Politics of light rail in North America
Encyclopedia
The distinct circumstances under which light rail
systems have been introduced to North America
have caused differences in the development and implementation of those systems as well as spur political controversy over the effectiveness of light rail.
. Many of these arguments reflect the particular U.S. political conditions, including uses of government funding
, considerations of development goals in urbanizing
areas, and positions and power of various advocacy
and lobbying
groups, as well as physical issues, including the relatively low density (as compared to much of Europe
and Asia
) of many U.S. conurbation
s, and the extent and use of highway
systems. Arguments by opponents are often framed in terms of "how much automobile traffic can light rail replace," above all other considerations.
Arguments are generally along three lines:
Driving Forces (1998) ISBN 0815719647, by American political scientist and rail transit critic James Dunn, provides a good summary of these arguments.
The low-density dispersal of residences and employment in modern American metropolitan area
s prevents mass transit displacing a significant percentage of automobiles. In the United States, only in metropolitan New York City
is transit's share of vehicle-miles traveled (VMT) higher than five percent, and in most metropolitan areas, transit vehicles account for less than one percent of vehicle miles traveled. These percentages are considerably higher for suburb-to-central business district
(CBD) commutes, but these trips have dramatically declined as a percentage of VMT since the 1970s.
While the spatial mismatch argument is largely correct for the Midwest
(except Chicago
), the South
, and Southwest
, it never was relevant to San Francisco, the nation's second-densest city after New York, and is increasingly not the case in places such as Los Angeles and San Diego. As West Coast cities, in particular, run into their coastal mountain ranges, many have developed polycentric
spatial arrangements with a relatively small number of nodes. For most of its history, transit has best served commuters from suburbs to a single CBD. However, this is no longer necessarily the case; in Sacramento
and San Diego, particularly, construction of light rail networks that incorporate both circumferential (suburb-to-suburb) and radial (suburb-to-CBD) lines have produced surprisingly high increases in passenger-miles (Thompson and Matoff, 2003).
Nevertheless, with such a small market share, even a doubling of transit ridership would have virtually no impact on traffic congestion
. Smart growth
advocates and New Urbanists
acknowledge this and call for areas near proposed light rail stations to be developed as relatively high-density "transit village
s," minimizing the need for automobile usage while increasing the housing stock. In many areas, NIMBY
ism is an obstacle to such development.
Though modern light rail systems have higher average speeds than their older counterparts, LRT is, on average, about half as fast as automobile transit. When taking into account the additional time required to reach the rail system, this is even slower. These averaged figures do not account for the degree of congestion, however; light rail on its own right-of-way is considerably less vulnerable to gridlock than automobiles or buses operating in mixed traffic. For example, Los Angeles' heavily used Blue Line
(the United States' second busiest light rail line) which is slower than automobiles at off-peak times but during rush hour, is very competitive with automobiles traveling along the extremely congested Long Beach Freeway
(I-710
) it parallels. The Harbor Transitway
busway nearby is faster than either mode, due to fewer stops, but construction of its dedicated right-of-way was expensive given its very low ridership. Light rail makes sense in areas that suffer from sufficient congestion to make it competitive with cars, and along routes that are too heavily traveled for even bus rapid transit
systems.
Pro-LRT arguments made regarding cost and return on investment vs. highway
Pro-LRT arguments made regarding cost and return on investment vs. buses
Anti-LRT arguments made regarding cost and return on investment vs. highway
Anti-LRT arguments made regarding cost and return on investment vs. buses
Politicians in Canada
have generally echoed the views expressed in the United States concerning light rail
systems. Three cities in Canada operate light rail systems, which include the Ottawa's O-Train, the Calgary's C-Train
, and the Edmonton Light Rail Transit
. Other cities, like Toronto
and Vancouver
operate systems that are similar to light rail, but take other forms, such as tram
or rapid transit
.
Light rail
Light rail or light rail transit is a form of urban rail public transportation that generally has a lower capacity and lower speed than heavy rail and metro systems, but higher capacity and higher speed than traditional street-running tram systems...
systems have been introduced to North America
North America
North America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...
have caused differences in the development and implementation of those systems as well as spur political controversy over the effectiveness of light rail.
United States
In many cases there has been considerable opposition to new light rail systems, particularly in the United StatesUnited States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
. Many of these arguments reflect the particular U.S. political conditions, including uses of government funding
Subsidy
A subsidy is an assistance paid to a business or economic sector. Most subsidies are made by the government to producers or distributors in an industry to prevent the decline of that industry or an increase in the prices of its products or simply to encourage it to hire more labor A subsidy (also...
, considerations of development goals in urbanizing
Urban area
An urban area is characterized by higher population density and vast human features in comparison to areas surrounding it. Urban areas may be cities, towns or conurbations, but the term is not commonly extended to rural settlements such as villages and hamlets.Urban areas are created and further...
areas, and positions and power of various advocacy
Advocacy
Advocacy is a political process by an individual or a large group which normally aims to influence public-policy and resource allocation decisions within political, economic, and social systems and institutions; it may be motivated from moral, ethical or faith principles or simply to protect an...
and lobbying
Lobbying
Lobbying is the act of attempting to influence decisions made by officials in the government, most often legislators or members of regulatory agencies. Lobbying is done by various people or groups, from private-sector individuals or corporations, fellow legislators or government officials, or...
groups, as well as physical issues, including the relatively low density (as compared to much of Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
and Asia
Asia
Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area and with approximately 3.879 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population...
) of many U.S. conurbation
Conurbation
A conurbation is a region comprising a number of cities, large towns, and other urban areas that, through population growth and physical expansion, have merged to form one continuous urban and industrially developed area...
s, and the extent and use of highway
Highway
A highway is any public road. In American English, the term is common and almost always designates major roads. In British English, the term designates any road open to the public. Any interconnected set of highways can be variously referred to as a "highway system", a "highway network", or a...
systems. Arguments by opponents are often framed in terms of "how much automobile traffic can light rail replace," above all other considerations.
Arguments are generally along three lines:
- modern spatial arrangements are unsuited for fixed-line transit systems such as light rail
- light rail is too slow to compete with the automobile
- light rail does not generate a sufficient return on capital investment to make its construction worthwhile
Driving Forces (1998) ISBN 0815719647, by American political scientist and rail transit critic James Dunn, provides a good summary of these arguments.
Spatial mismatch
Metropolitan area
The term metropolitan area refers to a region consisting of a densely populated urban core and its less-populated surrounding territories, sharing industry, infrastructure, and housing. A metropolitan area usually encompasses multiple jurisdictions and municipalities: neighborhoods, townships,...
s prevents mass transit displacing a significant percentage of automobiles. In the United States, only in metropolitan New York City
New York City
New York is the most populous city in the United States and the center of the New York Metropolitan Area, one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world. New York exerts a significant impact upon global commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education, and...
is transit's share of vehicle-miles traveled (VMT) higher than five percent, and in most metropolitan areas, transit vehicles account for less than one percent of vehicle miles traveled. These percentages are considerably higher for suburb-to-central business district
Central business district
A central business district is the commercial and often geographic heart of a city. In North America this part of a city is commonly referred to as "downtown" or "city center"...
(CBD) commutes, but these trips have dramatically declined as a percentage of VMT since the 1970s.
While the spatial mismatch argument is largely correct for the Midwest
Midwestern United States
The Midwestern United States is one of the four U.S. geographic regions defined by the United States Census Bureau, providing an official definition of the American Midwest....
(except Chicago
Chicago
Chicago is the largest city in the US state of Illinois. With nearly 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the Midwestern United States and the third most populous in the US, after New York City and Los Angeles...
), the South
Southern United States
The Southern United States—commonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South—constitutes a large distinctive area in the southeastern and south-central United States...
, and Southwest
Southwestern United States
The Southwestern United States is a region defined in different ways by different sources. Broad definitions include nearly a quarter of the United States, including Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas and Utah...
, it never was relevant to San Francisco, the nation's second-densest city after New York, and is increasingly not the case in places such as Los Angeles and San Diego. As West Coast cities, in particular, run into their coastal mountain ranges, many have developed polycentric
Polycentrism
Polycentrism is the principle of organization of a region around several political, social or financial centres. Examples of polycentric cities include the Ruhr area in Germany, and Stoke-on-Trent in the UK. Today, the former is a large city that grew from a dozen smaller cities, the latter a...
spatial arrangements with a relatively small number of nodes. For most of its history, transit has best served commuters from suburbs to a single CBD. However, this is no longer necessarily the case; in Sacramento
Sacramento, California
Sacramento is the capital city of the U.S. state of California and the county seat of Sacramento County. It is located at the confluence of the Sacramento River and the American River in the northern portion of California's expansive Central Valley. With a population of 466,488 at the 2010 census,...
and San Diego, particularly, construction of light rail networks that incorporate both circumferential (suburb-to-suburb) and radial (suburb-to-CBD) lines have produced surprisingly high increases in passenger-miles (Thompson and Matoff, 2003).
Nevertheless, with such a small market share, even a doubling of transit ridership would have virtually no impact on traffic congestion
Traffic congestion
Traffic congestion is a condition on road networks that occurs as use increases, and is characterized by slower speeds, longer trip times, and increased vehicular queueing. The most common example is the physical use of roads by vehicles. When traffic demand is great enough that the interaction...
. Smart growth
Smart growth
Smart growth is an urban planning and transportation theory that concentrates growth in compact walkable urban centers to avoid sprawl and advocates compact, transit-oriented, walkable, bicycle-friendly land use, including neighborhood schools, complete streets, and mixed-use development with a...
advocates and New Urbanists
New urbanism
New Urbanism is an urban design movement, which promotes walkable neighborhoods that contain a range of housing and job types. It arose in the United States in the early 1980s, and has gradually continued to reform many aspects of real estate development, urban planning, and municipal land-use...
acknowledge this and call for areas near proposed light rail stations to be developed as relatively high-density "transit village
Transit village
A transit village is a residential development planned around a transportation hub, such as a train station, with the intent to make it convenient for village dwellers to get to/from work or run errands and travel via a public transportation network....
s," minimizing the need for automobile usage while increasing the housing stock. In many areas, NIMBY
NIMBY
NIMBY or Nimby is an acronym for the phrase "not in my back yard". The term is used pejoratively to describe opposition by residents to a proposal for a new development close to them. Opposing residents themselves are sometimes called Nimbies...
ism is an obstacle to such development.
Travel time
LACMTA Blue Line
The Blue Line is a light rail line running north-south route between Long Beach and downtown Los Angeles passing through Downtown LA, including South Los Angeles, Watts, Willowbrook, Compton, and Long Beach in the Los Angeles County; it is one of five lines in the Metro Rail System...
(the United States' second busiest light rail line) which is slower than automobiles at off-peak times but during rush hour, is very competitive with automobiles traveling along the extremely congested Long Beach Freeway
Interstate 710
Interstate 710 is a major north–south interstate freeway running for 23 miles through Los Angeles County, California...
(I-710
Interstate 710
Interstate 710 is a major north–south interstate freeway running for 23 miles through Los Angeles County, California...
) it parallels. The Harbor Transitway
Harbor Transitway
The Harbor Transitway is an 11-mile shared-use bus corridor and high-occupancy vehicle roadway that runs in the median of Interstate 110 in Southern California...
busway nearby is faster than either mode, due to fewer stops, but construction of its dedicated right-of-way was expensive given its very low ridership. Light rail makes sense in areas that suffer from sufficient congestion to make it competitive with cars, and along routes that are too heavily traveled for even bus rapid transit
Bus rapid transit
Bus rapid transit is a term applied to a variety of public transportation systems using buses to provide faster, more efficient service than an ordinary bus line. Often this is achieved by making improvements to existing infrastructure, vehicles and scheduling...
systems.
Return on investment and cost-competitiveness for LRT vs. alternatives
- Cost-effectiveness and comparative capacity are covered in the main light rail article. This section will attempt to provide context to argumentation in the United States political climate based on those facts.
Pro-LRT arguments made regarding cost and return on investment vs. highway
- Seemingly high construction costs for LRT systems are not taken in proper context as costs of purchasing and maintaining vehicles necessary for a highway system are hidden since private owners pay these expenses. Also, road use creates externalities—environmental damage and congestion—but the costs created by these externalities are imposed on the general public, not paid for by road users.
- Light rail provides savings to the consumer. The Center for Neighborhood TechnologyCenter for Neighborhood TechnologyThe Center for Neighborhood Technology is a non-profit organization, headquartered in Chicago, Illinois, which is committed to sustainable development and livable urban communities. CNT, as an “innovations center for urban sustainability”, researches, invents, and tests urban strategies that use...
(CNT) has shown that those who take mass transit in place of owning cars spend a far smaller fraction of their total income on transit costs http://www.transact.org/library/reports_pdfs/driven_to_spend/Driven_to_Spend_Report.pdf. Additionally, the money spent stays local, which is not true of gasoline costs nor automotive insurance payments to nonlocal companies. Approximately 18% of household expenditures are spent on vehicles and transit fares. Residents of cities with well-developed rail systems spend an average of $2,808 on vehicles and transit, compared with $3,332 in bus-only cities. - Light rail offers many indirect benefits:
- It is low impact to nearby areas in terms of air and noise pollution
- Rail-triggered transit-oriented development tends to increase local property values, and often result in neighborhood improvements such as urban redevelopment, historic preservation, and improved pedestrian conditions while highways can negatively affect community cohesion
- Rail-based transit can lead to higher land density and clustering in rail-oriented cities providing agglomeration benefits in reducing the costs of providing public services and increasing productivity due to improved accessibility and network effects.
- Future rail systems may have higher utility than present ones due to the network effectNetwork effectIn economics and business, a network effect is the effect that one user of a good or service has on the value of that product to other people. When network effect is present, the value of a product or service is dependent on the number of others using it.The classic example is the telephone...
, wherein the addition of one node to a network increases the utility of other nodes. The experiences of Sacramento, California and Portland, Oregon have demonstrated this phenomenon: in those places, light rail became more competitive with highways as more of the network was put in place. To quote Calgary Transit: "Since the inception of LRT service, each new LRT line or LRT extension has produced a 15 to 20 percent increase in corridor ridership, resulting from the diversion of previous auto drivers to transit." - Arguments against effectiveness of LRT based on spatial mismatch fail to taken into account that automobiles supplement the reach of a mass transit system, particularly to suburbs, reducing the population density required for a viable system.
- Light rail, like all mass transit, improves the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of existing highways by lowering traffic congestion, particularly during rush hourRush hourA rush hour or peak hour is a part of the day during which traffic congestion on roads and crowding on public transport is at its highest. Normally, this happens twice a day—once in the morning and once in the evening, the times during when the most people commute...
. At peak capacity, even small reductions in volumes can significantly reduce delays. - Rail transit cities have significantly lower per capita traffic death rates. Cities with large rail transit systems average 7.5 traffic fatalities per 100,000 population, ones with small rail systems average 9.9, and bus only cities average 11.7. If cities with large rail systems had the same fatality rate as bus only cities, the United States would have 251 more annual traffic deaths. However, it is not certain that such safety benefits would accrue from light rail in particular. Prominent light rail critic Wendell CoxWendell CoxWendell Cox is an international public policy consultant. He is the principal and sole owner of Wendell Cox Consultancy/Demographia, based in the St. Louis metropolitan region and editor of three web sites, Demographia, The Public Purpose and Urban Tours by Rental Car...
argues that light rail is less safe than bus, subway, and even automobile-based transit. - Costs of running a light rail can be expected to be fairly consistent, whereas the cost of using a highway/road system is heavily dependent on world cost of oil, which is vulnerable to abrupt increases.
- Light rail systems, like all mass transit, provide increased mobility for non-drivers such as those too young to drive, the elderly, and disabled.
- Light rail is more environmentally friendly than highway/road alternatives since rail travel consumes about a fifth as much energy per passenger-mile as automobile travel, due to higher mechanical efficiency and load factors. It should be noted that this assumes full capcity, whereas in practical use, since light rail vehicles run far from capacity, that light rail actually consumes 14 percent more energy per passenger kilometer than automobiles in practice.
Pro-LRT arguments made regarding cost and return on investment vs. buses
- Compared with diesel buses, rail can carry more passengers in less land and do so with less noise and air pollution compared with diesel buses. As a result, rail is more suitable for high-density areas.
- Since rail travel is usually more comfortable, faster (particularly if grade separated) and better integrated into the urban landscape than travel by bus, more people are willing to ride. A survey in Vancouver, Canada found that 42% of Skytrain (rail) riders would otherwise drive, compared with 25-35% of bus riders. However, this preference for rail over bus is disputed
Anti-LRT arguments made regarding cost and return on investment vs. highway
- United States light rail systems have a consistent history of low ridership translating to low per-person cost-effectiveness. (See List of United States light rail systems by ridership for ridership information)
- While the bulk of operating costs for highway systems are paid for by its users, subsidy to public transport is more than 70 percent, representing a continuing cost to taxpayers. This point is disputed; other research suggests that gasoline taxes would need to rise by up to 70 cents/gallon before government taxes and fees relating to roads would fully cover government outlays.
- Light rail systems have high aggregate construction and maintenance costs, nearly seven times the cost per person kilometer of an urban motorway lane. However, it is not clear that both construction and maintenance costs are each seven times higher for railways.
- Light rail is a waste of transit money, producing only 3.6 percent of transit trips yet consuming 12 percent of transit capital funds, taking away needed money from other transit modes.
- Most people in the United States live in places where cars are owned out of necessity. As such, automotive ownership expenses are already sunk costSunk costIn economics and business decision-making, sunk costs are retrospective costs that have already been incurred and cannot be recovered. Sunk costs are sometimes contrasted with prospective costs, which are future costs that may be incurred or changed if an action is taken...
s, to be incurred even if primarily taking mass transit. - Light rail systems are not being built for cost-effective reasons. Prominent critic Wendell Cox argues that worry over traffic congestion, boosts in civic pride, and the availability of federal funding impel light rail construction, while the first has not been shown to be remedied by light rail, the second isn't pragmatic, and the benefits of the third are irrespective of what the funds are spent on.
Anti-LRT arguments made regarding cost and return on investment vs. buses
- Express buses can carry the capacity of light rail systems, and can do so at 1/7 the cost without the large startup investment required for light rail.
- Ridership data in the United States indicates that light rail systems seldom run near full capacity, and so demand does not require such a high capacity system. Bus systems require substantially less investment and cost with virtually identical practical carrying capacity
- Since many light rail riders are merely transplanted bus riders, ridership data overstates how many cars are taken off the road by light rail. In general, half or more of light rail riders formerly rode bus services that were replaced by the rail service.
Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
have generally echoed the views expressed in the United States concerning light rail
Light rail
Light rail or light rail transit is a form of urban rail public transportation that generally has a lower capacity and lower speed than heavy rail and metro systems, but higher capacity and higher speed than traditional street-running tram systems...
systems. Three cities in Canada operate light rail systems, which include the Ottawa's O-Train, the Calgary's C-Train
C-Train
C-Train is the light rail transit system in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. It has been in operation since May 25, 1981. The system is operated by Calgary Transit, a department of the Calgary municipal government.-Operations:...
, and the Edmonton Light Rail Transit
Edmonton Light Rail Transit
Edmonton Light Rail Transit, more commonly referred to as the LRT, is a light rail system in Edmonton, Alberta. Part of the Edmonton Transit System , the 20.5-kilometre route starts in Edmonton's northeast suburbs and ends at Century Park in Edmonton's south end.The ETS designates the LRT as Route...
. Other cities, like Toronto
Toronto
Toronto is the provincial capital of Ontario and the largest city in Canada. It is located in Southern Ontario on the northwestern shore of Lake Ontario. A relatively modern city, Toronto's history dates back to the late-18th century, when its land was first purchased by the British monarchy from...
and Vancouver
Vancouver
Vancouver is a coastal seaport city on the mainland of British Columbia, Canada. It is the hub of Greater Vancouver, which, with over 2.3 million residents, is the third most populous metropolitan area in the country,...
operate systems that are similar to light rail, but take other forms, such as tram
Tram
A tram is a passenger rail vehicle which runs on tracks along public urban streets and also sometimes on separate rights of way. It may also run between cities and/or towns , and/or partially grade separated even in the cities...
or rapid transit
Rapid transit
A rapid transit, underground, subway, elevated railway, metro or metropolitan railway system is an electric passenger railway in an urban area with a high capacity and frequency, and grade separation from other traffic. Rapid transit systems are typically located either in underground tunnels or on...
.
See also
- Light rail in North AmericaLight rail in North AmericaLight rail is a commonly used mode of rapid transit in North America. The term light rail was coined in 1972 by the U.S. Urban Mass Transportation Administration to describe new streetcar transformations which were taking place in Europe and the United States...
- List of United States light rail systems by ridership
Links to U.S. sites supporting light rail
Links to U.S. sites opposing light rail
- 'Breech of Faith: Light Rail and Smart Growth' highlighting alleged wastefulness and ineffectiveness of light rail projects An argument against utilization of a light rail system in Charlotte, NC
- 'Reason Foundation Policy Studies on Light Rail' The Reason Foundation presents a series of reports documenting the poor ridership and financial performance of light rail systems in the U.S.
- 'Rapid Transit, Light Rail & Monorail Index' The Public Purpose has a catalog of articles showing the problems of light rail.
- 'Jonathan Richmond's Professional Section' Jonathan Richmond has written many papers on the shortcomings of light rail.
- LightRail POW! - A website documenting the safety hazards of light rail
- The Monorail Society - A pro-monorail web site that promotes grade-separate rather than street-based transit.