Plastination
Encyclopedia
Plastination is a technique or process used in anatomy
to preserve bodies or body parts. The water and fat
are replaced by certain plastic
s, yielding specimens that can be touched, do not smell or decay, and even retain most properties of the original sample.
There are four steps in the standard process of plastination: fixation, dehydration
, forced impregnation in a vacuum
, and hardening. Water and lipid
tissues are replaced by curable polymers. Curable polymers used by plastination include silicone
, epoxy
and polyester
-copolymer.
The first step of plastination is fixation. Fixation, frequently utilizing a formaldehyde based solution, serves two functions. Dissecting the specimen to show specific anatomical elements can be time consuming. Formaldehyde
or other preserving solutions help prevent decomposition
of the tissues. They may also infer a degree of rigidity. This can be beneficial in maintaining the shape or arrangement of a specimen. A stomach might be inflated or a leg bent at the knee for example.
After any necessary dissection
s take place, the specimen is then placed in a bath of acetone
. Under freezing conditions, the acetone draws out all the water and replaces it inside the cells
.
In the third step, the specimen is then placed in a bath of liquid polymer, such as silicone rubber
, polyester
or epoxy resin. By creating a vacuum
, the acetone is made to boil at a low temperature. As the acetone vaporizes
and leaves the cells, it draws the liquid polymer in behind it, leaving a cell filled with liquid plastic.
The plastic must then be cured with gas, heat, or ultraviolet light, in order to harden it.
A specimen can be anything from a full human body
to a small piece of an animal organ, and they are known as 'plastinates'. Once plastinated, the specimens and bodies are further manipulated and positioned prior to curing (hardening) of the polymer chains.
applied for a German patent, proposing the idea of preserving animal and vegetable tissues permanently by synthetic resin impregnation. Since then, von Hagens has applied for further US patents regarding work on preserving biological tissues with polymers.
With the success of his patents, von Hagens went on to form the Institute for Plastination in Heidelberg, Germany in 1993. The Institute of Plastination, along with von Hagens made their first showing of plastinated bodies in Japan in 1995, which drew more than three million visitors. The Institute maintains three international centres of plastination: in Germany, Kyrgyzstan and China.
used by the Egyptians is a widely known method which involves the removal of body fluid and wrapping the body in linens. Prior to mummification, Egyptians would lay the body in a shallow pit in the desert and allow the sun to dehydrate the body.
Formalin, an important solution to body preservation, was introduced in 1896 to help with body preservation. Soon to follow formalin, color preserving embalming solutions were developed to preserve lifelike color and flexibility to aid in the study of the body.
Paraffin
impregnation was introduced in 1925 and the embedding of organs in plastic was developed in the 1960s.
Body preservation methods current to the twenty-first century are cryopreservation
which involves the cooling of the body to very low temperatures to preserve the body tissues, plastination and embalming
.
Other methods used in modern times include the Silicone S 10 Standard Procedure, the Cor-Tech Room temperature procedure, the Epoxy E 12 procedure, and the Polyester P 35 (P 40) procedure. The Silicone S 10 is the procedure most often used in plastination and creates opaque, natural-looking specimen. Dow Corning Corporation's Cor-Tech Room Temperature Procedure is designed to allow plastination of specimen at room temperature
to various degrees of flexibility using three combinations of polymer, crosslinker and catalyst. According to the International Society for Plastination, the Epoxy E 12 procedure is utilized "for thin, transparent, and firm body and organ slices", while the Polyster P 35 (P 40) preserves "semitransparent and firm brain slices". Samples are prepared for fixation through the first method by deep freezing, while the second method works best following 4–6 weeks of preparation in a formaldehyde mixture.
and dental school
s throughout the world as an adjunct to anatomical dissection.
Students enrolled in introductory animal science
courses at many universities learn animal science through collections of multi-species large-animal specimens. Plastination allows students to have hands on experience in this field, without exposure to chemicals such as formalin. For example, plastinated canine
gastrointestinal tracts are used to help in the teaching of endoscopic
technique and anatomy. The plastinated specimens retain their dilated conformation by a positive pressure
air flow, which allows them to be used to teach both endoscopic technique and gastrointestinal anatomy.
With the use of plastination as a teaching method of animal science, fewer animals have to be killed for research, as the plastination process allows specimens to be studied for a long time.
TTT sheet plastinates for school teaching and lay instruction provide a thorough impression of the complexity of an animal body in just one specimen.
The North Carolina State University
's College of Veterinary Medicine in Raleigh, North Carolina
uses both PC (plastic coating) and PN (plastination) to investigate and compare the difference in the two methods. The PC method was simple and inexpensive, but the plastinated specimens (PN method) were more flexible, durable, and lifelike than those preserved by the PC method. The use of plastination allowed the use of many body parts such as muscle, nerves, bones, ligaments, and central nervous system
to be preserved.
The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio
was the first school in the United States to use this technique to prepare gross organ specimens for use in teaching. The New York University College of Dentistry
., University of Warwick
and University of Northumbria use collections of plastinates as teaching aids. The University of Vienna
has its own plastination laboratory.
program in Germany
and has signed over 9,000 donors into the plastinate program: 531 have already died. The program has reported an average of one body a day being released to the plastination process. Ninety percent of the donors registered are German. Although von Hagens says he follows strict consent procedures for whole-body specimens, he maintains that "consent is not important for body parts." Von Hagens' body donations are now being managed by the Institute for Plastination (IfP) established in 1993.
Over the next two years, Von Hagens developed the Körperwelten (BODY WORLDS
) public exhibitions, showing whole bodies plastinated in lifelike poses and dissected to show various structures and systems of human anatomy. The earliest exhibitions were presented in the Far East
and in Germany, and Gunther von Hagens' BODY WORLDS exhibitions have subsequently been hosted by museums and venues in more than 50 cities worldwide, attracting more than 29 million visitors..
Gunther von Hagens' BODY WORLDS exhibitions are the original, precedent-setting public anatomical exhibitions of real human bodies, and the only anatomical exhibits that use donated bodies, willed by donors to the Institute for Plastination for the express purpose of serving the BODY WORLDS mission to educate the public about health and anatomy. To date, more than 10,000 people have agreed to donate their bodies to Institute for Plastination.
In 2004, Premier Exhibitions
began their "Bodies Revealed" exhibition in Blackpool, England which ran from August through October 2004. In 2005 and 2006 the company opened their Bodies Revealed and Bodies The Exhibition exhibitions in Seoul
(South Korea), Tampa
(Florida) and New York (NY)
respectively. . The West Coast exhibition site opened on June 22, 2006 at the Tropicana Resort & Casino Las Vegas NV. , BODIES... The Exhibition
is showing at the Ambassador Theatre (Dublin)
in Dublin, Ireland. The exhibition is in Istanbul, Turkey until the end of March 2011.
Plastination galleries are offered in a few college medical schools including University of Michigan
(said to be the nation's largest such lab) and the Vienna University Gunther von Hagens maintains a permanent exhibition of plastinates and plastination at the Plastinarium in Guben
, Germany.
Anatomy
Anatomy is a branch of biology and medicine that is the consideration of the structure of living things. It is a general term that includes human anatomy, animal anatomy , and plant anatomy...
to preserve bodies or body parts. The water and fat
Fat
Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and generally insoluble in water. Chemically, fats are triglycerides, triesters of glycerol and any of several fatty acids. Fats may be either solid or liquid at room temperature, depending on their structure...
are replaced by certain plastic
Plastic
A plastic material is any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic solids used in the manufacture of industrial products. Plastics are typically polymers of high molecular mass, and may contain other substances to improve performance and/or reduce production costs...
s, yielding specimens that can be touched, do not smell or decay, and even retain most properties of the original sample.
Process
Dehydration
In physiology and medicine, dehydration is defined as the excessive loss of body fluid. It is literally the removal of water from an object; however, in physiological terms, it entails a deficiency of fluid within an organism...
, forced impregnation in a vacuum
Vacuum
In everyday usage, vacuum is a volume of space that is essentially empty of matter, such that its gaseous pressure is much less than atmospheric pressure. The word comes from the Latin term for "empty". A perfect vacuum would be one with no particles in it at all, which is impossible to achieve in...
, and hardening. Water and lipid
Lipid
Lipids constitute a broad group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins , monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, phospholipids, and others...
tissues are replaced by curable polymers. Curable polymers used by plastination include silicone
Silicone
Silicones are inert, synthetic compounds with a variety of forms and uses. Typically heat-resistant and rubber-like, they are used in sealants, adhesives, lubricants, medical applications , cookware, and insulation....
, epoxy
Epoxy
Epoxy, also known as polyepoxide, is a thermosetting polymer formed from reaction of an epoxide "resin" with polyamine "hardener". Epoxy has a wide range of applications, including fiber-reinforced plastic materials and general purpose adhesives....
and polyester
Polyester
Polyester is a category of polymers which contain the ester functional group in their main chain. Although there are many polyesters, the term "polyester" as a specific material most commonly refers to polyethylene terephthalate...
-copolymer.
The first step of plastination is fixation. Fixation, frequently utilizing a formaldehyde based solution, serves two functions. Dissecting the specimen to show specific anatomical elements can be time consuming. Formaldehyde
Formaldehyde
Formaldehyde is an organic compound with the formula CH2O. It is the simplest aldehyde, hence its systematic name methanal.Formaldehyde is a colorless gas with a characteristic pungent odor. It is an important precursor to many other chemical compounds, especially for polymers...
or other preserving solutions help prevent decomposition
Decomposition
Decomposition is the process by which organic material is broken down into simpler forms of matter. The process is essential for recycling the finite matter that occupies physical space in the biome. Bodies of living organisms begin to decompose shortly after death...
of the tissues. They may also infer a degree of rigidity. This can be beneficial in maintaining the shape or arrangement of a specimen. A stomach might be inflated or a leg bent at the knee for example.
After any necessary dissection
Dissection
Dissection is usually the process of disassembling and observing something to determine its internal structure and as an aid to discerning the functions and relationships of its components....
s take place, the specimen is then placed in a bath of acetone
Acetone
Acetone is the organic compound with the formula 2CO, a colorless, mobile, flammable liquid, the simplest example of the ketones.Acetone is miscible with water and serves as an important solvent in its own right, typically as the solvent of choice for cleaning purposes in the laboratory...
. Under freezing conditions, the acetone draws out all the water and replaces it inside the cells
Cell (biology)
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
.
In the third step, the specimen is then placed in a bath of liquid polymer, such as silicone rubber
Silicone rubber
Silicone rubber is an elastomer composed of silicone—itself a polymer—containing silicon together with carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Silicone rubbers are widely used in industry, and there are multiple formulations...
, polyester
Polyester
Polyester is a category of polymers which contain the ester functional group in their main chain. Although there are many polyesters, the term "polyester" as a specific material most commonly refers to polyethylene terephthalate...
or epoxy resin. By creating a vacuum
Vacuum
In everyday usage, vacuum is a volume of space that is essentially empty of matter, such that its gaseous pressure is much less than atmospheric pressure. The word comes from the Latin term for "empty". A perfect vacuum would be one with no particles in it at all, which is impossible to achieve in...
, the acetone is made to boil at a low temperature. As the acetone vaporizes
Vaporization
Vaporization of an element or compound is a phase transition from the liquid or solid phase to gas phase. There are three types of vaporization: evaporation, boiling and sublimation....
and leaves the cells, it draws the liquid polymer in behind it, leaving a cell filled with liquid plastic.
The plastic must then be cured with gas, heat, or ultraviolet light, in order to harden it.
A specimen can be anything from a full human body
Human body
The human body is the entire structure of a human organism, and consists of a head, neck, torso, two arms and two legs.By the time the human reaches adulthood, the body consists of close to 100 trillion cells, the basic unit of life...
to a small piece of an animal organ, and they are known as 'plastinates'. Once plastinated, the specimens and bodies are further manipulated and positioned prior to curing (hardening) of the polymer chains.
History
In November 1979, Gunther von HagensGunther von Hagens
Gunther von Hagens is a controversial German anatomist who invented the technique for preserving biological tissue specimens called plastination.-Early life:...
applied for a German patent, proposing the idea of preserving animal and vegetable tissues permanently by synthetic resin impregnation. Since then, von Hagens has applied for further US patents regarding work on preserving biological tissues with polymers.
With the success of his patents, von Hagens went on to form the Institute for Plastination in Heidelberg, Germany in 1993. The Institute of Plastination, along with von Hagens made their first showing of plastinated bodies in Japan in 1995, which drew more than three million visitors. The Institute maintains three international centres of plastination: in Germany, Kyrgyzstan and China.
Other Plastination methods
Other methods have been in place for thousands of years to halt the decomposition of the body. MummificationMummy
A mummy is a body, human or animal, whose skin and organs have been preserved by either intentional or incidental exposure to chemicals, extreme coldness , very low humidity, or lack of air when bodies are submerged in bogs, so that the recovered body will not decay further if kept in cool and dry...
used by the Egyptians is a widely known method which involves the removal of body fluid and wrapping the body in linens. Prior to mummification, Egyptians would lay the body in a shallow pit in the desert and allow the sun to dehydrate the body.
Formalin, an important solution to body preservation, was introduced in 1896 to help with body preservation. Soon to follow formalin, color preserving embalming solutions were developed to preserve lifelike color and flexibility to aid in the study of the body.
Paraffin
Paraffin
In chemistry, paraffin is a term that can be used synonymously with "alkane", indicating hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2. Paraffin wax refers to a mixture of alkanes that falls within the 20 ≤ n ≤ 40 range; they are found in the solid state at room temperature and begin to enter the...
impregnation was introduced in 1925 and the embedding of organs in plastic was developed in the 1960s.
Body preservation methods current to the twenty-first century are cryopreservation
Cryopreservation
Cryopreservation is a process where cells or whole tissues are preserved by cooling to low sub-zero temperatures, such as 77 K or −196 °C . At these low temperatures, any biological activity, including the biochemical reactions that would lead to cell death, is effectively stopped...
which involves the cooling of the body to very low temperatures to preserve the body tissues, plastination and embalming
Embalming
Embalming, in most modern cultures, is the art and science of temporarily preserving human remains to forestall decomposition and to make them suitable for public display at a funeral. The three goals of embalming are thus sanitization, presentation and preservation of a corpse to achieve this...
.
Other methods used in modern times include the Silicone S 10 Standard Procedure, the Cor-Tech Room temperature procedure, the Epoxy E 12 procedure, and the Polyester P 35 (P 40) procedure. The Silicone S 10 is the procedure most often used in plastination and creates opaque, natural-looking specimen. Dow Corning Corporation's Cor-Tech Room Temperature Procedure is designed to allow plastination of specimen at room temperature
Room temperature
-Comfort levels:The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers has listings for suggested temperatures and air flow rates in different types of buildings and different environmental circumstances. For example, a single office in a building has an occupancy ratio per...
to various degrees of flexibility using three combinations of polymer, crosslinker and catalyst. According to the International Society for Plastination, the Epoxy E 12 procedure is utilized "for thin, transparent, and firm body and organ slices", while the Polyster P 35 (P 40) preserves "semitransparent and firm brain slices". Samples are prepared for fixation through the first method by deep freezing, while the second method works best following 4–6 weeks of preparation in a formaldehyde mixture.
Uses of plastinated specimens
Plastination is useful in anatomy as well as serving as models and teaching tools. Plastination is used at more than 40 medicalMedical school
A medical school is a tertiary educational institution—or part of such an institution—that teaches medicine. Degree programs offered at medical schools often include Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine, Bachelor/Doctor of Medicine, Doctor of Philosophy, master's degree, or other post-secondary...
and dental school
Dental school
A dental school is a tertiary educational institution—or part of such an institution—that teaches dentistry. Upon successful completion, the graduate receives a degree in Dentistry, which, depending upon the jurisdiction, might be a bachelor's degree, master's degree, a professional degree, or a...
s throughout the world as an adjunct to anatomical dissection.
Students enrolled in introductory animal science
Animal science
Animal Science is described as "studying the biology of animals that are under the control of mankind". Historically, the animals studied were farm animals, including livestock and horses, but courses available now look at a far broader area to include companion animals, for example dogs, cats and...
courses at many universities learn animal science through collections of multi-species large-animal specimens. Plastination allows students to have hands on experience in this field, without exposure to chemicals such as formalin. For example, plastinated canine
Dog
The domestic dog is a domesticated form of the gray wolf, a member of the Canidae family of the order Carnivora. The term is used for both feral and pet varieties. The dog may have been the first animal to be domesticated, and has been the most widely kept working, hunting, and companion animal in...
gastrointestinal tracts are used to help in the teaching of endoscopic
Endoscopy
Endoscopy means looking inside and typically refers to looking inside the body for medical reasons using an endoscope , an instrument used to examine the interior of a hollow organ or cavity of the body. Unlike most other medical imaging devices, endoscopes are inserted directly into the organ...
technique and anatomy. The plastinated specimens retain their dilated conformation by a positive pressure
Positive pressure
Positive pressure is a pressure within a system that is greater than the environment that surrounds that system. Consequently if there is any leak from the positively pressured system it will egress into the surrounding environment....
air flow, which allows them to be used to teach both endoscopic technique and gastrointestinal anatomy.
With the use of plastination as a teaching method of animal science, fewer animals have to be killed for research, as the plastination process allows specimens to be studied for a long time.
TTT sheet plastinates for school teaching and lay instruction provide a thorough impression of the complexity of an animal body in just one specimen.
The North Carolina State University
North Carolina State University
North Carolina State University at Raleigh is a public, coeducational, extensive research university located in Raleigh, North Carolina, United States. Commonly known as NC State, the university is part of the University of North Carolina system and is a land, sea, and space grant institution...
's College of Veterinary Medicine in Raleigh, North Carolina
Raleigh, North Carolina
Raleigh is the capital and the second largest city in the state of North Carolina as well as the seat of Wake County. Raleigh is known as the "City of Oaks" for its many oak trees. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the city's 2010 population was 403,892, over an area of , making Raleigh...
uses both PC (plastic coating) and PN (plastination) to investigate and compare the difference in the two methods. The PC method was simple and inexpensive, but the plastinated specimens (PN method) were more flexible, durable, and lifelike than those preserved by the PC method. The use of plastination allowed the use of many body parts such as muscle, nerves, bones, ligaments, and central nervous system
Central nervous system
The central nervous system is the part of the nervous system that integrates the information that it receives from, and coordinates the activity of, all parts of the bodies of bilaterian animals—that is, all multicellular animals except sponges and radially symmetric animals such as jellyfish...
to be preserved.
The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio
University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio
The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio is an institute of health science education and research, located in the South Texas Medical Center....
was the first school in the United States to use this technique to prepare gross organ specimens for use in teaching. The New York University College of Dentistry
New York University College of Dentistry
The New York University College of Dentistry is one of 14 schools and divisions at New York University. It is located near Manhattan's Midtown area...
., University of Warwick
University of Warwick
The University of Warwick is a public research university located in Coventry, United Kingdom...
and University of Northumbria use collections of plastinates as teaching aids. The University of Vienna
University of Vienna
The University of Vienna is a public university located in Vienna, Austria. It was founded by Duke Rudolph IV in 1365 and is the oldest university in the German-speaking world...
has its own plastination laboratory.
Ethical concerns
Concern over consent of bodies being used in the plastination process has arisen. Over 20 years ago, von Hagens set up a body donationBody donation
Body donation is the donation of the whole body after death for medical research and education. For years, only medical schools accepted whole bodies for donation, but now private programs also accept donors....
program in Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
and has signed over 9,000 donors into the plastinate program: 531 have already died. The program has reported an average of one body a day being released to the plastination process. Ninety percent of the donors registered are German. Although von Hagens says he follows strict consent procedures for whole-body specimens, he maintains that "consent is not important for body parts." Von Hagens' body donations are now being managed by the Institute for Plastination (IfP) established in 1993.
Plastination exhibitions
For the first 20 years, plastination was used to preserve small specimens for medical study. It was not until the early 1990s that the equipment was developed to make it possible to plastinate whole body specimens, each specimen taking up to 1,500 man hours to prepare. The first exhibition of whole bodies was displayed by von Hagens in Japan in 1995.Over the next two years, Von Hagens developed the Körperwelten (BODY WORLDS
Body Worlds
Body Worlds is a traveling exhibition of preserved human bodies and body parts that are prepared using a technique called plastination to reveal inner anatomical structures...
) public exhibitions, showing whole bodies plastinated in lifelike poses and dissected to show various structures and systems of human anatomy. The earliest exhibitions were presented in the Far East
Far East
The Far East is an English term mostly describing East Asia and Southeast Asia, with South Asia sometimes also included for economic and cultural reasons.The term came into use in European geopolitical discourse in the 19th century,...
and in Germany, and Gunther von Hagens' BODY WORLDS exhibitions have subsequently been hosted by museums and venues in more than 50 cities worldwide, attracting more than 29 million visitors..
Gunther von Hagens' BODY WORLDS exhibitions are the original, precedent-setting public anatomical exhibitions of real human bodies, and the only anatomical exhibits that use donated bodies, willed by donors to the Institute for Plastination for the express purpose of serving the BODY WORLDS mission to educate the public about health and anatomy. To date, more than 10,000 people have agreed to donate their bodies to Institute for Plastination.
In 2004, Premier Exhibitions
Premier Exhibitions
Premier Exhibitions Inc is an Atlanta, Georgia-based company that organizes traveling exhibitions.Its two most prominent exhibits are artifacts from the RMS Titanic and BODIES.....
began their "Bodies Revealed" exhibition in Blackpool, England which ran from August through October 2004. In 2005 and 2006 the company opened their Bodies Revealed and Bodies The Exhibition exhibitions in Seoul
Seoul
Seoul , officially the Seoul Special City, is the capital and largest metropolis of South Korea. A megacity with a population of over 10 million, it is the largest city proper in the OECD developed world...
(South Korea), Tampa
Tâmpa
Tâmpa may refer to several villages in Romania:* Tâmpa, a village in Băcia Commune, Hunedoara County* Tâmpa, a village in Miercurea Nirajului, Mureş County* Tâmpa, a mountain in Braşov city...
(Florida) and New York (NY)
New York City
New York is the most populous city in the United States and the center of the New York Metropolitan Area, one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world. New York exerts a significant impact upon global commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education, and...
respectively. . The West Coast exhibition site opened on June 22, 2006 at the Tropicana Resort & Casino Las Vegas NV. , BODIES... The Exhibition
BODIES... The Exhibition
Bodies… The Exhibition is a controversial exhibition showcasing preserved human bodies dissected to display bodily systems. It opened in Tampa, Florida on August 20, 2005...
is showing at the Ambassador Theatre (Dublin)
Ambassador Theatre (Dublin)
The Ambassador Cinema was Dublin's longest-running cinema and was operational on and off until 1999. It is now a music venue.The building was constructed as part of the Rotunda Hospital in 1764 as an assembly hall and social rooms on what is now called Parnell Street.From 1897 onwards, the venue...
in Dublin, Ireland. The exhibition is in Istanbul, Turkey until the end of March 2011.
Plastination galleries are offered in a few college medical schools including University of Michigan
University of Michigan
The University of Michigan is a public research university located in Ann Arbor, Michigan in the United States. It is the state's oldest university and the flagship campus of the University of Michigan...
(said to be the nation's largest such lab) and the Vienna University Gunther von Hagens maintains a permanent exhibition of plastinates and plastination at the Plastinarium in Guben
Guben
Guben is a town on the Lusatian Neisse river in the state of Brandenburg, Germany. Located in the Spree-Neiße district, Guben has a population of 20,049...
, Germany.
See also
- Chemical brain preservationChemical brain preservationChemical Brain Preservation is the process of preparing the brain, or entire central nervous system for long term, high quality storage. Unlike cryopreservation, chemical techniques do not require freezing and storage at extremely low temperatures...
- Chemical fixation
Further reading
First published asExternal links
- Plastination technique and exhibits, Timisoara Medical University
- VisDocta RESEARCH - GIANT SQUID WORLDS FIRST NATURALISATION
- A graphic guide to plastination at Science Buzz*
- Preservation by Plastination, on Body WorldsBody WorldsBody Worlds is a traveling exhibition of preserved human bodies and body parts that are prepared using a technique called plastination to reveal inner anatomical structures...
page - Plastination website by Dr. Selcuk Tunali
- Polymer Preservation: The Process
- http://www.discover.com/issues/mar-04/features/gross-anatomy/?page=1 Discovery, March 2004, 'Gross Anatomy by Alan Burdick'
Institute of Biomedical Science
- University of Michigan Plastination Lab
- Plastination: Is it science or art?
- Plastination: Silicone Impregnation of Specimens (the standard S10 technique)
- Plastination: The Sheet Plastination Technique
- List of US patents by Gunther von Hagens
- PLASTINATION at The Medical University of Vienna
- International Society for Plastination
- The New Plastination Index Online
- The New Plastination Index on-line: Subject Index