Northwest Russia
Encyclopedia
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
an Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
bounded by Finland
Finland
Finland , officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of Northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden in the west, Norway in the north and Russia in the east, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland.Around 5.4 million people reside...
, the Arctic Ocean
Arctic Ocean
The Arctic Ocean, located in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Arctic north polar region, is the smallest and shallowest of the world's five major oceanic divisions...
, the Ural Mountains
Ural Mountains
The Ural Mountains , or simply the Urals, are a mountain range that runs approximately from north to south through western Russia, from the coast of the Arctic Ocean to the Ural River and northwestern Kazakhstan. Their eastern side is usually considered the natural boundary between Europe and Asia...
and the east-flowing part of the Volga River
Volga River
The Volga is the largest river in Europe in terms of length, discharge, and watershed. It flows through central Russia, and is widely viewed as the national river of Russia. Out of the twenty largest cities of Russia, eleven, including the capital Moscow, are situated in the Volga's drainage...
. Although it was never a political unit there is some reason for treating it as a distinct region.
The Volga marks the approximate northern limit of moderately dense settlement. The area to the north was valued mainly as a source of fur
Fur
Fur is a synonym for hair, used more in reference to non-human animals, usually mammals; particularly those with extensives body hair coverage. The term is sometimes used to refer to the body hair of an animal as a complete coat, also known as the "pelage". Fur is also used to refer to animal...
. The western side was the main source of squirrel
Squirrel
Squirrels belong to a large family of small or medium-sized rodents called the Sciuridae. The family includes tree squirrels, ground squirrels, chipmunks, marmots , flying squirrels, and prairie dogs. Squirrels are indigenous to the Americas, Eurasia, and Africa and have been introduced to Australia...
, for which there was a large demand during the middle ages. Luxury fur, especially sable
Sable
The sable is a species of marten which inhabits forest environments, primarily in Russia from the Ural Mountains throughout Siberia, in northern Mongolia and China and on Hokkaidō in Japan. Its range in the wild originally extended through European Russia to Poland and Scandinavia...
, came mostly from the northeast.
Geography
Before modern times most transport was by river. Therefore much of its history and geography depends on the river system. From the site of Saint PetersburgSaint Petersburg
Saint Petersburg is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea...
one route runs south to the Black Sea
Black Sea
The Black Sea is bounded by Europe, Anatolia and the Caucasus and is ultimately connected to the Atlantic Ocean via the Mediterranean and the Aegean seas and various straits. The Bosphorus strait connects it to the Sea of Marmara, and the strait of the Dardanelles connects that sea to the Aegean...
and a shorter one goes to the headwaters of the Volga. The east-west routes are the Volga, the Sukhona route across the center, a northerly route parallel to the Arctic coast and the Arctic. The Northern Dvina
Northern Dvina
The Northern Dvina is a river in Northern Russia flowing through the Vologda Oblast and Arkhangelsk Oblast into the Dvina Bay of the White Sea. Along with the Pechora River to the east, it drains most of Northwest Russia into the Arctic Ocean...
drains the center and flows northeast into the White Sea
White Sea
The White Sea is a southern inlet of the Barents Sea located on the northwest coast of Russia. It is surrounded by Karelia to the west, the Kola Peninsula to the north, and the Kanin Peninsula to the northeast. The whole of the White Sea is under Russian sovereignty and considered to be part of...
. In the east the Pechora River
Pechora River
The Pechora River is a river in northwest Russia which flows north into the Arctic Ocean on the west side of the Ural Mountains. It lies mostly in the Komi Republic but the northernmost part crosses the Nenets Autonomous Okrug. It is 1,809 km long and its basin is 322,000 square kilometers...
flows northwest-north to the Arctic and the Kama River
Kama River
Kama is a major river in Russia, the longest left tributary of the Volga and the largest one in discharge; in fact, it is larger than the Volga before junction....
flows southwest to the Volga bend at Kazan.
Trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks
The trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks was a trade route that connected Scandinavia, Kievan Rus' and the Byzantine Empire. The route allowed traders along the route to establish a direct prosperous trade with Byzantium, and prompted some of them to settle in the territories of...
: (this was the main axis of Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rus was a medieval polity in Eastern Europe, from the late 9th to the mid 13th century, when it disintegrated under the pressure of the Mongol invasion of 1237–1240....
). From the site of Saint Petersburg (founded in 1703) east up the Neva River
Neva River
The Neva is a river in northwestern Russia flowing from Lake Ladoga through the western part of Leningrad Oblast to the Neva Bay of the Gulf of Finland. Despite its modest length , it is the third largest river in Europe in terms of average discharge .The Neva is the only river flowing from Lake...
to Lake Ladoga
Lake Ladoga
Lake Ladoga is a freshwater lake located in the Republic of Karelia and Leningrad Oblast in northwestern Russia, not far from Saint Petersburg. It is the largest lake in Europe, and the 14th largest lake by area in the world.-Geography:...
, south up the Volkhov River
Volkhov River
Volkhov is a river in Novgorod Oblast and Leningrad Oblast in northwestern Russia.-Geography:The Volkhov flows out of Lake Ilmen north into Lake Ladoga, the largest lake of Europe. It is the second largest tributary of Lake Ladoga. It is navigable over its whole length. Discharge is highly...
past Staraya Ladoga
Staraya Ladoga
Staraya Ladoga , or the Aldeigjuborg of Norse sagas, is a village in the Volkhovsky District of Leningrad Oblast, Russia, located on the Volkhov River near Lake Ladoga, 8 km north of the town of Volkhov. The village used to be a prosperous trading outpost in the 8th and 9th centuries...
to Novgorod
Veliky Novgorod
Veliky Novgorod is one of Russia's most historic cities and the administrative center of Novgorod Oblast. It is situated on the M10 federal highway connecting Moscow and St. Petersburg. The city lies along the Volkhov River just below its outflow from Lake Ilmen...
(founded 860 or before), south across Lake Ilmen
Lake Ilmen
Ilmen is a historically important lake in the Novgorod Oblast of Russia, formerly a vital part of the Trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks. The city of Novgorod lies six kilometers below the lake's outflow....
and south up the Lovat River
Lovat River
The Lovat River is a river in Belarus and Russia. It flows out of Lovatets Lake in northwestern Belarus, and flows north through Pskov and Novgorod Oblasts of Russia into Lake Ilmen. Its main tributaries are the Kunya, Polist, Redya, and Robya Rivers....
. From the Lovat portage to the headwaters of the Western Dvina, portage to the upper Dnieper River
Dnieper River
The Dnieper River is one of the major rivers of Europe that flows from Russia, through Belarus and Ukraine, to the Black Sea.The total length is and has a drainage basin of .The river is noted for its dams and hydroelectric stations...
and south to Kiev and the Black Sea. From portages around the Lovat one could go west down the Western Dvina to Riga
Riga
Riga is the capital and largest city of Latvia. With 702,891 inhabitants Riga is the largest city of the Baltic states, one of the largest cities in Northern Europe and home to more than one third of Latvia's population. The city is an important seaport and a major industrial, commercial,...
or east to the upper Volga River.
Volga-Baltic Waterway
Volga-Baltic Waterway
The Volga–Baltic Waterway, formerly known as the Mariinsk Canal System , is a series of canals and rivers in Russia which link the Volga River with the Baltic Sea...
: Gulf of Finland, Neva River to Lake Ladoga, then northeast up the Svir River
Svir River
Svir is a river in the north-east of Leningrad Oblast, Russia. It flows from Lake Onega west to Lake Ladoga, thus connecting the two largest lakes of Europe. It is the largest river flowing into Lake Ladoga....
to Lake Onega
Lake Onega
Lake Onega is a lake in the north-west European part of Russia, located on the territory of Republic of Karelia, Leningrad Oblast and Vologda Oblast. It belongs to the basin of Baltic Sea, Atlantic Ocean, and is the second largest lake in Europe after Lake Ladoga...
, southeast up the Vytegra River
Vytegra River
The Vytegra is a river in Vytegorsky District of Vologda Oblast in Russia. It nominally flows out of Lake Matkozero and is a tributary of Lake Onega. It is long, and the area of its basin . The principal tributary if the Tagazhma River ....
, portage, down the Kovzha River
Kovzha River
The Kovzha is a river in Vytegorsky, Belozersky, and Vashkinsky Districts of Vologda Oblast in Russia. It originates from Lake Kovzhskoye and is a tributary of Lake Beloye. It is long, and the area of its basin . The Kovzha River is a part of the Volga-Baltic Waterway...
to Lake Beloye and southeast down the Sheksna River
Sheksna River
The Sheksna is a river in Belozersky, Kirillovsky, Sheksninsky, and Cherepovetsky Districts of Vologda Oblast in Russia. It is a left tributary of the Volga River. It is long, and the area of its basin...
to Rybinsk
Rybinsk
Rybinsk is the second largest city of Yaroslavl Oblast, Russia, which lies at the confluence of the Volga and Sheksna Rivers. Population: It is served by Rybinsk Staroselye airport.-Early history:...
at the northernmost point of the Volga River. Today the entire route is canalized and the lower Sheksna is part of the Rybinsk Reservoir
Rybinsk Reservoir
Rybinsk Reservoir , informally called the Rybinsk Sea, is a water reservoir on the Volga River and its tributaries Sheksna and Mologa, formed by Rybinsk Hydroelectric Station dam, located on the territories of Tver, Vologda, and Yaroslavl Oblasts. At the time of its construction, it was the largest...
. The Northern Dvina Canal
Northern Dvina Canal
The Northern Dvina Canal is a 64 km long canal in Vologda Oblast in Russia. It connects the Volga-Baltic Waterway to the Northern Dvina River through its tributary, the Sukhona River...
branches northeast to the Sukhona River (next section).
The Sukhona Route and Veliky Ustyug: This route crosses the center along the Sukhona and Vychegda Rivers which join near Veliky Ustyug
Veliky Ustyug
Veliky Ustyug is a town in the northeast of Vologda Oblast, Russia, located at the confluence of the Sukhona and Yug Rivers. Administratively, it is incorporated as a town of oblast significance . It also serves as the administrative center of Velikoustyugsky District, by which it is completely...
and links Novgorod to the Kama River and Kazan. From Veliky Ustyug one can go west up the Sukhona, east up the Vychegda, northwest down the Northern Dvina to the White Sea, or south up the Yug River and down the Unzha River to the Volga and Kazan. From the upper Sheksna south of Lake Beloye, portage to the ? river and downstream to Lake Kubenskoye
Lake Kubenskoye
Kubenskoe Lake is a large and shallow lake in Vologda Oblast of Russia, situated at the height of 109 metres above mean sea level, stretching for 60 km from north-west to south-east....
. (This is now the Northern Dvina Canal
Northern Dvina Canal
The Northern Dvina Canal is a 64 km long canal in Vologda Oblast in Russia. It connects the Volga-Baltic Waterway to the Northern Dvina River through its tributary, the Sukhona River...
. Vologda
Vologda
Vologda is a city and the administrative, cultural, and scientific center of Vologda Oblast, Russia, located on the Vologda River. The city is a major transport knot of the Northwest of Russia. Vologda is among the Russian cities possessing an especially valuable historical heritage...
is just south of lake Kubenskoye.) From Lake Kubenskoye east northeast down the Sukhona River
Sukhona River
The Sukhona is a river in the European pert of Russia, a tributary of the Northern Dvina River. The course of the Sukhona lies in Ust-Kubinsky, Sokolsky, Mezhdurechensky, Totemsky, Tarnogsky, Nyuksensky, and Velikoustyugsky Districts of Vologda Oblast in Russia. It is long, and the area of its...
about 400 km to Veliky Ustyug
Veliky Ustyug
Veliky Ustyug is a town in the northeast of Vologda Oblast, Russia, located at the confluence of the Sukhona and Yug Rivers. Administratively, it is incorporated as a town of oblast significance . It also serves as the administrative center of Velikoustyugsky District, by which it is completely...
where the Yug River
Yug River
The Yug is a river in Kichmengsko-Gorodetsky, Nikolsky, and Velikoustyugsky Districts of Vologda Oblast and in Podosinovsky District of Kirov Oblast in Russia. It is long, and the area of its basin...
comes in from the south. The river now gains the name of Northern Dvina and flows about 60 km northeast to the modern town of Kotlas
Kotlas
Kotlas is a town in the southeast of Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia, situated at the confluence of the Northern Dvina and Vychegda Rivers. Administratively, it is incorporated as a town of oblast significance . It also serves as the administrative center of Kotlassky District, by which it is...
where the Vychegda River
Vychegda River
Vychegda is a river in the European part of Russia, tributary to the Northern Dvina. Its length is about . Its source is approximately west of the northern Ural Mountains. It flows roughly in western direction, through Komi Republic and Arkhangelsk Oblast. The largest city along the Vychegda is...
comes in from the east. From Kotlas east at least 400km up the Vychegda to its headwaters west of the Urals. From here portage north to the Pechora or south to the Kama, both of which lead to passes over the Urals.
Northern East-West Route: This was the main axis of Novgorod's expansion. It skirts the southeast side of the White Sea and then crosses to the Pechora. Lake Onega, east up the Vodla River
Vodla River
Vodla is a river in the south-east of Republic of Karelia, Russia. The town of Pudozh is located along Vodla....
, portage to the Onega River basin, east across this, portage, down the Northern Dvina to Kholmogory
Kholmogory
Kholmogory is a historic village and the administrative center of Kholmogorsky District of Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia. It lies on the left bank of the Northern Dvina, along the Kholmogory Highway, 75 km southeast of Arkhangelsk and 90 km north of the Antonievo-Siysky Monastery. The name...
near the White Sea, east up the Pinega River
Pinega River
The Pinega is a river in Verkhnetoyemsky, Pinezhsky, and Kholmogorsky Districts of Arkhangelsk Oblast in Russia. It is a right tributary of the Northern Dvina River. It is long, and the area of its basin...
, portage to the Kuloy
Kuloy
Kuloy is an urban locality in Velsky District of Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia, located on the Kuloy River, from Arkhangelsk and from Velsk, the administrative center of the district. Area: ~. Population: -History:...
and north to the Mezen Bay
Mezen Bay
The Mezen Bay is located in Arkhangelsk Oblast and Nenets Autonomous Okrug in Northwestern Russia. It is one of four large bays and gulfs of the White Sea, the others being the Dvina Bay, the Onega Bay, and the Kandalaksha Gulf. The Mezen Bay is the easternmost of these, as it lies to the south of...
of the White Sea. East up the Pyoza River
Pyoza River
The Pyoza is a river in Mezensky District of Arkhangelsk Oblast in Russia. It is a right tributary of the Mezen River. It is long, and the area of its basin...
, portage, down the Tsilma River
Tsilma River
The Tsilma is a river in Leshukonsky District of Arkhangelsk Oblast and Ust-Tsilemsky District of the Komi Republic in Russia. It is a left and one of the main tributaries of the Pechora River. It is long, and the area of its basin...
to the west-flowing part of the Pechora.
Pechora River and Ural Passes: 1. From the northern east-west route up the west-flowing part of the Pechora River
Pechora River
The Pechora River is a river in northwest Russia which flows north into the Arctic Ocean on the west side of the Ural Mountains. It lies mostly in the Komi Republic but the northernmost part crosses the Nenets Autonomous Okrug. It is 1,809 km long and its basin is 322,000 square kilometers...
, up the Usa River
Usa River (Komi Republic)
Usa is a river in the northeast corner of European Russia which drains the Polar Urals southwest into the Pechora River. The Polar Urals tend to the northeast and the Usa runs parallel to them. It is in the Komi Republic of Russia and the largest tributary of the Pechora River, which it joins from...
, over the easy Kamen portage of the Urals and down the short Sob River to the lower Ob River
Ob River
The Ob River , also Obi, is a major river in western Siberia, Russia and is the world's seventh longest river. It is the westernmost of the three great Siberian rivers that flow into the Arctic Ocean .The Gulf of Ob is the world's longest estuary.-Names:The Ob is known to the Khanty people as the...
. 2. From the middle Pechora, up the Shchugor River, over either of two Ural passes and down the Northern Sosva to the Ob. 3. From the upper Pechora, over the Urals and down the Pelym River
Pelym River
Pelym or Bolshoy Pelym is a river in the far north of Sverdlovsk Oblast, Russia. It is a tributary of the Tavda River, and is 707 km long, with a drainage basin of 15 200 km²....
. 4. From the headwaters of the Vychegda to branches of the upper Kama River
Kama River
Kama is a major river in Russia, the longest left tributary of the Volga and the largest one in discharge; in fact, it is larger than the Volga before junction....
, across the middle Urals and down branches of the Tavda River
Tavda River
The Tavda River is a Siberian river that drains part of the central Ural mountains into the Tobol River. It is north of the Tura River and south of the Konda River. It is located in Sverdlovsk Oblast and Tyumen Oblast. It is formed by the confluence of the Lozva and Sosva Rivers. The length of...
to Tobolsk
Tobolsk
Tobolsk is a town in Tyumen Oblast, Russia, located at the confluence of the Tobol and Irtysh Rivers. It is a historic capital of Siberia. Population: -History:...
on the Ob.
North-South Routes: 1. From Kazan northeast up the Kama River
Kama River
Kama is a major river in Russia, the longest left tributary of the Volga and the largest one in discharge; in fact, it is larger than the Volga before junction....
, portage to the Pechora or Vyshegda. 2. From Kazan up the Volga past Nizhny Novgorod to the point where the river turns from east to south, north up the Unzha River
Unzha River
Unzha River , a river in the Vologda Oblast and Kostroma Oblast in Russia, a tributary of the Volga River. Its length is 426 km. The area of the basin is 28,900 km². The Unzha River begins at the confluence of the Kema River and the Lundonga River. It flows into the Unzhensky Cove of the Gorkovsky...
, portage, down the Yug River
Yug River
The Yug is a river in Kichmengsko-Gorodetsky, Nikolsky, and Velikoustyugsky Districts of Vologda Oblast and in Podosinovsky District of Kirov Oblast in Russia. It is long, and the area of its basin...
to Veliky Ustyug. 3. From the middle Vychegda, north up the Vym River
Vym River
The Vym River is a river in the Komi Republic, Russia. It is a tributary of the Vychegda River in the basin of Northern Dvina. Its length is 499 km, and its drainage basin 25,600 km². Average discharge is 196 m³/s....
, portage, east down the Ukhta River
Ukhta River
Ukhta is a river in the Komi republic of Russia. It is a left tributary of the Izhma River . It is 199 km long, with a drainage basin of 4,510 km², and an average discharge of 48.9 m³/s .The river freezes over in October/November, and remains icebound until April.The Ukhta has its...
, north up the Izhma River
Izhma River
Izhma is a river in the Komi Republic of Russia. It is a left tributary of the Pechora River. It is 531 km long, with a drainage basin of 31,000 km². 154 km from its mouth it has an average discharge of 203 m³/s...
to the Pechora. 4. From Moscow one route was northwest up the Moskva River
Moskva River
The Moskva River is a river that flows through the Moscow and Smolensk Oblasts in Russia, and is a tributary of the Oka River.-Etymology:...
to Volokolamsk
Volokolamsk
Volokolamsk is a town and the administrative center of Volokolamsky District of Moscow Oblast, Russia, located on the Gorodenka River, not far from its confluence with the Lama River, northwest of Moscow. Population: -History:...
and down the Lama River
Lama River
Lama River is a river in the Moscow and Tver Oblasts in Russia, a tributary of the Shosha River. The length of the river is 139 km. The area of its basin is 2330 km². The Lama River freezes up in November and stays under the ice until late March - early April. Historically, the river was...
and Shosha River
Shosha River
Shosha River is a river in Tver and partially Moscow Oblasts in Russia, a right tributary of the Volga River. The length of the Shosha River is 163 kilometres. The area of its basin is 3,080 km². The river flows into the Ivankovo Reservoir. The Shosha freezes up in November – early...
to the Volga. This was replaced by the current Moscow Canal
Moscow Canal
The Moscow Canal , named the Moscow-Volga Canal until the year 1947, is a canal that connects the Moskva River with the main transportation artery of European Russia, the Volga River. It is located in Moscow itself and in the Moscow Oblast...
further east.
Peoples
White Sea
The White Sea is a southern inlet of the Barents Sea located on the northwest coast of Russia. It is surrounded by Karelia to the west, the Kola Peninsula to the north, and the Kanin Peninsula to the northeast. The whole of the White Sea is under Russian sovereignty and considered to be part of...
came to be called Pomors
Pomors
Pomors or Pomory are Russian settlers and their descendants on the White Sea coast. It is also term of self-identification for the descendants of Russian, primarily Novgorod, settlers of Pomorye , living on the White Sea coasts and the territory whose southern border lies on a watershed which...
. The original population spoke Uralic languages
Uralic languages
The Uralic languages constitute a language family of some three dozen languages spoken by approximately 25 million people. The healthiest Uralic languages in terms of the number of native speakers are Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian, Mari and Udmurt...
. The Chud
Chud
Chud or Chude is a term historically applied in the early Russian annals to several Finnic peoples in the area of what is now Finland, Estonia and Northwestern Russia....
s were proto-Estonians. The Ves' lived east Lake Ladoga and were pushed toward the Dvina by the expansion of Novgorod after 1100. The Vychegda Permians
Permians
The Permians are a branch of the Finno-Ugric peoples and include Komis and Udmurts, speakers of Permic languages. Formerly the name Bjarmians was also used to describe these peoples...
lived on the Vychegda while the state of Great Perm
Great Perm
Great Perm or simply Perm, Latinized Permia, was a medieval Komi state in what is now the Perm Krai of the Russian Federation.Cherdyn is said to have been its capital....
was on the upper Kama. The Permians were later called Zyryans and later Komi. The Arabic term Wisu
WISU
WISU is a non-commercial, educational radio station licensed to Indiana State University in Terre Haute, Indiana. The station operates on the assigned FM frequency of 89.7 MHz with an effective radiated power of 13,500 watts. The studios are located in Dreiser Hall on the ISU campus. The tower and...
probably meant Great Perm, but it might have referred to the Ves'. The Voguls lived on the upper Kama and Pechora and the Ostyaks
Khanty people
Khanty / Hanti are an indigenous people calling themselves Khanti, Khande, Kantek , living in Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug, a region historically known as "Yugra" in Russia, together with the Mansi. In the autonomous okrug, the Khanty and Mansi languages are given co-official status with Russian...
or Yugra
Yugra
Yugra was the name of the lands between the Pechora River and Northern Urals in the Russian annals of the 12th–17th centuries, as well as the name of the Khanty and partly Mansi tribes inhabiting these territories, later known as VogulsThe Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug of Russia is also...
on the lower Pechora. The Samoyeds lived in the far northeast. The Burtas were ancestors of the Mordvins.
Zavolochye (meaning "beyond the portage") is a geographic term referring to some of the area between Lake Onega and the lower Dvina.
History
Since this thinly-peopled area developed no significant states, its history is mostly about states south of the Volga and their attempts to control the northern fur trade.By Date: circa 800: Volga Bulgaria
Volga Bulgaria
Volga Bulgaria, or Volga–Kama Bolghar, is a historic Bulgar state that existed between the seventh and thirteenth centuries around the confluence of the Volga and Kama rivers in what is now Russia.-Origin:...
. c 860: Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rus was a medieval polity in Eastern Europe, from the late 9th to the mid 13th century, when it disintegrated under the pressure of the Mongol invasion of 1237–1240....
. by 1096: whole area under Russian tribute except Bulgars. 1212: Veliky Ustyug founded. 1221: Russia takes Nizhny Novgorod from Bulgars. 1240: Mongols conquer Russia. 1445: Kazan independent. 1460: Moscow controls the northeast. 1478: Moscow takes Novgorod. 1480: Moscow independent from the Golden Horde. 1552: Moscow takes Kazan. 1582: Conquest of Siberia begins.
The Volga Bulgars and Kazan: Persian coins found in the Kama region dating from the fifth to the seventh century imply that something was being exported down the Volga at that time.
Volga Bulgaria
Volga Bulgaria
Volga Bulgaria, or Volga–Kama Bolghar, is a historic Bulgar state that existed between the seventh and thirteenth centuries around the confluence of the Volga and Kama rivers in what is now Russia.-Origin:...
was established on the Volga bend near Kazan about 800. They collected tribute from the neighboring tribes and in turn paid tribute to the Khazars
Khazars
The Khazars were semi-nomadic Turkic people who established one of the largest polities of medieval Eurasia, with the capital of Atil and territory comprising much of modern-day European Russia, western Kazakhstan, eastern Ukraine, Azerbaijan, large portions of the northern Caucasus , parts of...
on the lower Volga. About 922 they adopted Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
(about 66 years before the Rus' became Christian). They blocked the Rus' from sailing down the Volga but bought Rus' furs and resold them to merchants coming upriver from Khazaria and central Asia. In 965 the Rus' destroyed the Khazar empire. There were numerous Rus'-Bulgar wars, with the border being roughly from Rostov southeast to Murom. About 1150 the rising power of Rostov reduced Bulgar fur supplies and forced its trade north to what later became Veliky Ustyug. In 1236 the Volga Bulgaria was conquered and devastated by the Mongols, but later Mongol demand for tribute increased its fur trade as did the destruction of the Kiev trade. By 1300-1350 it had an active trade extending up the Kama to Great Perm and Yugra
Yugra
Yugra was the name of the lands between the Pechora River and Northern Urals in the Russian annals of the 12th–17th centuries, as well as the name of the Khanty and partly Mansi tribes inhabiting these territories, later known as VogulsThe Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug of Russia is also...
. After 1350 the breakdown of the Golden Horde
Golden Horde
The Golden Horde was a Mongol and later Turkicized khanate that formed the north-western sector of the Mongol Empire...
made the Volga route difficult, Muscovite expansion to the Vyshegda reduced fur supplies and Novgorodian pirates called "ushkuiniks" raided the northern rivers. In 1445 the area became independent as the Khanate of Kazan
Khanate of Kazan
The Khanate of Kazan was a medieval Tatar state which occupied the territory of former Volga Bulgaria between 1438 and 1552. Its khans were the patrilineal descendants of Toqa Temür, the thirteenth son of Jochi and grandson of Genghis Khan. The khanate covered contemporary Tatarstan, Mari El,...
and developed a trade in luxury fur from the northeast and Siberia down the Volga, but Moscow controlled the lands further north. There were many Russo-Kazan Wars
Russo-Kazan Wars
thumb|300px|[[St. Basil's Cathedral]] is a monument to the Russian conquest of Kazan in 1552.The Russo-Kazan Wars was a series of wars fought between the Khanate of Kazan and Muscovite Russia from 1438, until Kazan was finally captured by Ivan the Terrible and absorbed into Russia in 1552.- Wars of...
, but Kazan also sold fur to Moscow. Moscow conquered Kazan in 1552.
The Rus'
Kievan Rus'
Kievan Rus was a medieval polity in Eastern Europe, from the late 9th to the mid 13th century, when it disintegrated under the pressure of the Mongol invasion of 1237–1240....
: Around 862 Scandinavians arrived in Russia via the Gulf of Finland and the Western Dvina. They quickly adopted the local Slavic languages and became known as Rus'. They built a system of principalities from the Volga south to the steppe and traded south to Byzantium and eastward to the Bulgars.
Novgorod
Novgorod Republic
The Novgorod Republic was a large medieval Russian state which stretched from the Baltic Sea to the Ural Mountains between the 12th and 15th centuries, centred on the city of Novgorod...
: In 1096 Novgorod was collecting tribute as far northeast as the Pechora. By 1350 its claim to rule the Yugra and Perm areas was recognized by the other Russian states. It built a series of "Pogosts" or forts along the "northern east-west route", reaching the Pinega by 1137, and used them to collect tribute from the local population. From around 1150 it pushed south to the upper Sukhona and used this route to trade with the Bulgars and also for some raiding. About 1200 Veliky Ustyug was founded by the ruler of Rostov, partially blocking this route.
From about 1200 Germans colonized the Baltic coast from Estonia to East Prussia. Byzantium declined after 1204 and the Mongols destroyed Kiev in 1240. The effect was to reorient Novgorod's trade westward and partly separate it from the rest of Rus'. Novgorod became the eastern anchor of the Hanseatic League
Hanseatic League
The Hanseatic League was an economic alliance of trading cities and their merchant guilds that dominated trade along the coast of Northern Europe...
and its government became dominated by its merchants. Instead of exporting Byzantine and Arab luxury goods to Scandinavia, it exported fur via Hanseatic merchants to western Europe. The main export was grey squirrel for which there was a large demand during the middle ages. This reliance on squirrel partly explains why Novgorod relinquished the northeastern sources of luxury fur to Moscow. From about 1320 we began to hear of landed estates and peasant communities in an area that almost reached the Dvina, a system that was well-developed by 1450. Boyars received about half their rent in fur. From about 1440 the Novgorod fur trade broke up. Western demand for squirrel declined and Moscow controlled the sources of luxury fur east of the White Sea. Moscow annexed Novgorod in 1478 and systematically broke up her commercial institutions.
Rostov-Suzdal: By about 1150 Rostov had enough control of the upper Volga to block direct trade between the Bulgars and Novgorod. From 1164 to 1221 Suzdalia pushed east to the mouth of the Oka River
Oka River
Oka is a river in central Russia, the largest right tributary of the Volga. It flows through the regions of Oryol, Tula, Kaluga, Moscow, Ryazan, Vladimir, and Nizhny Novgorod and is navigable over a large part of its total length, as far upstream as to the town of Kaluga. Its length exceeds...
. This gave them control of the Volga from Yaroslavl
Yaroslavl
Yaroslavl is a city and the administrative center of Yaroslavl Oblast, Russia, located northeast of Moscow. The historical part of the city, a World Heritage Site, is located at the confluence of the Volga and the Kotorosl Rivers. It is one of the Golden Ring cities, a group of historic cities...
north of Rostov to the mouth of the Oka at Nizhny Novgorod
Nizhny Novgorod
Nizhny Novgorod , colloquially shortened to Nizhny, is, with the population of 1,250,615, the fifth largest city in Russia, ranking after Moscow, St. Petersburg, Novosibirsk, and Yekaterinburg...
(founded in 1221) and the Unzha-Yug route from the Volga to Ustyug (founded about 1212) which the Bulgars had previously controlled and gave them some control over Novgorod's Sukhona route. From around 1400 we hear of Rostov granting estates west of the lower Dvina in what was Novgorod territory.
Muscovy: About 1328 Ivan Kalita of Moscow gained control of Ustyug and Belozersk
Belozersk
Belozersk , known as Beloozero until 1777 , is a town and the administrative center of Belozersky District of Vologda Oblast, Russia, situated on the southern bank of Lake Beloye, from which it takes the name...
and used it to tax Novgorod's fur trade in order to collect wealth which he sent in tribute to the Golden Horde. From about 1350 Moscow developed its own fur trade and gained increasing control over the Perm-Pechora region. About 1363 it gained some control over Rostov and from 1367 some control over Perm. About 1376-86 Saint Stephan of Perm converted the Vyshegda Permyaks to Christianity which had the indirect effect of bringing the region under the control of Moscow. In 1397-1425 Moscow tried to reach the lower Dvina but was pushed back by Novgorod. Around 1400 the weakening of the Golden Horde shifted the fur trade from tribute down to Volga to commercial exchange through Crimea. By 1462 Moscow controlled Vologda, the eastern side of the White Sea and the lower Dvina. About 1458 Moscow gained control over the Vyatka River
Vyatka River
The Vyatka River is a river in Kirov Oblast and the Republic of Tatarstan in Russia, right tributary of the Kama River. It is 1,314 km in length. The area of its basin is 129,000 km²....
branch of the Kama, thereby reducing Kazan's control of the north. After 1472 tribute from Great Perm was increased. In 1465 Moscow imposed tribute on Yugra. In 1483 Muscovites under Fyodor Kurbsky raided across the Urals down the Pelym River
Pelym River
Pelym or Bolshoy Pelym is a river in the far north of Sverdlovsk Oblast, Russia. It is a tributary of the Tavda River, and is 707 km long, with a drainage basin of 15 200 km²....
into the lands of the Khanate of Sibir. In 1499 Muscovites use the 'northern east-west route' to attack the Samoyeds and sent parties across the Urals to Pelym. From around 1500 there were increasing overland exports of luxury fur to Western Europe. In 1566 the Stroganovs
Stroganovs
The Stroganovs or Strogonovs , also spelled in French manner as Stroganoffs, were a family of highly successful Russian merchants, industrialists, landowners, and statesmen of the 16th – 20th centuries who eventually earned nobility.-Origins:...
were granted extensive lands around Perm. In 1582 Yermak began the Russian conquest of Siberia
Russian conquest of Siberia
The Russian conquest of Siberia took place in the 16th and 17th centuries, when the Siberian Khanate had become a loose political structure of vassalages which were becoming undermined by the activities of Russian explorers who, though numerically outnumbered, pressured the various family-based...
. Many, perhaps most, of the explorers of Siberia came from northwest Russia.