Nutrition and pregnancy - AbsoluteAstronomy.com

Nutrition and pregnancy refers to the nutrient intake, and dietary planning that is undertaken before, during and after pregnancy.

In a precursory study into the link between nutrition and pregnancy in 1950 women who consumed minimal amounts over the eight week period had a higher mortality or disorder rate concerning their offspring than women who ate regularly, because children born to well-fed mothers had less restriction within the womb.

Not only have physical disorders been linked with poor nutrition before and during pregnancy, but neurological disorders and handicaps are a risk that is run by mothers who are malnourished, a condition which can also lead to the child becoming more susceptible to later degenerative disease(s). 23.8% of babies are estimated to be born with lower than optimal weights at birth due to lack of proper nutrition.

Beneficial pre-pregnancy nutrients

As with most diets, there are chances of over-supplementing, however, as general advice, both state and medical recommendations are that mothers follow instructions listed on particular vitamin packaging as to the correct or recommended daily allowance (RDA).

Magnesium
Magnesium
Magnesium is a chemical element with the symbol Mg, atomic number 12, and common oxidation number +2. It is an alkaline earth metal and the eighth most abundant element in the Earth's crust and ninth in the known universe as a whole...

and zinc
Zinc
Zinc , or spelter , is a metallic chemical element; it has the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is the first element in group 12 of the periodic table. Zinc is, in some respects, chemically similar to magnesium, because its ion is of similar size and its only common oxidation state is +2...

supplementation for the binding of hormones at their receptor sites.
Folic acid
Folic acid
Folic acid and folate , as well as pteroyl-L-glutamic acid, pteroyl-L-glutamate, and pteroylmonoglutamic acid are forms of the water-soluble vitamin B9...

supplementation, or dietary requirement of foods containing it for the regular growth of the follicle
Ovarian follicle
Ovarian follicles are the basic units of female reproductive biology, each of which is composed of roughly spherical aggregations of cells found in the ovary. They contain a single oocyte . These structures are periodically initiated to grow and develop, culminating in ovulation of usually a single...

.
Regular Vitamin D
Vitamin D
Vitamin D is a group of fat-soluble secosteroids. In humans, vitamin D is unique both because it functions as a prohormone and because the body can synthesize it when sun exposure is adequate ....

supplementation decreases the chances of deficiencies
Deficiency
A deficiency is generally a lack of something. It may also refer to:*A deficient number, in mathematics, a number n for which σ A deficiency is generally a lack of something. It may also refer to:...

in adolescence. More importantly, it is known to reduce the likelihood of rickets
Rickets
Rickets is a softening of bones in children due to deficiency or impaired metabolism of vitamin D, magnesium , phosphorus or calcium, potentially leading to fractures and deformity. Rickets is among the most frequent childhood diseases in many developing countries...

with pelvic
Pelvis
In human anatomy, the pelvis is the lower part of the trunk, between the abdomen and the lower limbs .The pelvis includes several structures:...

malformations which make normal delivery impossible.
Regular Vitamin B12
Vitamin B12
Vitamin B12, vitamin B12 or vitamin B-12, also called cobalamin, is a water-soluble vitamin with a key role in the normal functioning of the brain and nervous system, and for the formation of blood. It is one of the eight B vitamins...

supplementation, again is known to reduce the chances of infertility and ill health.
Omega-3 fatty acids can increase blood flow to reproductive organs and may help regulate reproductive hormones. Consumption is also known to help prevent premature delivery and low birth weight. The best dietary source of omega-3 fatty acids is oily fish
Oily fish
Oily fish have oil in their tissues and in the belly cavity around the gut. Their fillets contain up to 30 percent oil, although this figure varies both within and between species...

. Some other omega-3 fatty acids not found in fish can be found in foods such as flaxseeds, walnuts, pumpkin seeds, and enriched eggs.

Nutrition during pregnancy

The conception and the subsequent weeks afterwards is the time when it is at its most vulnerable, as it is the time when the organs and systems develop within. The energy used to create these systems comes from the energy and nutrients in the mother's circulation, and around the lining of the womb, such is the reason why correct nutrient intake during pregnancy is so important.

During the early stages of pregnancy, the placenta is not formed yet, so there is no mechanism to protect the embryo from the deficiencies which may be inherent in the mother's circulation, so it is critical that the correct amount of nutrients and energy are consumed. Supplement your diet with foods that are rich in folic acid, like orange and dark green leafy vegetables to prevent neural tube birth defects in your baby. Taking iron-rich foods like lean red meat and beans helps to prevent anemia and ensure adequate oxygen for your baby.
A necessary step for proper diet is to take a daily prenatal vitamins

Prenatal vitamins

Prenatal vitamins are vitamin supplements intended to be taken before and during pregnancy and during postnatal lactation. Although not intended to replace a healthy diet, prenatal vitamins provide women of child bearing age with nutrients recognized by the various health organizations including...

, that ensure their body gets the vitamins and minerals it needs to create a healthy baby. These vitamins contain folic acid

Folic acid

Folic acid and folate , as well as pteroyl-L-glutamic acid, pteroyl-L-glutamate, and pteroylmonoglutamic acid are forms of the water-soluble vitamin B9...

, iodine, iron, vitamin A, vitamin D, zinc and calcium.

Potentially harmful determinants during pregnancy

It is advised for pregnant women to pay special attention to food hygiene during pregnancy in addition to avoiding certain foods in order to reduce the risk of exposure to substances that may be harmful to the developing fetus. This can include food pathogens and toxic food components, alcohol, and dietary supplements such as vitamin A.

Dietary vitamin A is obtained in two forms which contain the preformed vitamin (retinol), that can be found in some animal products such as liver and fish liver oils, and as a vitamin A precursor in the form of carotenes, which can be found in many fruits and vegetables. Intake of retinol

Retinol

Retinol is one of the animal forms of vitamin A. It is a diterpenoid and an alcohol. It is convertible to other forms of vitamin A, and the retinyl ester derivative of the alcohol serves as the storage form of the vitamin in animals....

, in extreme cases, has been linked to birth defects and abnormalities. However, regular intake of retinol is not seen as dangerous. It is noted that a 100 g serving of liver may contain a large amount of retinol, so it is best that it is not eaten daily during pregnancy, something which is also the same with alcohol intake in binge drinking.

Excessive amounts of alcohol have been proven to cause Fetal alcohol syndrome

Fetal alcohol syndrome

Fetal alcohol syndrome is a pattern of mental and physical defects that can develop in a fetus in association with high levels of alcohol consumption during pregnancy. Current research also implicates other lifestyle choices made by the prospective mother...

. The World Health Organization

World Health Organization

The World Health Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations that acts as a coordinating authority on international public health. Established on 7 April 1948, with headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, the agency inherited the mandate and resources of its predecessor, the Health...

recommends that alcohol should be avoided entirely during pregnancy, given the relatively unknown effects of even small amounts of alcohol during pregnancy.

Pregnant women are advised to pay particular attention to food hygiene and to avoid certain foods during pregnancy in order to minimize the risk of food poisoning from potentially harmful pathogens such as listeria, taxoplasmosis, and salmonella. Pregnant women are therefore advised to avoid foods in which high levels of the bacteria have been found, such as in soft cheeses. Listeria are destroyed by heat and therefore pregnant women are advised to reheat ready-prepared meals thoroughly. Pregnant women should also wash their fruit and vegetables very thoroughly in order to minimize risk. Salmonella poisoning is most likely to come from raw eggs or undercooked poultry.
Maternal obesity

Maternal obesity

Maternal obesity refers to obesity of a woman during pregnancy. Parental obesity refers to obesity of either parent during pregnancy....

has a significant impact on maternal metabolism and offspring development. Insulin resistance, glucose homeostasis, fat oxidation and amino acid synthesis are all disrupted by maternal obesity and contribute to adverse outcomes. Modification of lifestyle is an effective intervention strategy for improvement of maternal metabolism and the prevention of adverse outcomes.

Recommended nutrients during pregnancy

Nutrient	Recommendation (Extra = Above RDA)	Maximum/Total amount
Energy Food energy Food energy is the amount of energy obtained from food that is available through cellular respiration.Food energy is expressed in food calories or kilojoules...	Increase by 200 kcal (840 kJ) per day in last trimester only.	RDA
Protein Protein Proteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of... s	Extra 6 g per day	51 g per day
Thiamin	Increase in line with energy; increase by 0.1 mg per day	0.9 mg per day
Riboflavin Riboflavin Riboflavin, also known as vitamin B2 or additive E101, is an easily absorbed micronutrient with a key role in maintaining health in humans and animals. It is the central component of the cofactors FAD and FMN, and is therefore required by all flavoproteins. As such, vitamin B2 is required for a...	Needed for tissue growth; extra 0.3 mg per day	1.4 mg per day
Niacin Niacin "Niacin" redirects here. For the neo-fusion band, see Niacin .Niacin is an organic compound with the formula and, depending on the definition used, one of the forty to eighty essential human nutrients.Niacin is one of five vitamins associated with a pandemic deficiency disease: niacin deficiency...	Regular supplementation/diet of substance. No increase required.	RDA
Folate	Maintain plasma levels; extra 100 µg per day	300 µg per day
Vitamin C Vitamin C Vitamin C or L-ascorbic acid or L-ascorbate is an essential nutrient for humans and certain other animal species. In living organisms ascorbate acts as an antioxidant by protecting the body against oxidative stress...	Replenish drained maternal stores; extra 120 mg per day	50 mg per day
Vitamin D Vitamin D Vitamin D is a group of fat-soluble secosteroids. In humans, vitamin D is unique both because it functions as a prohormone and because the body can synthesize it when sun exposure is adequate ....	Replenish plasma levels of vitamin 10 µg per day.	RDA
Calcium Calcium Calcium is the chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. It has an atomic mass of 40.078 amu. Calcium is a soft gray alkaline earth metal, and is the fifth-most-abundant element by mass in the Earth's crust...	Needs no increase	RDA
Iron Iron Iron is a chemical element with the symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series. It is the most common element forming the planet Earth as a whole, forming much of Earth's outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earth's crust...	Extra 3 mg per day needed	RDA
Magnesium Magnesium Magnesium is a chemical element with the symbol Mg, atomic number 12, and common oxidation number +2. It is an alkaline earth metal and the eighth most abundant element in the Earth's crust and ninth in the known universe as a whole... , zinc Zinc Zinc , or spelter , is a metallic chemical element; it has the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. It is the first element in group 12 of the periodic table. Zinc is, in some respects, chemically similar to magnesium, because its ion is of similar size and its only common oxidation state is +2... , and copper Copper Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; an exposed surface has a reddish-orange tarnish...	Normal supplementation or consumption.	RDA
Iodine Iodine Iodine is a chemical element with the symbol I and atomic number 53. The name is pronounced , , or . The name is from the , meaning violet or purple, due to the color of elemental iodine vapor....	Extra 100 µg per day.	250 µg per day

Folate

Folic acid, which is the synthetic form of the vitamin folate, is extremely critical both in pre-and peri-conception. Deficiencies in folic acid may cause neural tube defects

Neural tube defects

Neural tube defects are one of the most common birth defects, occurring in approximately one in 1,000 live births in the United States. An NTD is an opening in the spinal cord or brain that occurs very early in human development. In the 2nd week of pregnancy called gastrulation, specialized cells...

; women who had 4 mg of folic acid in their systems due to supplementing 3 months before childbirth significantly reduced the risk of NTD within the fetus

Fetus

A fetus is a developing mammal or other viviparous vertebrate after the embryonic stage and before birth.In humans, the fetal stage of prenatal development starts at the beginning of the 11th week in gestational age, which is the 9th week after fertilization.-Etymology and spelling variations:The...

. This is now advocated by the UK department of health, recommending 400 µg per day of folic acid.

The development of every human cell is dependent on an adequate supply of folic acid. Folic acid governs the synthesis of the precursors of DNA, which is the nucleic acid that gives each cell life and character. Folic acid deficiency results in defective cellular growth and the effects are most obvious on those tissues which grow most rapidly.

Folate and Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia

Along with neural tube development, folate affects DNA synthesis in multiple ways. As Ball explains, folate is involved in the construction of purines and pyrimidines, the building blocks of nucleic acids. Folate is also necessary to make s-adenosylmethionine (SAM), which acts as a methyl donor in the synthesis of DNA. Because of its role in these important mechanisms, fetal DNA would be significantly altered if a maternal folate deficiency is present. One possible outcome is DNA mutation, which could prevent normal gene expression. For example, a tumor-suppressing gene might be turned off, altering normal immune function in preventing cancer growth. Thompson et al. examined the relationship between maternal supplementation of folate and iron during pregnancy and incidences of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) in their children. Increased rates of ALL were found in children whose mothers did not take iron and folate supplements. Iron alone did not seem to reduce the risk of developing ALL, however iron in combination with folate was shown to have a protective effect in decreasing the risk for ALL. Thompson and his associates (2001), concluded that maternal folate supplementation throughout pregnancy plays an important role in reducing the risk for childhood ALL.

Water

During pregnancy weight increases by about 12 kg. Most of this added weight (6 to 9 L) is water because the plasma volume increases, 85% of the placenta is water and the fetus itself is 70-90% water. This means that hydration should also be considered an important aspect of nutrition throughout pregnancy. To ensure healthy hydration during pregnancy, the European Food Safety Authority

European Food Safety Authority

The European Food Safety Authority is an agency of the European Union that provides independent scientific advice and communication on existing and emerging risks associated with the food chain, created by European Regulation 178/2002....

recommends an increase of 300 mL per day compared to the normal intake for non-pregnant women, taking the total adequate water intake (from food and fluids) to 2,300 mL, or approximately 1,850 mL/ day from fluids alone.

Nutrition after pregnancy

Proper nutrition is important after delivery to help the mother recover, and to provide enough food energy and nutrients for a woman to breastfeed

Breastfeeding

Breastfeeding is the feeding of an infant or young child with breast milk directly from female human breasts rather than from a baby bottle or other container. Babies have a sucking reflex that enables them to suck and swallow milk. It is recommended that mothers breastfeed for six months or...

her child. Women having serum ferritin <= 70 µg/L may need iron

Iron

Iron is a chemical element with the symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series. It is the most common element forming the planet Earth as a whole, forming much of Earth's outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earth's crust...

supplements to prevent iron deficiency anaemia during pregnancy and postpartum.

During lactation, water intake needs increase to compensate for the loss of water through milk production. Milk is made of 88% water, and the European Food Safety Authority