which authenticity has been identified with masculinity. Female artists have traditionally faced many barriers in entering hip hop and have been marginalized as performers. Despite this many women rappers have found ways to contest and resist the objectification and exploitation of women in hip hop culture. Salt-N-PepaSalt-N-Pepa
Salt-N-Pepa is an American hip hop trio from Queens and Brooklyn, New York, that was formed in 1985. The group, consisting of Cheryl "Salt" Renee James, Sandra "Pepa" Denton, and Deidra "DJ Spinderella" Roper, was one of the first all-female rap crews....
was one of the first all-female rap acts to provide pro-woman messages and critique double standards and degrading images of women in hip hop. In her Grammy Award
Grammy Award
A Grammy Award — or Grammy — is an accolade by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States to recognize outstanding achievement in the music industry...
-winning song U.N.I.T.Y.
U.N.I.T.Y.
"U.N.I.T.Y" is a Grammy Award-winning song by rapper/actress Queen Latifah's 1993 album, Black Reign. The single, released on January 6, 1994, spoke out against the disrespect of women in society, addressing issues of street harassment, domestic violence, and slurs against women in hiphop...
, Queen Latifah
Queen Latifah
Dana Elaine Owens , better known by her stage name Queen Latifah, is an American singer, rapper, and actress. Her work in music, film and television has earned her a Golden Globe award, two Screen Actors Guild Awards, two Image Awards, a Grammy Award, six additional Grammy nominations, an Emmy...
challenges male rappers who use the terms "bitch" and "ho" to refer to women. The question "Who you callin' a bitch?" ends each verse of the song. Yo-Yo
Yo-Yo (rapper)
Yo-Yo is a Grammy-nominated American hardcore rapper and actress. Much of her music has advocated female empowerment, denouncing the frequent sexism found in hip-hop music. She is the protege of gangsta rapper Ice Cube...
has dedicated much of her career to condemning hip hop misogyny. Many other women rap and rap soul artists such as Lauryn Hill
Lauryn Hill
Lauryn Noelle Hill is an American singer-songwriter, record producer, and actress.Early in her career, she established her reputation as a member of the Fugees. In 1998, she launched her solo career with the release of the commercially successful and critically acclaimed album, The Miseducation of...
, Erykah Badu
Erykah Badu
Erica Abi Wright , better known by her stage name Erykah Badu , is an American singer-songwriter, record producer, and actress. Her work includes elements from R&B, hip hop and jazz. She is best known for her role in the rise of the neo soul sub-genre, and for her eccentric, cerebral musical...
, Missy Elliott
Missy Elliott
Melissa Arnette "Missy" Elliott , is an American rapper, singer-songwriter, record producer, and actressA five-time Grammy Award winner, Elliott, with record sales of over seven million in the United States, is the only female rapper to have five albums certified platinum by the RIAA, including one...
, Eve and Mary J. Blige
Mary J. Blige
Mary Jane Blige is an American singer-songwriter, record producer and occasional actress. She is a recipient of nine Grammy Awards and four American Music Awards, and has recorded eight multi-platinum albums. She is the only artist with Grammy Award wins in Pop, Rap, Gospel, and R&B. Blige has...
have adopted an independent woman persona which opposes misogynistic representations of women in hip hop. However, some women rap artists offer no resistance to negative portrayals of women and in some cases appear to defend male rappers' misogyny. Lil Kim, Mia X
Mia X
Mia Young , better known by her stage name Mia X, was the first female emcee to sign with No Limit Records. In 1992, she released a single titled “Ask Them Niggas.” From 1995 to 1998, Mia X released three albums for No Limit: Good Girl Gone Bad, Unlady Like, and Mama Drama...
, and Trina
Trina
Katrina Laverne Taylor , better known by her stage name Trina, is an American rapper, songwriter and model from Miami, Florida. Trina first gained notoriety in 1998 with her appearance on Trick Daddy's second studio album www.thug.com to the single "Nann Nigga"...
, for instance, often refer to themselves and other women as bitches and gold diggers. Some female rappers assume the role of the "'ride-or-die' chick" who is frequently praised by male rappers as the ideal woman. The "'ride-or-die' chick”, as hip hop scholar Pough terms this character, is a woman who will do anything for men, even commit crimes and go to prison, to be valued. Tricia Rose argues that women rappers, most of whom are black, may find it difficult to condemn male rappers' misogyny because they need to collectively oppose racism and do not want to contribute to the stereotype that black masculinity is "pathological". Moreover, Cheryl Keyes suggests that women rappers rarely get the opportunity to express empowering messages because, in order to enter rap as performers and to compete with male rappers, they must follow what Keyes calls "male rules". Female rap artists must, according to Keyes, embody the male esthetic and emulate male behavior if they want record producers, disproportionately male, to listen to them.
See also
- HypermasculinityHypermasculinityHypermasculinity is a psychological term for the exaggeration of male stereotypical behavior, such as an emphasis on physical strength, aggression, body hair, body odor, and virility. This term can be pejorative, though it is also used when examining the behavior dispassionately.One of the first...
- MisogynyMisogynyMisogyny is the hatred or dislike of women or girls. Philogyny, meaning fondness, love or admiration towards women, is the antonym of misogyny. The term misandry is the term for men that is parallel to misogyny...
- SexismSexismSexism, also known as gender discrimination or sex discrimination, is the application of the belief or attitude that there are characteristics implicit to one's gender that indirectly affect one's abilities in unrelated areas...
- Sexual objectificationSexual objectificationSexual objectification refers to the practice of regarding or treating another person merely as an instrument towards one's sexual pleasure, and a sex object is a person who is regarded simply as an object of sexual gratification or who is sexually attractive...
- Sexuality in music videosSexuality in music videosSexuality in music videos has become more widespread since the 1980s. Because of its commercial function, music videos must attract the audience's attention and convey a message quickly inside a truncated storyline...
- Violence against womenViolence against womenViolence against women is a technical term used to collectively refer to violent acts that are primarily or exclusively committed against women...
External links
- Generation M: Misogyny in Media & Culture, documentaryDocumentaryA documentary is a creative work of non-fiction, including:* Documentary film, including television* Radio documentary* Documentary photographyRelated terms include:...
by Thomas Keith - Hip Hop: Beyond Beats & Rhymes, documentary by Byron HurtByron HurtByron Patrick Hurt is an American activist and documentary filmmaker.-Biography:Byron Hurt attended Northeastern University, where he played football as a quarterback, and founded God Bless the Child Productions before graduating with a degree in Journalism in 1993...
- What hip-hop has done to Black women by Johnnetta B. Cole
- Sexism, Hip-Hop and Misogyny at Talk of the NationTalk of the NationTalk of the Nation is a talk radio program based in the United States, produced by National Public Radio, and is broadcast nationally from 2 to 4 p.m. Eastern Time. Its focus is current events and controversial issues....