Mythology of the Low Countries
Encyclopedia
The folklore
of the Low Countries
(Netherlands
, Belgium
and Luxembourg
) has its roots in the mythologies
of pre-Christian Gaulish
(Gallo-Roman
) and Germanic cultures, predating the region's Christianization by the Franks
in the Early Middle Ages.
In the time of the Roman Empire and Early Middle Ages, the Low Countries resident peoples included: Germanic tribes north of the Rhine River (Low Franconians, Frisia
ns, Tubanti
, Canninefates, Batavians
), as well as the decidedly more Celtic and Gallo-Roman Gaulish Belgae
tribes of Gallia Belgica
south of the Rhine. Old Dutch
mythology can also mean the myths told in Old Dutch
language specifically, however many of the myths in this language are ancient and part of larger movements across Europe, such as Roman mythology
that spread through the Roman Empire
, and Continental Germanic mythology.
Pre-Christian traditions of veneration of trees (particularly the oak
, see Donar's oak), springs and woods native to the Low Countries have survived in Christianized guise into the Middle Ages
.
Sources for the reconstruction of such pre-Christian traditions include the accounts of the Anglo-Saxon missionaries to the region, medieval and modern folklore and legend, and local toponymy
.
From ancient regional mythology, most names of ancient gods and goddesses in this region come from Germanic origins, particularly in the North. Many of the deities are the same as West Germanic deities
, especially in the north: Wodan
is Dutch for Woden
/Odin
, the god of war and leader of the Wild Hunt
. The Wild Hunt was retold in Dutch with Wodan leading under different guises: Gait with his dogs; Derk with his dogs; Derk with his boar; the glowing horse; Henske with his dogs.). Donar
is Dutch for Thor
the god of thunder.
In Dutch the days of the week
are named for Germanic gods, a custom derived from parallel Roman practice. Note that the following days were named through Roman influence, because the Romans found them to be (roughly) equivalent to their Roman deities:
However other ancient deities are Druidic, Celtic
and Gallo-Roman
in nature, particularly in the south and throughout Flanders: Erecura
the goddess of the earth, Góntia or Ghent (in Belgium)
the moon goddess, Rosmerta
, goddess of fertility, and the deities mentioned by Saint Eligius in Flanders (Jupiter, Neptune, Orcus, Diana, and Minerva).
Finally some deities were regional or specific to one clan: Arduinna
was the Celtic goddess of the Ardennes
forest. Nehalennia
was a goddess of travellers in Zeeland
, where over 160 stone votives depicting her image were located in the sea. Vagdavercustis
was an ancient goddess of the Batavians
mentioned on an altar near Cologne
. Tanfana
is another more mysterious goddess recorded in the 1st century AD.
and wittewijven in Dutch dialects means "women of wits" (wise women), although it sounds the same and often translated as "white women". The witte wieven were similar to völva
, herbalists and wise women in life; in myth they lived on as spirits or elves.
Nature spirits: The following beings may have originated as deities or supernatural beings in mythology, and later recharacterized as nature spirits during the Middle Ages; The Dutch like other Germanic people believed in elves
, the Dutch words for them are elfen, elven, and alven. The moss maiden
s, who appear in Old Dutch and Southern Germanic folklore were known as tree spirits or wood elves, often chased in the Dutch version of the Wild Hunt
. The Kabouter
was the Dutch name for the kobold
(gnome
), a household spirit and earth spirit who usually lived underground.
trees, springs and wooded groves had sacred and medicinal powers.
Corn dollies ("vetulas") were thought to hold the spirit of the corn in harvest rituals. Amulet
s and charms were worn on the head or the arms ("phylacteries") for protection and veneration of the gods and goddesses.
Neolithic ground axes were collected, thought to be Donar's lightning. Farmers hung these axes in their homes to protect against lightning strike, in accordance with the believe that 'lightning never strikes the same place twice'.
After the influence of Christian missionaries, the original mythologies were lessened in power, and for the most part adapted into folklore and legends, often made diminutive. The witte wieven for example became ghosts haunting sacred sites. However sacred beliefs and practices continued, often incorporated with Christianity. In a good example, the 12th century poem from Holland Karel ende Elegast (Charlemagne and elf guest), an elven being is described as the hero who befriends and helps the Christian king Charlemagne in the forest. The Bishop of Utrecht Arnold II van Hoorn, 1372-1375, noted the Flemish people still believed in wearing amulets and charms ("phylacteries"); he defined them as amulets worn on the head or arms, sometimes made out of books or scripture. In the Hieronymous Bosch painting, Cure of Folly
, 1475-1480, the woman balancing a book on her head is thought to be a satire of the people wearing phylacteries.
The written biographies of the Christian missionaries to the Netherlands, sermonizing against pre-Christian beliefs, are coincidentally some of the earliest written accounts of the myths that existed in the region. The missionary texts written by the incoming Christian
missionaries
in the 7th century and 8th century recorded details of the pre-Christian myths of the native culture, although the missionaries showed religious hostility to them as pagan beliefs. The main missionaries of the Netherlands were Willibrord
, Bonifatius
and Saint Eligius
.
(658 – 739), appointed Bishop of Utrecht, came to the Netherlands in 690, and was the first Anglo-Saxon missionary to preach Christianity there. The Christian Franks
had just reoccupied and taken control of the lands from the Frisian
tribes. The vita of Willibrord records he went on a missionary journey to an island called Fositesland (most think this was Helgoland occupied by ethnic Frisians
), between Friesland
and Denmark
. Willibrord found it had sanctuaries and shrines dedicated to the Skandanavian gods Fosite
, son of Balder
and Nanna
. He found the land was extremely sacred
to the native people. A sacred well existed, and people drank its spring water only in silence. Willibrord slew the sacred cattle he found there, and baptized three people in the well within a few days of arriving.
Willibrord took other mission trips on the Dutch mainland where he witnessed that the people considered clearings in woods, springs and wells sacred to their mythology and religion. Willibrord tried to erase their pagan shrines and landmarks. He built a church on a sacred heathen opening in the forest, destroyed a sacred forest in Heiloo
and renamed heathen wells as Christian wells. Many wells were renamed in his name.
In 714, the Frisian King Radboud drove Willibrord and his priests out of the area. Willibrord returned about 719 after the Frankish troops had taken recontol of the area and the King Radbooud had died. Willibrord continued to dismantle pre-Christian sanctuaries.
(672–753), also known as Boniface, was the next missionary among the Frisians and Saxons. He arrived on a missionary trip to the Netherlands in 716, specifically going to Dorestad
, modern-day Wijk bij Duurstede
. When he arrived, Bonifatius found that the Frisians had restored and rebuilt their fana delubrorum, the heathen temples, after Willibrord had been driven out. King Radboud allowed Bonifatius to spread Christian messages but he found the natives had a pantheon
of gods and were not that impressed with Christianity. He left the same year.
In 719 Rome appointed Bonifatius to convert "the savage people of Germania". Bonifatius joined Willibrord in Utrecht to receive a three-year missionary training, then in 721 travelled east of the Netherlands into Hesse
, Germany
.
Bonifatius undertook a final preaching mission in Friesland in June 753 when he was attacked and killed by a group of Frisians
with unknown (legend says resentful) intentions.
ic practices in the Flanders
region comes from the Vita Eligii (Life of Saint Eligius
) (588 to 660) (written by Saint Ouen
). Eligius was the Christian missionary to the people of the Low Countries
in the 7th century. Ouen drew together the familiar admonitions of Eligius to the people of Flanders. Eligius in his sermons denounced "pagan customs" that the people followed. In particular, he denounced many Roman deities and Druidic mythological beliefs and objects:
in the 540s records a belief and/or funerary rite observed at the mouths of the Rhine involving the passage of the dead to the island of Brittia
(Great Britain).
wrote down and translated Dutch folk tales, and published in the book, Dutch Fairy Tales for Young Folks. Among them the story of The Legend of the Wooden Shoe clearly begins with fragments of Druidic mythology in the ancient Netherlands retold for children:
The story outlines the following traditional beliefs in Holland: Wodan
(Mentioned here as "God of Sun") is the deity the Dutch shared with other Germanic people, Dutch name for Odin
. Wednesday is named after him; Holland is from the phrase Holt Land which means "Land of Many Trees". The tale says the land was once covered with forests and people lived in the trees for a "thousand years" until they became an agricultural people. In fact, the trees kept the land firm otherwise it would melt or disappear under water and floods. Eyck is ancient Dutch word for oak
(the modern spelling is 'Eik')that has become a popular Dutch surname. There is notable ambiguity in the tale if the Moss Maiden and Trintje were tree fairies, or a wood elf and tree elf
, respectively. As elves, they communicate the trees' promise to humans to "stand upside down" for the Dutch people. The oak trees in particular were the mythical life giving and medicinal tree and had many mythical purposes:
In this legend, the Kabouter
and the elves show mankind how to turn the trees into piles
to drive into them upside down into the ground and thus to make the land firm to build on, later how to make wooden shoes. Note that historically, Dutch land was low and prone to flooding, hence the land would sometimes flood and wipe out towns and villages, and the flooding was worse when forests were cut down to make way for agricultural and pastoral lands.
:
The creation of the Uddeler- and Bleeke Lake(s): This myth concerns a battle that allegedly took place between Donar the God of Thunder with the winter giants and the "Midgaardsnake" (a giant snake monster) who strategically align against him. The giants throw hail down, while the snake climbs into a tall oak tree and blows poison into the air. Donar attacks, riding through the air on "his billy-goat wagon", the sky blazes and the earth trembles because of his "never missing thunderhammer." Donar strikes the snake on his head with such force on the head that not only was the monster crushed, the mighty thunderhammer went seven miles deep into the earth. The snake dies. However in the attack the snake's poison scorches and stuns Donar. Donar crashes down, with his "steerless goats" and wagon onto the Donderberg (meaning Donar's hill) in Dieren
. Then the earth sank into the sea, the seagod blew a horn and a big black ship came to collect Donar's body. When the floodwaters receded, two lakes mark the spot that are "as deep as the world, the Uddelermeer or "Lake of Uddel" (Uttiloch), and the Godenmeer (God's lake)..." Later the legend continues that Thor's hammer surfaced from the depths. The grave of Migdaardsnake became overgrown with the forest nearby, until in 1222 a bright flame shot out of the pool and the ghost of the snake wriggled up and fled north. The forest was burned and a moor near the lake remains where the forest once was.
Perné notes that Donar was worshipped at the Godenmeer (God's lake), although the translator thinks that the lake Godenmeer may be a Christian version of Wodenmeer, a lake originally dedicated to Wodan.
An ancient stone altar dating from around the 2nd century CE found at Cologne
(Köln), Germany is dedicated to the goddess Vagdavercustis
. Vagdavercustis was most likely a native Germanic or Celtic goddess, who may have had a link with trees or woods. There is some evidence that Vagdavercustis was worshipped by the Batavians
between present-day Netherlands
and Cologne.
Another ancient stone altar has also been found in Ubbergen
, on the Hengstberg (Stallion-hill). It has the following inscription: "Mercurius Friausius (or Eriasus)". Mercurius is Latin for the Roman god Mercury
, the Roman equivalent of Wodan. Friausius is suggested to refer to his wife Frigg
.
In the now flooded sites of Domburg
and Colijnsplaat
, on the East Scheldte Estuary
, there are the remains of temples each dedicated to a deity Nehalennia
. Over 160 carved stone votives with her image have been dredged up at those sites and several inscriptions in Latin thank her for safe passage on the seas.
In Empel
there is the remains of a temple to Hercules Magusanus. This was the Romans' Latin name for the supreme god of the Batavians, Donar. Stone votives and broken weapons as symbolic offerings are at the location.
Eyck
names: The popular Dutch names, Eyck and Van Eyck, mean "oak" and "from the oak", respectively. Oak trees were venerated in Druidic religion and mythology.
Many other place names in Netherlands have ancient mythological meanings, some named after Pre-Christian deities or reflecting other myths of the ancient people:
Folklore of the Low Countries
Folklore of the Low Countries, often just referred to as Dutch folklore, includes the epics, legends, fairy tales and oral traditions of the people of the Netherlands, Luxembourg and Belgium...
of the Low Countries
Low Countries
The Low Countries are the historical lands around the low-lying delta of the Rhine, Scheldt, and Meuse rivers, including the modern countries of Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg and parts of northern France and western Germany....
(Netherlands
Netherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
, Belgium
Belgium
Belgium , officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a federal state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, and those of several other major international organisations such as NATO.Belgium is also a member of, or affiliated to, many...
and Luxembourg
Luxembourg
Luxembourg , officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg , is a landlocked country in western Europe, bordered by Belgium, France, and Germany. It has two principal regions: the Oesling in the North as part of the Ardennes massif, and the Gutland in the south...
) has its roots in the mythologies
Mythology
The term mythology can refer either to the study of myths, or to a body or collection of myths. As examples, comparative mythology is the study of connections between myths from different cultures, whereas Greek mythology is the body of myths from ancient Greece...
of pre-Christian Gaulish
Celtic mythology
Celtic mythology is the mythology of Celtic polytheism, apparently the religion of the Iron Age Celts. Like other Iron Age Europeans, the early Celts maintained a polytheistic mythology and religious structure...
(Gallo-Roman
Gallo-Roman culture
The term Gallo-Roman describes the Romanized culture of Gaul under the rule of the Roman Empire. This was characterized by the Gaulish adoption or adaptation of Roman mores and way of life in a uniquely Gaulish context...
) and Germanic cultures, predating the region's Christianization by the Franks
Franks
The Franks were a confederation of Germanic tribes first attested in the third century AD as living north and east of the Lower Rhine River. From the third to fifth centuries some Franks raided Roman territory while other Franks joined the Roman troops in Gaul. Only the Salian Franks formed a...
in the Early Middle Ages.
In the time of the Roman Empire and Early Middle Ages, the Low Countries resident peoples included: Germanic tribes north of the Rhine River (Low Franconians, Frisia
Frisia
Frisia is a coastal region along the southeastern corner of the North Sea, i.e. the German Bight. Frisia is the traditional homeland of the Frisians, a Germanic people who speak Frisian, a language group closely related to the English language...
ns, Tubanti
Tubanti
The Tubantes were a Germanic tribe, living in the eastern part of The Netherlands. They are often equated to the Tuihanti, whom we know from two inscriptions found near the wall of Hadrian. The modern name Twente possibly derives from the word Tuihanti, the name mentioned on two sacral inscriptions...
, Canninefates, Batavians
Batavians
The Batavi were an ancient Germanic tribe, originally part of the Chatti, reported by Tacitus to have lived around the Rhine delta, in the area that is currently the Netherlands, "an uninhabited district on the extremity of the coast of Gaul, and also of a neighbouring island, surrounded by the...
), as well as the decidedly more Celtic and Gallo-Roman Gaulish Belgae
Gallia Belgica
Gallia Belgica was a Roman province located in what is now the southern part of the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, northeastern France, and western Germany. The indigenous population of Gallia Belgica, the Belgae, consisted of a mixture of Celtic and Germanic tribes...
tribes of Gallia Belgica
Gallia Belgica
Gallia Belgica was a Roman province located in what is now the southern part of the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, northeastern France, and western Germany. The indigenous population of Gallia Belgica, the Belgae, consisted of a mixture of Celtic and Germanic tribes...
south of the Rhine. Old Dutch
Old Dutch
In linguistics, Old Dutch denotes the forms of West Franconian spoken and written in the Netherlands and present-day northern Belgium during the Early Middle Ages. It is regarded as the primary stage in the development of a separate Dutch language...
mythology can also mean the myths told in Old Dutch
Old Dutch
In linguistics, Old Dutch denotes the forms of West Franconian spoken and written in the Netherlands and present-day northern Belgium during the Early Middle Ages. It is regarded as the primary stage in the development of a separate Dutch language...
language specifically, however many of the myths in this language are ancient and part of larger movements across Europe, such as Roman mythology
Roman mythology
Roman mythology is the body of traditional stories pertaining to ancient Rome's legendary origins and religious system, as represented in the literature and visual arts of the Romans...
that spread through the Roman Empire
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
, and Continental Germanic mythology.
Pre-Christian traditions of veneration of trees (particularly the oak
Oak
An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus , of which about 600 species exist. "Oak" may also appear in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus...
, see Donar's oak), springs and woods native to the Low Countries have survived in Christianized guise into the Middle Ages
Middle Ages
The Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
.
Sources for the reconstruction of such pre-Christian traditions include the accounts of the Anglo-Saxon missionaries to the region, medieval and modern folklore and legend, and local toponymy
Toponymy
Toponymy is the scientific study of place names , their origins, meanings, use and typology. The word "toponymy" is derived from the Greek words tópos and ónoma . Toponymy is itself a branch of onomastics, the study of names of all kinds...
.
Deities
West Germanic deities
Continental Germanic mythology is a subset of Germanic mythology, going back to Germanic polytheism of the Migration period as practiced in parts of Central Europe before gradual Christianization during the 6th to 8th centuries, and continued in the legends, and Middle High German epics during the...
, especially in the north: Wodan
Woden
Woden or Wodan is a major deity of Anglo-Saxon and Continental Germanic polytheism. Together with his Norse counterpart Odin, Woden represents a development of the Proto-Germanic god *Wōdanaz....
is Dutch for Woden
Woden
Woden or Wodan is a major deity of Anglo-Saxon and Continental Germanic polytheism. Together with his Norse counterpart Odin, Woden represents a development of the Proto-Germanic god *Wōdanaz....
/Odin
Odin
Odin is a major god in Norse mythology and the ruler of Asgard. Homologous with the Anglo-Saxon "Wōden" and the Old High German "Wotan", the name is descended from Proto-Germanic "*Wodanaz" or "*Wōđanaz"....
, the god of war and leader of the Wild Hunt
Wild Hunt
The Wild Hunt is an ancient folk myth prevalent across Northern, Western and Central Europe. The fundamental premise in all instances is the same: a phantasmal, spectral group of huntsmen with the accoutrements of hunting, horses, hounds, etc., in mad pursuit across the skies or along the ground,...
. The Wild Hunt was retold in Dutch with Wodan leading under different guises: Gait with his dogs; Derk with his dogs; Derk with his boar; the glowing horse; Henske with his dogs.). Donar
Thor
In Norse mythology, Thor is a hammer-wielding god associated with thunder, lightning, storms, oak trees, strength, the protection of mankind, and also hallowing, healing, and fertility...
is Dutch for Thor
Thor
In Norse mythology, Thor is a hammer-wielding god associated with thunder, lightning, storms, oak trees, strength, the protection of mankind, and also hallowing, healing, and fertility...
the god of thunder.
In Dutch the days of the week
Week-day names
The names of the days of the week from the Roman period have been both named after the seven planets of classical astronomy and numbered, beginning with Monday. In Slavic languages, a numbering system was adopted, but beginning with Monday. There was an even older tradition of names in Ancient...
are named for Germanic gods, a custom derived from parallel Roman practice. Note that the following days were named through Roman influence, because the Romans found them to be (roughly) equivalent to their Roman deities:
- dinsdag (Tuesday) named after Tyr - compared to "dies Martis" (MarsMars (mythology)Mars was the Roman god of war and also an agricultural guardian, a combination characteristic of early Rome. He was second in importance only to Jupiter, and he was the most prominent of the military gods worshipped by the Roman legions...
' day) - woensdag (Wednesday) after Wodan - compared to "dies Mercurii" (MercuryMercury (mythology)Mercury was a messenger who wore winged sandals, and a god of trade, the son of Maia Maiestas and Jupiter in Roman mythology. His name is related to the Latin word merx , mercari , and merces...
's day) - donderdag (Thursday) is named after Donar - compared to "dies Jovis" (JupiterJupiter (mythology)In ancient Roman religion and myth, Jupiter or Jove is the king of the gods, and the god of the sky and thunder. He is the equivalent of Zeus in the Greek pantheon....
's day) - vrijdag (Friday) after Frîja - compared to "dies Veneris" (VenusVenus (mythology)Venus is a Roman goddess principally associated with love, beauty, sex,sexual seduction and fertility, who played a key role in many Roman religious festivals and myths...
' day).
However other ancient deities are Druidic, Celtic
Celtic polytheism
Celtic polytheism, commonly known as Celtic paganism, refers to the religious beliefs and practices adhered to by the Iron Age peoples of Western Europe now known as the Celts, roughly between 500 BCE and 500 CE, spanning the La Tène period and the Roman era, and in the case of the Insular Celts...
and Gallo-Roman
Gallo-Roman religion
Gallo-Roman religion was a fusion of the traditional religious practices of the Gauls, who were originally Celtic speakers, and the Roman and Hellenistic religions introduced to the region under Roman Imperial rule. It was the result of selective acculturation....
in nature, particularly in the south and throughout Flanders: Erecura
Erecura
Erecura was a goddess worshipped in ancient times, often thought to be Celtic in origin, mostly represented with the attributes of Proserpina and associated with the Roman underworld god Dis Pater...
the goddess of the earth, Góntia or Ghent (in Belgium)
Góntia
Góntia , also known as Guntia, was a Celtic goddess. Her name may be etymologically related to the Celtic word condate . She may have been the tutelary deity of the river Günz, which is near Günzburg in Germany. She also appears to be connected with the Belgian city Ghent....
the moon goddess, Rosmerta
Rosmerta
In Gallo-Roman religion, Rosmerta was a goddess of fertility and abundance, her attributes being those of plenty such as the cornucopia. Rosmerta is attested by statues, and by inscriptions...
, goddess of fertility, and the deities mentioned by Saint Eligius in Flanders (Jupiter, Neptune, Orcus, Diana, and Minerva).
Finally some deities were regional or specific to one clan: Arduinna
Arduinna
In Celtic mythology, Arduinna was the eponymous goddess of the Ardennes Forest and region, represented as a huntress riding a boar . Her cult originated in what is today known as Ardennes, a region of Belgium, Luxembourg and France...
was the Celtic goddess of the Ardennes
Ardennes
The Ardennes is a region of extensive forests, rolling hills and ridges formed within the Givetian Ardennes mountain range, primarily in Belgium and Luxembourg, but stretching into France , and geologically into the Eifel...
forest. Nehalennia
Nehalennia
Nehalennia is a goddess attested on and depicted upon numerous votive altars discovered around what is now called the province of Zeeland, the Netherlands, where the Rhine River flowed into the North Sea, whose worship dates back at least to the 2nd century BC, and who flourished in the 2nd and...
was a goddess of travellers in Zeeland
Zeeland
Zeeland , also called Zealand in English, is the westernmost province of the Netherlands. The province, located in the south-west of the country, consists of a number of islands and a strip bordering Belgium. Its capital is Middelburg. With a population of about 380,000, its area is about...
, where over 160 stone votives depicting her image were located in the sea. Vagdavercustis
Vagdavercustis
The goddess Vagdavercustis is known from a dedicatory inscription on an altar found at Cologne , Germany. The stone dates from around the 2nd century CE and is now in a museum in Cologne ....
was an ancient goddess of the Batavians
Batavians
The Batavi were an ancient Germanic tribe, originally part of the Chatti, reported by Tacitus to have lived around the Rhine delta, in the area that is currently the Netherlands, "an uninhabited district on the extremity of the coast of Gaul, and also of a neighbouring island, surrounded by the...
mentioned on an altar near Cologne
Cologne
Cologne is Germany's fourth-largest city , and is the largest city both in the Germany Federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia and within the Rhine-Ruhr Metropolitan Area, one of the major European metropolitan areas with more than ten million inhabitants.Cologne is located on both sides of the...
. Tanfana
Tanfana
Tanfana or Tamfana was a goddess of the Istvaeones in ancient Germanic paganism, the destruction of whose temple in the territory of the Marsi is mentioned in Tacitus' Annals.-Literary mentions:...
is another more mysterious goddess recorded in the 1st century AD.
Other beings
The Dutch words witte wievenWitte Wieven
In Dutch mythology and legends, the Witte Wieven are spirits of "wise women" . The mythology dates back at least to the pre-Christian era and was known in the present-day regions of the Netherlands and Belgium and parts of France...
and wittewijven in Dutch dialects means "women of wits" (wise women), although it sounds the same and often translated as "white women". The witte wieven were similar to völva
Völva
A vǫlva or völva is a shamanic seeress in Norse paganism, and a recurring motif in Norse mythology....
, herbalists and wise women in life; in myth they lived on as spirits or elves.
Nature spirits: The following beings may have originated as deities or supernatural beings in mythology, and later recharacterized as nature spirits during the Middle Ages; The Dutch like other Germanic people believed in elves
Elf
An elf is a being of Germanic mythology. The elves were originally thought of as a race of divine beings endowed with magical powers, which they use both for the benefit and the injury of mankind...
, the Dutch words for them are elfen, elven, and alven. The moss maiden
Moss people
The moss people or moss-folk , also referred to as the wood people or wood-folk or forest-folk , are a class of fairy-folk, variously compared to dwarves, elves, or spirits, described in the folklore of Germany as having an intimate connection to trees and the forest...
s, who appear in Old Dutch and Southern Germanic folklore were known as tree spirits or wood elves, often chased in the Dutch version of the Wild Hunt
Wild Hunt
The Wild Hunt is an ancient folk myth prevalent across Northern, Western and Central Europe. The fundamental premise in all instances is the same: a phantasmal, spectral group of huntsmen with the accoutrements of hunting, horses, hounds, etc., in mad pursuit across the skies or along the ground,...
. The Kabouter
Kabouter
Kabouter is the Dutch/Afrikaans word for gnome or leprechaun. In folklore, the Dutch Kabouters are akin to the Irish Leprechaun, Scandinavian Tomte, the English Hob or Brownie and the German Klabauter or kobold. The term kabouter was also adopted by a 1970s hippie movement in Amsterdam that sprang...
was the Dutch name for the kobold
Kobold
The kobold is a sprite stemming from Germanic mythology and surviving into modern times in German folklore. Although usually invisible, a kobold can materialise in the form of an animal, fire, a human being, and a candle. The most common depictions of kobolds show them as humanlike figures the size...
(gnome
Gnome
A gnome is a diminutive spirit in Renaissance magic and alchemy, first introduced by Paracelsus and later adopted by more recent authors including those of modern fantasy literature...
), a household spirit and earth spirit who usually lived underground.
Mythological heroes
The first epic heroes, kings and leaders of The Low Countries, considered mythological, in the sense of supernatural and foundational, include:- Tuisto (Tuisco) - the mythical ancestor of all Germanic tribes.
- MannusMannusMannus is a Germanic mythological figure attested by the 1st century AD Roman historian Tacitus in his work Germania. According to Tacitus, Mannus is the son of Tuisto and the progenitor of the three Germanic tribes Ingaevones, Herminones and Istvaeones.-Tacitus' account:Tacitus explicitly...
- ancestor of a number of Germanic tribes, son of Tuisto.- IngYngviYngvi, Yngvin, Ingwine, Inguin are names that relate to an older theonym Ing and which appears to have been the older name for the god Freyr ....
(Ingwaz, Yngvi) - founder of the IngaevonesIngaevonesThe Ingaevones or, as Pliny has it, apparently more accurately, Ingvaeones , as described in Tacitus's Germania, written c. 98 AD, were a West Germanic cultural group living along the North Sea coast in the areas of Jutland, Holstein, Frisia and the Danish islands, where they had by the 1st...
tribe, son of Mannus. - Istaev - founder of the IstvaeonesIstvaeonesThe Istvaeones, also called Istaevones, Istriaones, Istriones, Sthraones, Thracones, Rhine Germans and Weser-Rhine Germans , were a West Germanic cultural group or proto-tribe...
tribe, son of Mannus.
- Ing
- Mannus
- Redbad, King of the Frisians
- FolcwaldFolcwaldFolcwald is the father of Finn, a legendary Frisian king. He is mentioned in Widsith and in Beowulf; a passage from Beowulf as translated by Seamus Heaney reads:...
- hero of Frisian tribes.- Finn (Frisian)Finn (Frisian)Finn, son of Folcwald, was a legendary Frisian lord. He is mentioned in Widsith, in Beowulf, and in the Finnsburg Fragment. There is also a Finn mentioned in Historia Brittonum....
- hero of Frisian tribes, Frisian lord, son of Folcwald.
- Finn (Frisian)
Mythological objects
Objects considered magical or sacred in the Low Countries (7th century) included: OakOak
An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus , of which about 600 species exist. "Oak" may also appear in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus...
trees, springs and wooded groves had sacred and medicinal powers.
Corn dollies ("vetulas") were thought to hold the spirit of the corn in harvest rituals. Amulet
Amulet
An amulet, similar to a talisman , is any object intended to bring good luck or protection to its owner.Potential amulets include gems, especially engraved gems, statues, coins, drawings, pendants, rings, plants and animals; even words said in certain occasions—for example: vade retro satana—, to...
s and charms were worn on the head or the arms ("phylacteries") for protection and veneration of the gods and goddesses.
Neolithic ground axes were collected, thought to be Donar's lightning. Farmers hung these axes in their homes to protect against lightning strike, in accordance with the believe that 'lightning never strikes the same place twice'.
Missionary accounts
The Extraction of the Stone of Madness (The Cure of Folly)
Cutting the Stone, also called The Extraction of the Stone of Madness or The Cure of Folly, is a painting by Hieronymus Bosch in the Museo del Prado in Madrid, completed around 1494 or later....
, 1475-1480, the woman balancing a book on her head is thought to be a satire of the people wearing phylacteries.
The written biographies of the Christian missionaries to the Netherlands, sermonizing against pre-Christian beliefs, are coincidentally some of the earliest written accounts of the myths that existed in the region. The missionary texts written by the incoming Christian
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
missionaries
Missionary
A missionary is a member of a religious group sent into an area to do evangelism or ministries of service, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care and economic development. The word "mission" originates from 1598 when the Jesuits sent members abroad, derived from the Latin...
in the 7th century and 8th century recorded details of the pre-Christian myths of the native culture, although the missionaries showed religious hostility to them as pagan beliefs. The main missionaries of the Netherlands were Willibrord
Willibrord
__notoc__Willibrord was a Northumbrian missionary saint, known as the "Apostle to the Frisians" in the modern Netherlands...
, Bonifatius
Bonifatius
Bonifatius can be interpreted as any of the following:*Saint Boniface, an 8th century English missionary, bishop and martyr*Bonifacius, a 5th century Roman general and governor*Nine popes by this name, see List of Popes*Boniface of Tarsus...
and Saint Eligius
Saint Eligius
Saint Eligius is the patron saint of goldsmiths, other metalworkers, and coin collectors. He is also the patron saint of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers , a corps of the British Army, but he is best known for being the patron saint of horses and those who work with them...
.
Willibrord
WillibrordWillibrord
__notoc__Willibrord was a Northumbrian missionary saint, known as the "Apostle to the Frisians" in the modern Netherlands...
(658 – 739), appointed Bishop of Utrecht, came to the Netherlands in 690, and was the first Anglo-Saxon missionary to preach Christianity there. The Christian Franks
Franks
The Franks were a confederation of Germanic tribes first attested in the third century AD as living north and east of the Lower Rhine River. From the third to fifth centuries some Franks raided Roman territory while other Franks joined the Roman troops in Gaul. Only the Salian Franks formed a...
had just reoccupied and taken control of the lands from the Frisian
Frisians
The Frisians are a Germanic ethnic group native to the coastal parts of the Netherlands and Germany. They are concentrated in the Dutch provinces of Friesland and Groningen and, in Germany, East Frisia and North Frisia, that was a part of Denmark until 1864. They inhabit an area known as Frisia...
tribes. The vita of Willibrord records he went on a missionary journey to an island called Fositesland (most think this was Helgoland occupied by ethnic Frisians
Frisians
The Frisians are a Germanic ethnic group native to the coastal parts of the Netherlands and Germany. They are concentrated in the Dutch provinces of Friesland and Groningen and, in Germany, East Frisia and North Frisia, that was a part of Denmark until 1864. They inhabit an area known as Frisia...
), between Friesland
Friesland
Friesland is a province in the north of the Netherlands and part of the ancient region of Frisia.Until the end of 1996, the province bore Friesland as its official name. In 1997 this Dutch name lost its official status to the Frisian Fryslân...
and Denmark
Denmark
Denmark is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. The countries of Denmark and Greenland, as well as the Faroe Islands, constitute the Kingdom of Denmark . It is the southernmost of the Nordic countries, southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and bordered to the south by Germany. Denmark...
. Willibrord found it had sanctuaries and shrines dedicated to the Skandanavian gods Fosite
Forseti
Forseti is an Æsir god of justice and reconciliation in Norse mythology. He is generally identified with Fosite, a god of the Frisians...
, son of Balder
Balder
Baldr is a god in Norse mythology.In the 12th century, Danish accounts by Saxo Grammaticus and other Danish Latin chroniclers recorded a euhemerized account of his story...
and Nanna
Nanna (Norse deity)
In Norse mythology, Nanna Nepsdóttir or simply Nanna is a goddess associated with the god Baldr. Accounts of Nanna vary greatly by source. In the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson, Nanna is the wife of Baldr and the couple produced a son, the god Forseti. After Baldr's...
. He found the land was extremely sacred
Sacred
Holiness, or sanctity, is in general the state of being holy or sacred...
to the native people. A sacred well existed, and people drank its spring water only in silence. Willibrord slew the sacred cattle he found there, and baptized three people in the well within a few days of arriving.
Willibrord took other mission trips on the Dutch mainland where he witnessed that the people considered clearings in woods, springs and wells sacred to their mythology and religion. Willibrord tried to erase their pagan shrines and landmarks. He built a church on a sacred heathen opening in the forest, destroyed a sacred forest in Heiloo
Heiloo
Heiloo is a municipality and town in the Netherlands, in the province of North Holland. The community is part of the cooperation region Kennemerland and is located in the historical region of West Friesland....
and renamed heathen wells as Christian wells. Many wells were renamed in his name.
In 714, the Frisian King Radboud drove Willibrord and his priests out of the area. Willibrord returned about 719 after the Frankish troops had taken recontol of the area and the King Radbooud had died. Willibrord continued to dismantle pre-Christian sanctuaries.
Bonifatius
BonifatiusSaint Boniface
Saint Boniface , the Apostle of the Germans, born Winfrid, Wynfrith, or Wynfryth in the kingdom of Wessex, probably at Crediton , was a missionary who propagated Christianity in the Frankish Empire during the 8th century. He is the patron saint of Germany and the first archbishop of Mainz...
(672–753), also known as Boniface, was the next missionary among the Frisians and Saxons. He arrived on a missionary trip to the Netherlands in 716, specifically going to Dorestad
Dorestad
In the Early Middle Ages, Dorestad was the largest settlement of northwestern Europe. It was a large, flourishing trading place, three kilometers long, situated where the rivers Rhine and Lek diverge southeast of Utrecht in the Netherlands near the modern town of Wijk bij Duurstede...
, modern-day Wijk bij Duurstede
Wijk bij Duurstede
- The city of Wijk bij Duurstede :The city is located on the Rhine. At Wijk bij Duurstede, the Kromme Rijn branches off, and the main branch is called Lek River downstream from Wijk bij Duurstede....
. When he arrived, Bonifatius found that the Frisians had restored and rebuilt their fana delubrorum, the heathen temples, after Willibrord had been driven out. King Radboud allowed Bonifatius to spread Christian messages but he found the natives had a pantheon
Pantheon (gods)
A pantheon is a set of all the gods of a particular polytheistic religion or mythology.Max Weber's 1922 opus, Economy and Society discusses the link between a...
of gods and were not that impressed with Christianity. He left the same year.
In 719 Rome appointed Bonifatius to convert "the savage people of Germania". Bonifatius joined Willibrord in Utrecht to receive a three-year missionary training, then in 721 travelled east of the Netherlands into Hesse
Hesse
Hesse or Hessia is both a cultural region of Germany and the name of an individual German state.* The cultural region of Hesse includes both the State of Hesse and the area known as Rhenish Hesse in the neighbouring Rhineland-Palatinate state...
, Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
.
Bonifatius undertook a final preaching mission in Friesland in June 753 when he was attacked and killed by a group of Frisians
Frisians
The Frisians are a Germanic ethnic group native to the coastal parts of the Netherlands and Germany. They are concentrated in the Dutch provinces of Friesland and Groningen and, in Germany, East Frisia and North Frisia, that was a part of Denmark until 1864. They inhabit an area known as Frisia...
with unknown (legend says resentful) intentions.
Saint Eligius
One of the best glimpses of late DruidDruid
A druid was a member of the priestly class in Britain, Ireland, and Gaul, and possibly other parts of Celtic western Europe, during the Iron Age....
ic practices in the Flanders
Flanders
Flanders is the community of the Flemings but also one of the institutions in Belgium, and a geographical region located in parts of present-day Belgium, France and the Netherlands. "Flanders" can also refer to the northern part of Belgium that contains Brussels, Bruges, Ghent and Antwerp...
region comes from the Vita Eligii (Life of Saint Eligius
Saint Eligius
Saint Eligius is the patron saint of goldsmiths, other metalworkers, and coin collectors. He is also the patron saint of the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers , a corps of the British Army, but he is best known for being the patron saint of horses and those who work with them...
) (588 to 660) (written by Saint Ouen
Ouen
Audoin, Audoen or Ouen, and Dado to his contemporaries, , was a Frankish bishop, courtier, chronicler, and Catholic saint....
). Eligius was the Christian missionary to the people of the Low Countries
Low Countries
The Low Countries are the historical lands around the low-lying delta of the Rhine, Scheldt, and Meuse rivers, including the modern countries of Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg and parts of northern France and western Germany....
in the 7th century. Ouen drew together the familiar admonitions of Eligius to the people of Flanders. Eligius in his sermons denounced "pagan customs" that the people followed. In particular, he denounced many Roman deities and Druidic mythological beliefs and objects:
"I denounce and contest, that you shall observe no sacrilegious pagan customs. For no cause or infirmity should you consult magicians, diviners, sorcerers or incantators. ..Do not observe augurAugurThe augur was a priest and official in the classical world, especially ancient Rome and Etruria. His main role was to interpret the will of the gods by studying the flight of birds: whether they are flying in groups/alone, what noises they make as they fly, direction of flight and what kind of...
ies ... No influence attaches to the first work of the day or the [phase of the] moon. ... [Do not] make vetulas [a type of corn dollyCorn dollyCorn dollies or corn mothers are a form of straw work made as part of harvest customs of Europe before mechanization.Before Christianisation, in traditional pagan European culture it was believed that the spirit of the corn lived amongst the crop, and that the harvest made it effectively homeless...
], little deer or iotticos or set tables [for the house-elfElfAn elf is a being of Germanic mythology. The elves were originally thought of as a race of divine beings endowed with magical powers, which they use both for the benefit and the injury of mankind...
] at night or exchange New YearNew YearThe New Year is the day that marks the time of the beginning of a new calendar year, and is the day on which the year count of the specific calendar used is incremented. For many cultures, the event is celebrated in some manner....
gifts or supply superfluous drinks [a YuleYuleYule or Yuletide is a winter festival that was initially celebrated by the historical Germanic people as a pagan religious festival, though it was later absorbed into, and equated with, the Christian festival of Christmas. The festival was originally celebrated from late December to early January...
midsummerMidsummerMidsummer may simply refer to the period of time centered upon the summer solstice, but more often refers to specific European celebrations that accompany the actual solstice, or that take place on a day between June 21 and June 24, and the preceding evening. The exact dates vary between different...
custom]...No Christian. .. performs solestitia [solstice rites?] or dancing or leaping or diabolical chants. No Christian should presume to invoke the name of a demon, not NeptuneNeptune (mythology)Neptune was the god of water and the sea in Roman mythology and religion. He is analogous with, but not identical to, the Greek god Poseidon. In the Greek-influenced tradition, Neptune was the brother of Jupiter and Pluto, each of them presiding over one of the three realms of the universe,...
or OrcusOrcus (mythology)Orcus was a god of the underworld, punisher of broken oaths in Italic and Roman mythology. As with Hades, the name of the god was also used for the underworld itself. In the later tradition, he was conflated with Dis Pater, who was the Roman equivalent of Pluto.Orcus was portrayed in paintings in...
or DianaDiana (mythology)In Roman mythology, Diana was the goddess of the hunt and moon and birthing, being associated with wild animals and woodland, and having the power to talk to and control animals. She was equated with the Greek goddess Artemis, though she had an independent origin in Italy...
or MinervaMinervaMinerva was the Roman goddess whom Romans from the 2nd century BC onwards equated with the Greek goddess Athena. She was the virgin goddess of poetry, medicine, wisdom, commerce, weaving, crafts, magic...
or GeniscusGeniscusGeniscus is a deity who appears in a sermon of Saint Eligius along with Neptune, Orcus, Minerva and Diana. These are all, the Christian homilist says, "demons" who should not be believed in or invoked...
... No one should observe JoveJupiter (mythology)In ancient Roman religion and myth, Jupiter or Jove is the king of the gods, and the god of the sky and thunder. He is the equivalent of Zeus in the Greek pantheon....
's day in idleness. ... No Christian should make or render any devotion to the gods of the triviumTrivia (mythology)Trivia in Roman mythology was the goddess who "haunted crossroads, graveyards, and was the goddess of sorcery and witchcraft, she wandered about at night and was seen only by the barking of dogs who told of her approach." She was the equivalent of the Greek goddess Hecate, the goddess of...
, where three roads meet, to the fanes or the rocks, or springs or groves or corners. None should presume to hang any phylacteries from the neck of man nor beast. ..None should presume to make lustrations or incantations with herbs, or to pass cattle through a hollow tree or ditch ... No woman should presume to hang amber from her neck or call upon MinervaMinervaMinerva was the Roman goddess whom Romans from the 2nd century BC onwards equated with the Greek goddess Athena. She was the virgin goddess of poetry, medicine, wisdom, commerce, weaving, crafts, magic...
or other ill-starred beings in their weaving or dyeing. .. None should call the sun or moon lord or swear by them. .. No one should tell fateDestinyDestiny or fate refers to a predetermined course of events. It may be conceived as a predetermined future, whether in general or of an individual...
or fortune or horoscopeHoroscopeIn astrology, a horoscope is a chart or diagram representing the positions of the Sun, Moon, planets, the astrological aspects, and sensitive angles at the time of an event, such as the moment of a person's birth. The word horoscope is derived from Greek words meaning "a look at the hours" In...
s by them as those do who believe that a person must be what he was born to be."
Procopius
ProcopiusProcopius
Procopius of Caesarea was a prominent Byzantine scholar from Palestine. Accompanying the general Belisarius in the wars of the Emperor Justinian I, he became the principal historian of the 6th century, writing the Wars of Justinian, the Buildings of Justinian and the celebrated Secret History...
in the 540s records a belief and/or funerary rite observed at the mouths of the Rhine involving the passage of the dead to the island of Brittia
Brittia
Brittia according to Procopius was an island he considered to be known to the inhabitants of the Low Countries under Frankish rule , corresponding both to a real island used for burial and a mythological Isle of the Blessed, to which the souls of the dead are transported.Procopius's Brittia lies...
(Great Britain).
Folklore
In 1918, William Elliot GriffisWilliam Elliot Griffis
William Elliot Griffis was an American orientalist, Congregational minister, lecturer, and prolific author....
wrote down and translated Dutch folk tales, and published in the book, Dutch Fairy Tales for Young Folks. Among them the story of The Legend of the Wooden Shoe clearly begins with fragments of Druidic mythology in the ancient Netherlands retold for children:
"In years long gone, too many for the almanac to tell of, or for clocks and watches to measure, millions of good fairiesFairyA fairy is a type of mythical being or legendary creature, a form of spirit, often described as metaphysical, supernatural or preternatural.Fairies resemble various beings of other mythologies, though even folklore that uses the term...
came down from the sun and went into the earth. There, they changed themselves into roots and leaves, and became trees. There were many kinds of these, as they covered the earth, but the pinePinePines are trees in the genus Pinus ,in the family Pinaceae. They make up the monotypic subfamily Pinoideae. There are about 115 species of pine, although different authorities accept between 105 and 125 species.-Etymology:...
and birchBirchBirch is a tree or shrub of the genus Betula , in the family Betulaceae, closely related to the beech/oak family, Fagaceae. The Betula genus contains 30–60 known taxa...
, ashAsh treeFraxinus is a genus flowering plants in the olive and lilac family, Oleaceae. It contains 45-65 species of usually medium to large trees, mostly deciduous though a few subtropical species are evergreen. The tree's common English name, ash, goes back to the Old English æsc, while the generic name...
and oakOakAn oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus , of which about 600 species exist. "Oak" may also appear in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus...
, were the chief ones that made Holland. The fairies that lived in the trees bore the name of Moss MaidensMoss peopleThe moss people or moss-folk , also referred to as the wood people or wood-folk or forest-folk , are a class of fairy-folk, variously compared to dwarves, elves, or spirits, described in the folklore of Germany as having an intimate connection to trees and the forest...
, or Tree 'Trintjes,' which is the Dutch pet name for Kate, or Katharine...."
The story outlines the following traditional beliefs in Holland: Wodan
Woden
Woden or Wodan is a major deity of Anglo-Saxon and Continental Germanic polytheism. Together with his Norse counterpart Odin, Woden represents a development of the Proto-Germanic god *Wōdanaz....
(Mentioned here as "God of Sun") is the deity the Dutch shared with other Germanic people, Dutch name for Odin
Odin
Odin is a major god in Norse mythology and the ruler of Asgard. Homologous with the Anglo-Saxon "Wōden" and the Old High German "Wotan", the name is descended from Proto-Germanic "*Wodanaz" or "*Wōđanaz"....
. Wednesday is named after him; Holland is from the phrase Holt Land which means "Land of Many Trees". The tale says the land was once covered with forests and people lived in the trees for a "thousand years" until they became an agricultural people. In fact, the trees kept the land firm otherwise it would melt or disappear under water and floods. Eyck is ancient Dutch word for oak
Oak
An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus , of which about 600 species exist. "Oak" may also appear in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus...
(the modern spelling is 'Eik')that has become a popular Dutch surname. There is notable ambiguity in the tale if the Moss Maiden and Trintje were tree fairies, or a wood elf and tree elf
Elf
An elf is a being of Germanic mythology. The elves were originally thought of as a race of divine beings endowed with magical powers, which they use both for the benefit and the injury of mankind...
, respectively. As elves, they communicate the trees' promise to humans to "stand upside down" for the Dutch people. The oak trees in particular were the mythical life giving and medicinal tree and had many mythical purposes:
"Under its branches, near the trunk, people laid their sick, hoping for help from the gods. Beneath the oak boughs. ..wives joined hand in hand around its girth, hoping to have beautiful children. Up among its leafy branches the new babies lay, before they were found in the cradle by the other children. To make a young child grow up to be strong and healthy, mothers drew them through a split sapling or young tree. Even more wonderful, as medicine for the country itself, the oak had power to heal. The new land sometimes suffered from disease called the val [or fall]. When sick with the val, the ground sunk. Then people, houses, churches, barns and cattle all went down, out of sight, and were lost forever, in a flood of water."
In this legend, the Kabouter
Kabouter
Kabouter is the Dutch/Afrikaans word for gnome or leprechaun. In folklore, the Dutch Kabouters are akin to the Irish Leprechaun, Scandinavian Tomte, the English Hob or Brownie and the German Klabauter or kobold. The term kabouter was also adopted by a 1970s hippie movement in Amsterdam that sprang...
and the elves show mankind how to turn the trees into piles
Deep foundation
A deep foundation is a type of foundation distinguished from shallow foundations by the depth they are embedded into the ground. There are many reasons a geotechnical engineer would recommend a deep foundation over a shallow foundation, but some of the common reasons are very large design loads, a...
to drive into them upside down into the ground and thus to make the land firm to build on, later how to make wooden shoes. Note that historically, Dutch land was low and prone to flooding, hence the land would sometimes flood and wipe out towns and villages, and the flooding was worse when forests were cut down to make way for agricultural and pastoral lands.
Landmarks and toponymy
Many regional legends exist in the Low Countries about the origins of natural landmarks such as hills, bodies of water, springs, wells, forests and the sea, that attribute creation to the ancient gods. Other legends tell where different witte wieven lived on as spirits in the Middle Ages, which are probably recharacterized stories of sacred sites. Many nice examples were collected in the book Veluwsche Sagen by Gustaaf van de Wall Perné (1877-1911). The Veluwsche Sagen was a historically researched collection of Dutch "sagas" from the legends and folk almanacs in the province of GelderlandGelderland
Gelderland is the largest province of the Netherlands, located in the central eastern part of the country. The capital city is Arnhem. The two other major cities, Nijmegen and Apeldoorn have more inhabitants. Other major regional centers in Gelderland are Ede, Doetinchem, Zutphen, Tiel, Wijchen,...
:
The creation of the Uddeler- and Bleeke Lake(s): This myth concerns a battle that allegedly took place between Donar the God of Thunder with the winter giants and the "Midgaardsnake" (a giant snake monster) who strategically align against him. The giants throw hail down, while the snake climbs into a tall oak tree and blows poison into the air. Donar attacks, riding through the air on "his billy-goat wagon", the sky blazes and the earth trembles because of his "never missing thunderhammer." Donar strikes the snake on his head with such force on the head that not only was the monster crushed, the mighty thunderhammer went seven miles deep into the earth. The snake dies. However in the attack the snake's poison scorches and stuns Donar. Donar crashes down, with his "steerless goats" and wagon onto the Donderberg (meaning Donar's hill) in Dieren
Dieren
Dieren is a town in the Dutch province of Gelderland. It is located in the municipality of Rheden, between Zutphen and Arnhem.Dieren was a separate municipality until 1818, when it became a part of Rheden....
. Then the earth sank into the sea, the seagod blew a horn and a big black ship came to collect Donar's body. When the floodwaters receded, two lakes mark the spot that are "as deep as the world, the Uddelermeer or "Lake of Uddel" (Uttiloch), and the Godenmeer (God's lake)..." Later the legend continues that Thor's hammer surfaced from the depths. The grave of Migdaardsnake became overgrown with the forest nearby, until in 1222 a bright flame shot out of the pool and the ghost of the snake wriggled up and fled north. The forest was burned and a moor near the lake remains where the forest once was.
Perné notes that Donar was worshipped at the Godenmeer (God's lake), although the translator thinks that the lake Godenmeer may be a Christian version of Wodenmeer, a lake originally dedicated to Wodan.
Monuments
Cologne
Cologne is Germany's fourth-largest city , and is the largest city both in the Germany Federal State of North Rhine-Westphalia and within the Rhine-Ruhr Metropolitan Area, one of the major European metropolitan areas with more than ten million inhabitants.Cologne is located on both sides of the...
(Köln), Germany is dedicated to the goddess Vagdavercustis
Vagdavercustis
The goddess Vagdavercustis is known from a dedicatory inscription on an altar found at Cologne , Germany. The stone dates from around the 2nd century CE and is now in a museum in Cologne ....
. Vagdavercustis was most likely a native Germanic or Celtic goddess, who may have had a link with trees or woods. There is some evidence that Vagdavercustis was worshipped by the Batavians
Batavians
The Batavi were an ancient Germanic tribe, originally part of the Chatti, reported by Tacitus to have lived around the Rhine delta, in the area that is currently the Netherlands, "an uninhabited district on the extremity of the coast of Gaul, and also of a neighbouring island, surrounded by the...
between present-day Netherlands
Netherlands
The Netherlands is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with several islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders...
and Cologne.
Another ancient stone altar has also been found in Ubbergen
Ubbergen
Ubbergen is a municipality and a town in the eastern Netherlands.- Population centres :Beek, Berg en Dal, Erlecom, Groenlanden, Kekerdom, Leuth, Ooij, Persingen, Tiengeboden, Ubbergen and Wercheren.-External links:*...
, on the Hengstberg (Stallion-hill). It has the following inscription: "Mercurius Friausius (or Eriasus)". Mercurius is Latin for the Roman god Mercury
Mercury (mythology)
Mercury was a messenger who wore winged sandals, and a god of trade, the son of Maia Maiestas and Jupiter in Roman mythology. His name is related to the Latin word merx , mercari , and merces...
, the Roman equivalent of Wodan. Friausius is suggested to refer to his wife Frigg
Frigg
Frigg is a major goddess in Norse paganism, a subset of Germanic paganism. She is said to be the wife of Odin, and is the "foremost among the goddesses" and the queen of Asgard. Frigg appears primarily in Norse mythological stories as a wife and a mother. She is also described as having the power...
.
In the now flooded sites of Domburg
Domburg
Domburg is a seaside resort on the North Sea, on the northwest coast of Walcheren in the Dutch province of Zeeland. It is a part of the municipality of Veere, and lies about 11 km northwest of the city of Middelburg, the provincial capital.-Demographics:...
and Colijnsplaat
Colijnsplaat
Colijnsplaat is a town in the Dutch province of Zeeland. It is a part of the municipality of Noord-Beveland, and lies about 20 km northeast of Middelburg.In 2001, the town of Colijnsplaat had 1563 inhabitants...
, on the East Scheldte Estuary
Oosterschelde
The Oosterschelde is an estuary in Zeeland, Netherlands, between Schouwen-Duiveland and Tholen on the north and Noord-Beveland and Zuid-Beveland on the south.During the Roman Era it was the major mouth of the Scheldt River. Before the St...
, there are the remains of temples each dedicated to a deity Nehalennia
Nehalennia
Nehalennia is a goddess attested on and depicted upon numerous votive altars discovered around what is now called the province of Zeeland, the Netherlands, where the Rhine River flowed into the North Sea, whose worship dates back at least to the 2nd century BC, and who flourished in the 2nd and...
. Over 160 carved stone votives with her image have been dredged up at those sites and several inscriptions in Latin thank her for safe passage on the seas.
In Empel
Empel
Empel is a town in the Dutch province of North Brabant. It is located in the municipality of 's-Hertogenbosch.Empel was a separate municipality until 1971, when it was merged with 's-Hertogenbosch. The complete name of the municipality was Empel en Meerwijk.-Points of interest:Empel was the ancient...
there is the remains of a temple to Hercules Magusanus. This was the Romans' Latin name for the supreme god of the Batavians, Donar. Stone votives and broken weapons as symbolic offerings are at the location.
List of toponyms
Holland: This place name derives from the words Holt Land which means "Land of Many Trees", "Forest Land." According to the tradition (The Legend of the Wooden Shoe), the trees were filled with good spirits, and kept the land firm otherwise it would melt or disappear under water and floods.Eyck
Oak
An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus , of which about 600 species exist. "Oak" may also appear in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus...
names: The popular Dutch names, Eyck and Van Eyck, mean "oak" and "from the oak", respectively. Oak trees were venerated in Druidic religion and mythology.
Many other place names in Netherlands have ancient mythological meanings, some named after Pre-Christian deities or reflecting other myths of the ancient people:
- Donderbergen - translates as "Thunder hills", once dedicated to Donar (located in DierenDierenDieren is a town in the Dutch province of Gelderland. It is located in the municipality of Rheden, between Zutphen and Arnhem.Dieren was a separate municipality until 1818, when it became a part of Rheden....
). - ElstElstElst is the name of a number of towns:*Elst; a village and former municipality, now part of Overbetuwe, in Gelderland*Elst; a village in the municipality of Rhenen, in the province of Utrecht*Elst; a village in the municipality of Maasdonk, in North Brabant...
- name is derivative of the word "Heliste", which means sanctuary. - Godenmeer - translates "God's lake" or "Woden's lake" (see legend of the Uddelermeer, Uddeler- and Bleeke Lake)
- Godsberg/Godensbergen - translates "God's hill"/"Gods' hills", once dedicated to Wodan (hills located in HattemHattemHattem is a municipality and a city in the eastern Netherlands. The city population is 11,797. The name “Hattem” is a typical farmyard name. The exact origin of “Hattem” is yet unclear. In general two explanation exist. Hattem would be the ‘heem’ of a people who belong to the tribe of Chattuarii...
and RuurloRuurloRuurlo is a former municipality and a town in the eastern part of the Netherlands in the province of Gelderland. It has a population of 8,676 in 2004....
). - Helsbergen - translates "Hel's hills", once dedicated to HelHel (being)In Norse mythology, Hel is a being who presides over a realm of the same name, where she receives a portion of the dead. Hel is attested in the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson...
(in RhedenRhedenRheden is a municipality and a town in the eastern Netherlands.- Population centres :*Velp *Dieren *Rheden *De Steeg *Ellecom *Spankeren *Laag Soeren -Transportation:...
). - Heilige Berg - translates "Holy Hill" (in Roekel).
- Hemelse bergen - translates "Heavenly hills", once dedicated to HeimdalHeimdallIn Norse mythology, Heimdallr is a god who possesses the resounding horn Gjallarhorn, owns the golden-maned horse Gulltoppr, has gold teeth, and is the son of Nine Mothers...
(in ArnhemArnhemArnhem is a city and municipality, situated in the eastern part of the Netherlands. It is the capital of the province of Gelderland and located near the river Nederrijn as well as near the St. Jansbeek, which was the source of the city's development. Arnhem has 146,095 residents as one of the...
, NunspeetNunspeetNunspeet is a municipality and town in the central Netherlands. It has been an agricultural site since prehistoric times. It contains a number of villages, like Oosteinde, Westeinde, Hulshorst, Elspeet, Vierhouten and Hoophuizen. Nunspeet has a vivid historical foundation, called Nuwenspete...
, OosterbeekOosterbeekOosterbeek is a village in the Dutch province of Gelderland. It is located in the municipality of Renkum, about 5 km west of Arnhem.The oldest part of the village of Oosterbeek is the Benedendorp , on the northern bank of the river Rhine...
). - Hennendal - translates "Valley of the Dead" (near HummeloHummeloHummelo is a village in the Dutch province of Gelderland. It is located in the municipality of Bronckhorst, about 6 km northwest of Doetinchem....
) - Manebergen - translates "Moon hills", once a sacrificial place for the Moon.
- Materberg - translates "mother-goddess hills".
- Paasbergen - translates "Easter hills", once dedicated to spring, Ostara (hills with this name located in ArnhemArnhemArnhem is a city and municipality, situated in the eastern part of the Netherlands. It is the capital of the province of Gelderland and located near the river Nederrijn as well as near the St. Jansbeek, which was the source of the city's development. Arnhem has 146,095 residents as one of the...
, EdeEde, Netherlands' is a municipality and a town in the center of the Netherlands, in the province of Gelderland.- Population centres :Community :* Bennekom: 14.749* De Klomp: 508* Deelen: 50* Ede : 67.812* Ederveen: 3.167* Harskamp: 3.464...
, ErmeloErmeloErmelo is a municipality and a town in the Netherlands, in the province of Gelderland in the Veluwe area with a population of over 26.000.-Etymology:...
, LochemLochemLochem is a municipality and a city in the eastern Netherlands. it is also the hebrew word for soldier or warrior. On 1 January 2005, the municipality merged with the municipality of Gorssel.- Population centres :Small hamlets are printed in italics....
, LunterenLunterenLunteren is a place in Gelderland Province, Netherlands. It has a railway station and the train travels between Amersfoort and Ede.It is known also because of three Conference Centres in the vicinity, like Het Bosgoed, which hosting especially academic conferences and De Werelt Congress Hotel.It...
, TerborgTerborgTerborg is a village in the Dutch province of Gelderland, in the east of the Netherlands. It is located in the municipality of Oude IJsselstreek. The village lies about 7 km southeast of Doetinchem. The population is about 4600 inhabitants....
/ WischWisch-Places:*Wisch , a former municipality in Gelderland, the Netherlands*Wisch, Nordfriesland, a municipality in the district of Nordfriesland, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany*Wisch, Plön, a municipality in the district of Plön, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany...
, Oldenzaal / LosserLosser-Population centres:*Beuningen*De Lutte*Glane*Losser*Overdinkel-Losser:The oldest known reference to Losser dates from the tenth century. Originally, the village consisted of two separate parts. Both were almost completely destroyed when on 21 September 1665, troops from Münster set fire to...
). - Nijmegen - derivative of "Novio Magusanus". Magusanus was the Roman name of Donar. Nijmegen was the heart of the Batavian cult of the god Donar. Nihjmegen had two temples dedicated to Donar
- Poppestien - translates "baby stone" is a big flat stone. According to legend, it delivered babies (in Bergum).
- Willibrordsdobbe - the name of a natural well on the island, named after Willibrord, but seen by the locals as a holy well. Note according to history, Willibrord renamed the sacred pagan wells in his own name. (one the island of AmelandAmelandAmeland is a municipality and one of the West Frisian Islands off the north coast of the Netherlands. It consists mostly of sand dunes. It is the third major island of the West Frisians. It neighbours islands Terschelling to the West and Schiermonnikoog to the East...
) - Wittewievenbult - translates "Wise Women hill". Local legend holds that some witte wieven appear on Christmas Eve every year and dance on this hill (near the village of EefdeEefdeEefde is a village in the Dutch province of Gelderland. It is located in the municipality of Lochem, about 3 km northeast of the city of Zutphen.-References:...
). - Wittewijvenkuil - translates "Wise Woman Pitt", is a pit between two hills near the village. Local legend holds that three witte wieven lived there (near the village of BarchemBarchemBarchem is a village in the Dutch province of Gelderland, located in the municipality Lochem, about 15 km east of the city of Zutphen.Barchem has about 1800 inhabitants....
). - Wodansbergen - translates "Wodan's hills", once dedicated to Wodan.
- WoensdrechtWoensdrechtWoensdrecht is a municipality and a town in the southern Netherlands.Woensdrecht is mainly known for Woensdrecht Air Base. In 1983 it was decided that the US would station 48 nuclear armed cruise missiles here, unless the USSR would reduce the number of SS-20 missiles to 378. Since the number was...
- town named after Wodan - Woezik - translates "Wodan's oak". Several Wodans-oaks were known (in WolfhezeWolfhezeWolfheze is a village in the Dutch province of Gelderland. It is located in the municipality of Renkum, 10 km northwest of the city of Arnhem.-History:Wolfheze has had a train station on the railway line between Utrecht and Arnhem since 1845...
). - Wrangebult - translates "Thorn-hedge-hill". A "wrange" was a plaited hedge of thorns which was sometimes created around a holy place. Local legend holds it was a heathen sacrificial hill (in HummeloHummeloHummelo is a village in the Dutch province of Gelderland. It is located in the municipality of Bronckhorst, about 6 km northwest of Doetinchem....
). - Zonnebergen - translates "Sun hills", once a sacrificial place for the Sun (hills with this name located in GorsselGorsselGorssel is a village in the Dutch province of Gelderland. It is located in the municipality of Lochem, about 6 km southeast of Deventer.Gorssel was a separate municipality until 2005, when it was merged with Lochem....
, OosterbeekOosterbeekOosterbeek is a village in the Dutch province of Gelderland. It is located in the municipality of Renkum, about 5 km west of Arnhem.The oldest part of the village of Oosterbeek is the Benedendorp , on the northern bank of the river Rhine...
, VordenVordenVorden is a former municipality and a town in the eastern Netherlands, about 10 kilometres south-east of Zutphen. On 1 January 2005 the municipality merged with Hummelo en Keppel, Steenderen, Hengelo en Zelhem, to form the new municipality Bronckhorst....
, WageningenWageningen' is a municipality and a historical town in the central Netherlands, in the province of Gelderland. It is famous for Wageningen University, which specializes in life sciences. The city has 37,414 inhabitants , of which many thousands are students...
).
Further reading
- Bos, J. M., Archeologie van Friesland, Stichting Matrijs, Utrecht, 1995
- Bruijn, A.G. Geesten en Goden in Oud Oldenzaal (Ghosts and gods in Old Oldenzaal). 1929. Oldenzaal: Electr. drukkerij J. Verhaag. (In Dutch)
- Derolez, R.L.M., De Godsdienst der Germanen, Roermond, 1959
- Dykstra, W., Uit Friesland's Volksleven, Van Vroeger en Later, tweede deel, 1895
- Halbertsma, H., Het heidendom waar Luidger onder de Friezen mee te maken kreeg, in: Sierksma, Kl. (red.), Liudger 742-809, Muiderberg 1984
- Halbertsma, H., Frieslands Oudheid, Stichting Matrijs, Utrecht, 2000
- Laan, K. ter: Folkloristisch woordenboek van Nederland en Vlaams België, 1949, Den Haag: G.B. van Goor zonen's uitgeversmij N.V.
- Schuyf, J., Heidens Nederland, Zichtbare overblijfselen van een niet-christelijk verleden, Stichting Matrijs, Utrecht, 1995
- Teenstra, A. (red.): Nederlandse volkskunst, 1941, Amsterdam: N.V. uitgevers-maatschappij Elsevier.
- van de Walle Perné , Gustaaf (1877-1911). Veluwsche sagen. (Arnhem: Gysbers and van Loon) (In Dutch)
- van der Molen, S.J. Ta in "Fryske Mythology", yn De Frije Fries, diel 53 (1973).
- Vries, J. de, Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte, band II, Berlin, 1957.
- Vries, J. de: Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte, 1970: Berlijn: Walter de Gruyter & Co.
- de Weerd, Henk. Gooise legenden. 1960. (uitgeverij C. de Boer jr., Hilversum)
External links
- Vita Eligii (The Life of St. Eligius), in English - full version